Propositional Logic

Question: How do we formalize the

defnitions and reasoning we use in our
proofs?
 Where We're Going
●
Propositional Logic (Today)
●
Reasoning about Boolean values.
●
First-Order Logic (Wednesday/Friday)
●
Reasoning about properties of multiple
objects.
Propositional Logic
A proposition is a statement that is,
by itself, either true or false.
 Some Sample Propositions
●
I am not throwing away my shot.
●
I’m just like my country.
●
I’m young, scrappy, and hungry.
●
I’m not throwing away my shot.
●
I’m ‘a get a scholarship to King’s College.
●
I prob’ly shouldn’t brag, but dag, I amaze
and astonish.
●
The problem is I got a lot of brains but no
polish.
Things That Aren't Propositions

Commands
Commands
cannot
cannot be
be true
true
or
or false.
false.
Things That Aren't Propositions

Questions
Questions
cannot
cannot be
be true
true
or
or false.
false.
 Propositional Logic
●
Propositional logic is a mathematical system
for reasoning about propositions and how they
relate to one another.
●
Every statement in propositional logic consists
of propositional variables combined via
propositional connectives.
●
Each variable represents some proposition, such as
“You liked it” or “You should have put a ring on it.”
●
Connectives encode how propositions are related,
such as “If you liked it, then you should have put a
ring on it.”
 Propositional Variables
●
Each proposition will be represented by a
propositional variable.
●
Propositional variables are usually
represented as lower-case letters, such
as p, q, r, s, etc.
●
Each variable can take one one of two
values: true or false.
 Propositional Connectives
●
There are seven propositional connectives,
many of which will be familiar from
programming.
●
First, there’s the logical “NOT” operation:

¬p
●
You’d read this out loud as “not p.”
●
The fancy name for this operation is logical
negation.
 Propositional Connectives
●
There are seven propositional connectives,
many of which will be familiar from
programming.
●
Next, there’s the logical “AND” operation:

p∧q
●
You’d read this out loud as “p and q.”
●
The fancy name for this operation is logical
conjunction.
 Propositional Connectives
●
There are seven propositional connectives,
many of which will be familiar from
programming.
●
Then, there’s the logical “OR” operation:

p∨q
●
You’d read this out loud as “p or q.”
●
The fancy name for this operation is logical
disjunction. This is an inclusive or.
 Truth Tables
●
A truth table is a table showing the
truth value of a propositional logic
formula as a function of its inputs.
●
Let’s go look at the truth tables for the
three connectives we’ve seen so far:
¬ ∧ ∨
 Summary of Important Points
●
The ∨ connective is an inclusive “or.” It's true if at least
one of the operands is true.
●
Similar to the || operator in C, C++, Java, etc. and
the or operator in Python.
●
If we need an exclusive “or” operator, we can build it
out of what we already have.

Try
Tryitityourself:
yourself:Combine
Combinethethe¬,
¬,∧, and∨∨operators
∧,and operators
together
togetherto toform
formananexpression
expressionthat
thatrepresents
representsthe the
exclusive
exclusiveororof ofppand
andqq(something
(somethingthat’s
that’strue
trueififand
andonly
only
ififexactly
exactlyone
oneof
ofppand
andqqare
aretrue).
true).
Respond
Respondat
atpollev.com/cs103
pollev.com/cs103
Mathematical Implication
 Implication
●
We can represent implications using this
connective:

p→q
●
You’d read this out loud as “p implies q.”
●
The fancy name for this is the material
conditional.
Question:
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shouldthe
thetruth
truthtable
tablefor
forpp→→qq
look
looklike?
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atpollev.com/cs103
pollev.com/cs103
 Gives quality
ingots. Contract
Nanni pays upheld?
Ea-Nasir

p q p→q

Nanni Ea-Nasir

Ancient Contract:
If Nanni pays money to Ea-Nasir, then
Ea-Nasir will give Nanni quality copper ingots.
 Gives quality
ingots. Contract
Nanni pays upheld?
Ea-Nasir

p q p→q

$ T T T
Nanni Ea-Nasir

Ancient Contract:
If Nanni pays money to Ea-Nasir, then
Ea-Nasir will give Nanni quality copper ingots.
 Gives quality
ingots. Contract
Nanni pays upheld?
Ea-Nasir

p q p→q
F F T

$ T T T
Nanni Ea-Nasir

Ancient Contract:
If Nanni pays money to Ea-Nasir, then
Ea-Nasir will give Nanni quality copper ingots.
 Gives quality
ingots. Contract
Nanni pays upheld?
Ea-Nasir

p q p→q
F F T
F T T

$ T T T
Nanni Ea-Nasir

Ancient Contract:
If Nanni pays money to Ea-Nasir, then
Ea-Nasir will give Nanni quality copper ingots.
 Gives quality
ingots. Contract
Nanni pays upheld?
Ea-Nasir

p q p→q
F F T
F T T
T F F
$ T T T
Nanni Ea-Nasir

Ancient Contract:
If Nanni pays money to Ea-Nasir, then
Ea-Nasir will give Nanni quality copper ingots.
p q p→q
F F T
F T T
T F F
T T T
 p q p→q
F F T
F T T
T F F
T T T

An
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 p q p→q
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T F F
T T T

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observation:
The
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whenever
wheneverpp∧∧¬q
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 p q p→q
F F T
F T T
T F F
T T T

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 p q p→q
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T F F
T T T

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Fun Fact: The Contrapositive Revisited
The Biconditional Connective
 The Biconditional Connective
●
On Friday, we saw that “p if and only if q” means
both that p → q and q → p.
●
We can write this in propositional logic using the
biconditional connective:

p↔q
●
This connective’s truth table has the same meaning
as “p implies q and q implies p.”

Question:
Question:WhatWhatshould
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thetruth
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tablefor
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atpollev.com/cs103
pollev.com/cs103
 Biconditionals
●
The biconditional connective p ↔ q is
read “p if and only if q.”
●
Here's its truth table:

p q p↔q
F F T
F T F
T F F
T T T
 Biconditionals
●
The biconditional connective p ↔ q is
read “p if and only if q.”
●
Here's its truth table:

p q p↔q
One
One interpretation
interpretation of of ↔↔
F F T isis to
to think
think of
of it
it as
as
F T F equality:
equality: the
the two
two
propositions
propositions must
must have
have
T F F equal
equal truth
truth values.
values.
T T T
 True and False
●
There are two more “connectives” to
speak of: true and false.
●
The symbol ⊤ is a value that is always true.
●
The symbol ⊥ is value that is always false.
●
These are often called connectives,
though they don't connect anything.
●
(Or rather, they connect zero things.)
 Proof by Contradiction
●
Suppose you want to prove p is true using a
proof by contradiction.
●
The setup looks like this:
●
Assume p is false.
●
Derive something that we know is false.
●
Conclude that p is true.
●
In propositional logic:
(¬p → ⊥) → p
 Operator Precedence
●
How do we parse this statement?
¬x → y ∨ z → x ∨ y ∧ z
●
Operator precedence for propositional logic:
¬
∧
∨
→
↔
●
All operators are right-associative.
●
We can use parentheses to disambiguate.
 Operator Precedence
●
How do we parse this statement?
¬x → y ∨ z → x ∨ y ∧ z
●
Operator precedence for propositional logic:
¬
∧
∨
→
↔
●
All operators are right-associative.
●
We can use parentheses to disambiguate.
 Operator Precedence
●
How do we parse this statement?
(¬x) → y ∨ z → x ∨ y ∧ z
●
Operator precedence for propositional logic:
¬
∧
∨
→
↔
●
All operators are right-associative.
●
We can use parentheses to disambiguate.
 Operator Precedence
●
How do we parse this statement?
(¬x) → y ∨ z → x ∨ y ∧ z
●
Operator precedence for propositional logic:
¬
∧
∨
→
↔
●
All operators are right-associative.
●
We can use parentheses to disambiguate.
 Operator Precedence
●
How do we parse this statement?
(¬x) → y ∨ z → x ∨ (y ∧ z)
●
Operator precedence for propositional logic:
¬
∧
∨
→
↔
●
All operators are right-associative.
●
We can use parentheses to disambiguate.
 Operator Precedence
●
How do we parse this statement?
(¬x) → y ∨ z → x ∨ (y ∧ z)
●
Operator precedence for propositional logic:
¬
∧
∨
→
↔
●
All operators are right-associative.
●
We can use parentheses to disambiguate.
 Operator Precedence
●
How do we parse this statement?
(¬x) → (y ∨ z) → (x ∨ (y ∧ z))
●
Operator precedence for propositional logic:
¬
∧
∨
→
↔
●
All operators are right-associative.
●
We can use parentheses to disambiguate.
 Operator Precedence
●
How do we parse this statement?
(¬x) → (y ∨ z) → (x ∨ (y ∧ z))
●
Operator precedence for propositional logic:
¬
∧
∨
→
↔
●
All operators are right-associative.
●
We can use parentheses to disambiguate.
 Operator Precedence
●
How do we parse this statement?
(¬x) → ((y ∨ z) → (x ∨ (y ∧ z)))
●
Operator precedence for propositional logic:
¬
∧
∨
→
↔
●
All operators are right-associative.
●
We can use parentheses to disambiguate.
 Operator Precedence
●
How do we parse this statement?
(¬x) → ((y ∨ z) → (x ∨ (y ∧ z)))
●
Operator precedence for propositional logic:
¬
∧
∨
→
↔
●
All operators are right-associative.
●
We can use parentheses to disambiguate.
 Operator Precedence
●
The main points to remember:
●
¬ binds to whatever immediately follows it.
●
∧ and ∨ bind more tightly than →.
●
We will commonly write expressions like
p ∧ q → r without adding parentheses.
●
For more complex expressions, we'll try to
add parentheses.
●
Confused? Please ask!
 The Big Table
Connective Read Aloud As C++ Version Fancy Name

¬ “not” ! Negation

∧ “and” && Conjunction

∨ “or” || Disjunction

→ “implies” see PS2! Implication

↔ “if and only if” see PS2! Biconditional

⊤ “true” true Truth

⊥ “false” false Falsity

Time-Out for Announcements!
 Ofice Hours
●
Ofice hours start today. Think of them as “drop-in
help hours” where you can ask questions on problem
sets, lecture topics, etc.
●
Check the Guide to Ofice Hours on the course website for
the schedule.
●
Most ofice hours are held in person in the Huang
basement. A few are purely online.
●
Once you arrive, sign up on QueueStatus so that we
can help people in the order they arrived:
https://queuestatus.com/queues/2367
●
Ofice hours are much less crowded earlier in the
week than later.
Back to CS103!
 Recap So Far
●
A propositional variable is a variable that is
either true or false.
●
The propositional connectives are
●
Negation: ¬p
●
Conjunction: p ∧ q
●
Disjunction: p ∨ q
●
Implication: p → q
●
Biconditional: p ↔ q
●
True: ⊤
●
False: ⊥
Translating into Propositional Logic
 Some Sample Propositions
a: I will be in the path of totality.
b: I will see a total solar eclipse.
 Some Sample Propositions
a: I will be in the path of totality.
b: I will see a total solar eclipse.

“I
“I won't
won't see
see aa total
total solar
solar
eclipse
eclipse if
if I'm
I'm not
not inin the
the
path
path of
of totality.”
totality.”

Question:
Question:How
Howwould
wouldyou
youexpress
expressthis
this
statement
statementin
inpropositional
propositionallogic?
logic?
Respond
Respondat
atpollev.com/cs103
pollev.com/cs103
 “p if q”
translates to

q→p
It does not translate to

p→q
 Some Sample Propositions
a: I will be in the path of totality.
b: I will see a total solar eclipse.
c: There is a total solar eclipse today.
 Some Sample Propositions
a: I will be in the path of totality.
b: I will see a total solar eclipse.
c: There is a total solar eclipse today.

“If
“If II will
will be
be in
in the
the path
path of
of totality,
totality,
but
but there's
there's no no solar
solar eclipse
eclipse today,
today, II
won't
won't see
see aa total
total solar
solar eclipse.”
eclipse.”

Question:
Question:How
Howwould
wouldyou
youexpress
expressthis
this
statement
statementin
inpropositional
propositionallogic?
logic?
Respond
Respondat
atpollev.com/cs103
pollev.com/cs103
“p, but q”
translates to

p∧q
 The Takeaway Point
●
When translating into or out of
propositional logic, be very careful not to
get tripped up by nuances of the English
language.
●
In fact, this is one of the reasons we have a
symbolic notation in the frst place!
●
Many prepositional phrases lead to
counterintuitive translations; make sure
to double-check yourself!
Propositional Equivalences
 Quick Question:

What would I have to show you to convince

you that the statement p ∧ q is false?
 Quick Question:

What would I have to show you to convince

you that the statement p ∨ q is false?
 de Morgan's Laws
●
Using truth tables, we concluded that
¬(p ∧ q)
is equivalent to
¬p ∨ ¬q
●
We also saw that
¬(p ∨ q)
is equivalent to
¬p ∧ ¬q
●
These two equivalences are called De Morgan's
Laws.
 de Morgan's Laws in Code
●
Pro tip: Don't write this:
if (!(p() && q())) {
/* … */
}
●
Write this instead:
if (!p() || !q()) {
/* … */
}
●
(This even short-circuits correctly!)
 An Important Equivalence
●
Earlier, we talked about the truth table
for p → q. We chose it so that
p→q is equivalent to ¬(p ∧ ¬q)
●
Later on, this equivalence will be
incredibly useful:
¬(p → q) is equivalent to p ∧ ¬q
Another Important Equivalence
●
Here's a useful equivalence. Start with
p→q is equivalent to ¬(p ∧ ¬q)
●
By de Morgan's laws:
p→q is equivalent to ¬(p ∧ ¬q)
p→q is equivalent to ¬p ∨ ¬¬q
p→q is equivalent to ¬p ∨ q
●
Thus p → q is equivalent to ¬p ∨ q
Another Important Equivalence
●
Here's a useful equivalence. Start with
p→q is equivalent to ¬(p ∧ ¬q)
●
By de Morgan's laws: If
If pp isis false,
false, then
then
p→q ¬p
is equivalent to ¬(p ∧ ¬q)
¬p∨∨qq isis true.
true. If
If pp isis
true,
true, then
then qq hashas to
to be
be
p→q ¬pfor
is equivalent to true ∨ the
¬¬q
true for the whole
whole
p→q expression
is equivalent to ¬p ∨ to
expression q be
to be true.
true.

●
Thus p → q is equivalent to ¬p ∨ q
Proofwriting Workshop
An Incorrect Set Theory Proof
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.

Incorrect! Proof: Consider arbitrary sets A,

B, and C where C ⊆ A ∪ B.
This means that every element of C is in either A
or B. If all elements of C are in A, then C ⊆ A.
Alternately, if everything in C is in B, then C ⊆ B.
In either case, everything inside of C has to be
contained in at least one of these sets, so the
theorem is true. ■
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.

Incorrect! Proof: Consider arbitrary sets A,

B, and C where C ⊆ A ∪ B.
This means that every element of C is in either A
or B. If all elements of C are in A, then C ⊆ A.
Alternately, if everything in C is in B, then C ⊆ B.
In either case, everything inside of C has to be
contained in at least one of these sets, so the
theorem is true. ■
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.

Incorrect! Proof: Consider arbitrary sets A,

B, and C where C ⊆ A ∪ B.
This means that every element of C is in either A
or B. If all elements of C are in A, then C ⊆ A.
Alternately, if everything in C is in B, then C ⊆ B.
In either case, everything inside of C has to be
contained in at least one of these sets, so the
theorem is true. ■
This
This isis just
just repeating
repeating defnitions
defnitions
and
and not
not making
making specifc
specifc claims
claims about
about
specifc
specifc variables.
variables.
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.

Incorrect! Proof: Consider arbitrary sets A,

B, and C where C ⊆ A ∪ B.
This means that every element of C is in either A
or B. If all elements of C are in A, then C ⊆ A.
Alternately, if everything in C is in B, then C ⊆ B.
In either case, everything inside of C has to be
contained in at least one of these sets, so the
theorem is true. ■

Why
Why isis this
this bad?
bad?
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.

Incorrect! Proof: Consider arbitrary sets A,

B, and C where C ⊆ A ∪ B.
This means that every element of C is in either A
or B. If all elements of C are in A, then C ⊆ A.
Alternately, if everything in C is in B, then C ⊆ B.
In either case, everything inside of C has to be
contained in at least one of these sets, so the
theorem is true. ■
While
While this
this claim
claim isis true,
true, itit does
does not
not
imply
imply the
the theorem
theorem isis true.
true. In In fact,
fact,
this
this theorem
theorem isis actually
actually false.
false.
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.

A
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.

A B
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.

A B

A∪B
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
Recall
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 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
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 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
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or C ⊆ B.
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 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.

A∪B
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
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 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
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or C ⊆ B.
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 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
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A∪B
 Proofs vs. Disproofs
●
A proof is an argument that explains why
some theorem is true.
●
A disproof is an argument that explains
why some claim is false.
●
You’ve seen lots of examples of proofs.
What does a disproof look like?
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
Disproof: We will show that there are sets A, B, and C
where C ⊆ A ∪ B, but C ⊆⊈ A and C ⊆⊈ B.
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
Disproof: We will show that there are sets A, B, and C
where C ⊆ A ∪ B, but C ⊆⊈ A and C ⊆⊈ B. Consider the
sets A = {1}

1
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
Disproof: We will show that there are sets A, B, and C
where C ⊆ A ∪ B, but C ⊆⊈ A and C ⊆⊈ B. Consider the
sets A = {1}, B = {2}

A B

1 2
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
Disproof: We will show that there are sets A, B, and C
where C ⊆ A ∪ B, but C ⊆⊈ A and C ⊆⊈ B. Consider the
sets A = {1}, B = {2}, and C = {1, 2}.

A B

1 2
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
Disproof: We will show that there are sets A, B, and C
where C ⊆ A ∪ B, but C ⊆⊈ A and C ⊆⊈ B. Consider the
sets A = {1}, B = {2}, and C = {1, 2}. Now notice that
{1, 2} ⊆ A ∪ B so C ⊆ A ∪ B

A B

1 2
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
Disproof: We will show that there are sets A, B, and C
where C ⊆ A ∪ B, but C ⊆⊈ A and C ⊆⊈ B. Consider the
sets A = {1}, B = {2}, and C = {1, 2}. Now notice that
{1, 2} ⊆ A ∪ B so C ⊆ A ∪ B, but C ⊆⊈ A because 2 ∈ C
but 2 ∉ A
A B

1 2
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
Disproof: We will show that there are sets A, B, and C
where C ⊆ A ∪ B, but C ⊆⊈ A and C ⊆⊈ B. Consider the
sets A = {1}, B = {2}, and C = {1, 2}. Now notice that
{1, 2} ⊆ A ∪ B so C ⊆ A ∪ B, but C ⊆⊈ A because 2 ∈ C
but 2 ∉ A, and C ⊆⊈ B because 1 ∈ C but 1 ∉ B.
A B

1 2
Claim: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∪ B, then C ⊆ A
or C ⊆ B.
Disproof: We will show that there are sets A, B, and C
where C ⊆ A ∪ B, but C ⊆⊈ A and C ⊆⊈ B. Consider the
sets A = {1}, B = {2}, and C = {1, 2}. Now notice that
{1, 2} ⊆ A ∪ B so C ⊆ A ∪ B, but C ⊈⊈ A because 2 ∈ C
but 2 ∉ A, and C ⊆⊈ B because 1 ∈ C but 1 ∉ B.
Thus we’ve found a set C which is a subset of A ∪ B but
is not a subset of either A or B, which is what we needed
to show. ■
 Proofwriting Advice
●
Be very wary of proofs that speak generally
about “all objects” of a particular type.
●
As you’ve just seen, it’s easy to
accidentally prove a false statement at
this level of detail.
●
Making broad, high-level claims often
indicates deeper logic errors or
conceptual misunderstanding (like code
smell but for proofs!)
 Proofwriting Advice
A Very Good Idea: After you’ve
written a draft of a proof, run through
all of the points on the Proofwriting
Checklist.
●
This is a great exercise that you can
do with a partner!
Proofs on Subsets
Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.
Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Hold
Hold on,
on, isn’t
isn’t this
this the
the claim
claim we
we just
just disproved?
disproved?
Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Notice
Notice that
that that’s
that’s an
an intersection,
intersection, not not aa union!
union! It
It
turns
turns out
out that
that this
this claim
claim isis actually
actually true.
true.
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

A
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

A B
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

A B

A ∩ B
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Recall
Recall the
the intuition
intuition of
of aa
subset
subset being
being “something
“something
II can
can circle”
circle”
A B

A ∩ B
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.
When
When II look at AA∩
look at ∩B,
B, any
any circle
circle II
Recall can
can draw
draw inin this
this region
region can
can be
Recall the
the intuition
intuition of
of aa be
subset found
found inin both
both AA and
and B.
subset being
being “something
“something B.
II can
can circle”
circle”
A B

A ∩ B
 Let’s Draw Some Pictures!
Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.
This
This isis aa great
great visual
visual
intuition
intuition to to see
see why
why the
the
theorem
theorem isis true.
true. Now
Now we
we
have
have to
to drill
drill down
down to
to the
the
A B level
level of
of individual
individual
elements
elements toto write
write the
the
proof.
proof.
C

A ∩ B
Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

When
When confronted
confronted with with aa theorem
theorem to
to prove,
prove, the
the frst
frst
step
step isis to
to make
make sure
sure you
you understand
understand where
where you’re
you’re
starting
starting and
and where
where you’re
you’re going.
going.
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B

AA great
great proofwriting
proofwriting strategy
strategy
to write
isis to writedown
downrelevant
relevant
de6nitions
de6nitions.. This
This gives
gives you
you aa
better
better sense
sense of
of what
what you
you need
need
to
to prove
prove and
and what
what tools
tools you
you
have
have at
at hand.
hand.
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B

Before
Before we
we start:
start:
-- What
What isis the
the defnition
defnition of
of subset?
subset?
-- How
How do
do you
you prove
prove that
that one
one set
set isis aa subset
subset of
of
another?
another?
-- If
If you
you know
know that
that one
one set
set isis aa subset
subset of
of
another,
another, what
what can
can you
you conclude?
conclude?
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B

De6nition:
De6nition:IfIfSSand
andTTare
aresets,
sets,then
thenSS⊆⊆TTwhen
when
for
forevery
everyxx∈∈S,
S,we
wehave
havexx∈∈T.T.
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B

De6nition:
De6nition:IfIfSSandandTTare
aresets,
sets,then
thenSS⊆⊆TTwhen
when
for
forevery
everyxx∈∈S,S,we
wehave
havexx∈∈T.T.
To
Toprove
provethat
thatSS⊆ ⊆T:T:
Pick
Pickananarbitrary
arbitraryxx∈∈S,S,then
thenprove
provexx∈∈T.
T.
If
Ifyou
youknow
knowthat
thatSS⊆ ⊆T:
T:
IfIfyou
youhave
haveananxx∈∈S,
S,you
youcan
canconclude
concludexx∈∈T.T.
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B

De6nition:
De6nition:IfIfSSandandTTare
aresets,
sets,then
thenSS⊆⊆TTwhen
when
for
forevery
everyxx∈∈S,S,we
wehave
havexx∈∈T.T.
To
Toprove
provethat
thatSS⊆ ⊆T:T:
Pick
Pickananarbitrary
arbitraryxx∈∈S,S,then
thenprove
provexx∈∈T.
T.
If
Ifyou
youknow
knowthat
thatSS⊆ ⊆T:
T:
IfIfyou
youhave
haveananxx∈∈S,
S,you
youcan
canconclude
concludexx∈∈T.T.
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

This
This reading
reading ofof the
the
defnition
defnition isis usually
usually
● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B
helpful
helpful for
for unpacking
unpacking
this
this column!
● C ⊆ A∩B column!

De6nition:
De6nition:IfIfSSandandTTare
aresets,
sets,then
thenSS⊆⊆TTwhen
when
for
forevery
everyxx∈∈S,S,we
wehave
havexx∈∈T.T.
To
Toprove
provethat
thatSS⊆ ⊆T:T:
Pick
Pickananarbitrary
arbitraryxx∈∈S,S,then
thenprove
provexx∈∈T.
T.
If
Ifyou
youknow
knowthat
thatSS⊆ ⊆T:
T:
IfIfyou
youhave
haveananxx∈∈S,
S,you
youcan
canconclude
concludexx∈∈T.T.
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B

Our Tools

●
In general to show that S ⊆ T,
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
that x ∈ T
In general to show that S ⊆ T,
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
that x ∈ T
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B

Our Tools
How
How can
can we
we apply
apply this
this
●
In general to show that S ⊆ T, general
general template
template to
to our
our
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show specifc
specifc problem?
problem?
that x ∈ T
In general to show that S ⊆ T,
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
that x ∈ T
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B ● Pick an x ∈ C, show

that x ∈ A
Our Tools
● Pick an x ∈ C, show
●
In general to show that S ⊆ T, that x ∈ B
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
that x ∈ T
In general to show that S ⊆ T,
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
that x ∈ T
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B ● Pick an x ∈ C, show

that x ∈ A
Our Tools
● Pick an x ∈ C, show
●
In general to show that S ⊆ T, that x ∈ B
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
that x ∈ T
Now
Now we
we know
know that
that ultimately,
ultimately, we’re
we’re
In general to show that S ⊆ T,
going
going to
to have
have to
to do
do these
these two
two
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
that x ∈ T things.
things. Let’s
Let’s see
see what
what tools
tools we
we have
have
that
that can
can get
get us
us here!
here!
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B ● Pick an x ∈ C, show

that x ∈ A
Our Tools
● Pick an x ∈ C, show
●
In general to show that S ⊆ T, that x ∈ B
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
that x ∈ T
In general to show that S ⊆ T,
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
that x ∈ T
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Needof

This To Show
This reading
reading of thethe
defnition
defnition isis usually
usually
● A, B, and C are sets ● Chelpful
⊆ A and C⊆B
for unpacking
helpful for unpacking
this
this column!
column!
● C ⊆ A∩B ● Pick an x ∈ C, show
that x ∈ A
Our Tools
De6nition:
De6nition:IfIfSSand andTTare aresets,
sets,then
● SS⊆
Pick
then ⊆TTxwhen
an ∈ C, show
when
In general tofor
for every
that x
every
show Sx∈ S,
⊆∈T,S,wewehave xx∈∈T.
havethat T.
x∈B
●

pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show

To
thatprove
To x ∈ T that
prove thatSS⊆ ⊆T: T:
In Pick
Pickan
general toarbitrary
an show that Sxx
arbitrary ⊆∈∈T,S,
S,then
thenprove
provexx∈∈T.T.
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
If
If you
thatyoux ∈ know
TknowthatthatSS⊆ ⊆T: T:
IfIfyou
youhave
havean anxx∈∈S, S,you
youcan
canconclude
concludexx∈∈T. T.
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B ● Pick an x ∈ C, show

that x ∈ A
Our Tools
● Pick an x ∈ C, show
●
In general to show that S ⊆ T, that x ∈ B
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
that x ∈ T
In general to show that S ⊆ T,
pick anBefore
arbitrary xcontinue:
∈ S, show
Before we
we continue:
that x ∈ -
T What is the defnition of set intersection?
- What is the defnition of set intersection?
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B ● Pick an x ∈ C, show

that x ∈ A
Our Tools
De6nition:
De6nition:The ThesetsetSS∩∩TTis
isthe Pick
the●set
set an xfor
where,
where, ∈ C,
foranyshow
any x:
x:
●
In generalxx
to∈
∈ SS∩
show TT S ⊆when
∩that when
T, xx∈∈that
SSand
andxxx∈∈∈
BTT
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
that x ∈ T
In general to show that S ⊆ T,
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
that x ∈ T
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B ● Pick an x ∈ C, show

that x ∈ A
Our Tools
De6nition:
De6nition:The ThesetsetSS∩ ∩TTisisthe Pick
the●set
set an xfor
where,
where, ∈ C,
foranyshow
any x:
x:
●
In generalxxto∈∈SS∩
show TT S ⊆when
∩that when
T, xx∈∈that
SSand
andxxx∈∈∈
BTT
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
To
To prove
that x ∈ T that
prove thatxx∈∈SS∩ ∩T:T:
Prove
In Prove
both
general both
that
to showthat x ∈⊆ST,
that xS ∈ Sand
andthat
thatxx∈∈T.T.
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
If
If you
you know that thatxx∈∈SS∩ ∩T:
that x ∈ know
T T:
You
Youcan
canconclude
concludeboth boththat
thatxx∈∈SSandandthat
thatxx∈∈T.T.
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

This
This isis the
the one
one we
we
● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and
want!C⊆B
want!

● C ⊆ A∩B ● Pick an x ∈ C, show

that x ∈ A
Our Tools
De6nition:
De6nition:The ThesetsetSS∩ ∩TTisisthe Pick
the●set
set an xfor
where,
where, ∈ C,
foranyshow
any x:
x:
●
In generalxxto∈∈SS∩
show TT S ⊆when
∩that when
T, xx∈∈that
SSand
andxxx∈∈∈
BTT
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
To
To prove
that x ∈ T that
prove thatxx∈∈SS∩ ∩T:T:
Prove
In Prove
both
general both
that
to showthat x ∈⊆ST,
that xS ∈ Sand
andthat
thatxx∈∈T.T.
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show
If
If you
you know that thatxx∈∈SS∩ ∩T:
that x ∈ know
T T:
You
Youcan
canconclude
concludeboth boththat
thatxx∈∈SSandandthat
thatxx∈∈T.T.
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B ● Pick an x ∈ C, show

that x ∈ A
Our Tools
● Pick an x ∈ C, show
●
In general to show that S ⊆ T,
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show that x ∈ B
that x ∈ T.
●
If you know that S ⊆ T and you
have an x ∈ S, you can conclude
x ∈ T.
●
If you know that x ∈ S∩T, we can
conclude that x ∈ S and x ∈ T.
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

What We’re Assuming What We Need To Show

● A, B, and C are sets ● C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B

● C ⊆ A∩B ● Pick an x ∈ C, show

that x ∈ A
Our Tools
● Pick an x ∈ C, show
●
In general to show that S ⊆ T,
pick an arbitrary x ∈ S, show that x ∈ B
that x ∈ T.
●
If you know that S ⊆ T and you
have an x ∈ S, you can conclude Let’s
Let’s go
go and
and try
try and
and do
do
x ∈ T. the
the proof
proof with
with what
what we’ve
we’ve
●
If you know that x ∈ S∩T, we can got
got here!
here!
conclude that x ∈ S and x ∈ T.
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Rough Outline Relevant Defnitions

●
In general to show that
● Assume C ⊆ A ∩ B S ⊆ T, pick an arbitrary
x ∈ S, show that x ∈ T
Proving C ⊆ A
●
If you know that S ⊆ T and
Pick an x ∈ C you have an x ∈ S, you can
conclude x ∈ T.
x∈A∩B
●
If you know that x ∈ S ∩ T,
x ∈ A and x ∈ B we can conclude that x ∈ S
and x ∈ T. that S ⊆ T, pick
Conclude x ∈ A an arbitrary x ∈ S
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Rough Outline Relevant Defnitions

●
In general to show that
● Assume C ⊆ A ∩ B S ⊆ T, pick an arbitrary
x ∈ S, show that x ∈ T
● Proving C ⊆ A
●
If you know that S ⊆ T and
● Pick an x ∈ C you have an x ∈ S, you can
conclude x ∈ T.
x∈A∩B
●
If you know that x ∈ S ∩ T,
x ∈ A and x ∈ B we can conclude that x ∈ S
and x ∈ T. that S ⊆ T, pick
● Conclude x ∈ A an arbitrary x ∈ S
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Rough Outline Relevant Defnitions

●
In general to show that
● Assume C ⊆ A ∩ B S ⊆ T, pick an arbitrary
x ∈ S, show that x ∈ T
● Proving C ⊆ A
●
If you know that S ⊆ T and
● Pick an x ∈ C you have an x ∈ S, you can
conclude x ∈ T.
x∈A∩B
What
What goes
goes here?
here?
●
If you know that x ∈ S ∩ T,
x ∈ A and x ∈ B we can conclude that x ∈ S
and x ∈ T. that S ⊆ T, pick
● Conclude x ∈ A an arbitrary x ∈ S
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Rough Outline Relevant Defnitions

●
In general to show that
● Assume C ⊆ A ∩ B S ⊆ T, pick an arbitrary
x ∈ S, show that x ∈ T
● Proving C ⊆ A
●
If you know that S ⊆ T and
● Pick an x ∈ C you have an x ∈ S, you can
conclude x ∈ T.
● x∈A∩B
●
If you know that x ∈ S ∩ T,
x ∈ A and x ∈ B we can conclude that x ∈ S
and x ∈ T. that S ⊆ T, pick
● Conclude x ∈ A an arbitrary x ∈ S
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Rough Outline Relevant Defnitions

●
In general to show that
● Assume C ⊆ A ∩ B S ⊆ T, pick an arbitrary
x ∈ S, show that x ∈ T
● Proving C ⊆ A
●
If you know that S ⊆ T and
● Pick an x ∈ C you have an x ∈ S, you can
conclude x ∈ T.
● x∈A∩B
●
If you know that x ∈ S ∩ T,
x ∈ A and x ∈ B we can conclude that x ∈ S
and x ∈ T. that S ⊆ T, pick
● Conclude x ∈ A an arbitrary x ∈ S
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Rough Outline Relevant Defnitions

●
In general to show that
● Assume C ⊆ A ∩ B S ⊆ T, pick an arbitrary
x ∈ S, show that x ∈ T
● Proving C ⊆ A
●
If you know that S ⊆ T and
● Pick an x ∈ C you have an x ∈ S, you can
conclude x ∈ T.
● x∈A∩B
●
If you know that x ∈ S ∩ T,
● x ∈ A and x ∈ B we can conclude that x ∈ S
and x ∈ T. that S ⊆ T, pick
● Conclude x ∈ A an arbitrary x ∈ S
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Rough Outline Relevant Defnitions

●
In general to show that
● Assume C ⊆ A ∩ B S ⊆ T, pick an arbitrary
x ∈ S, show that x ∈ T
● Proving C ⊆ A
●
If you know that S ⊆ T and
● Pick an x ∈ C you have an x ∈ S, you can
conclude x ∈ T.
● x∈A∩B
●
If you know that x ∈ S ∩ T,
● x ∈ A and x ∈ B we can conclude that x ∈ S
and x ∈ T. that S ⊆ T, pick
● Conclude x ∈ A an arbitrary x ∈ S
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Rough Outline

● Assume C ⊆ A ∩ B

● Proving C ⊆ A

● Pick an x ∈ C
● x∈A∩B
● x ∈ A and x ∈ B
● Conclude x ∈ A
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Rough Outline

We
We also
also need
need to
to prove
prove that
● Assume C ⊆ A ∩ B that
CC⊆⊆B.
B.
● Proving C ⊆ A
Notice
Notice that
that if
if you
you take
take the
the
● Pick an x ∈ C outline
outline here
here and
and literally
literally
swap
swap the
the variable
variable AA for
for the
the
● x∈A∩B variable
variable B,
B, you
you get
get aa
working
working proof.
● x ∈ A and x ∈ B proof.

● Conclude x ∈ A
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Rough Outline

● Assume C ⊆ B ∩ A In
In aa case
case like
like this
this where
where
your
your proof
proof would
would have
have two
two
● Proving C ⊆ B completely
completely symmetric
symmetric
branches,
branches, it’s
it’s fne
fne to
to write
write
● Pick an x ∈ C
up
up just
just one
one and
and say
say
● x∈B∩A “by symmetry,, [the
“bysymmetry [the other
other
branch]
branch] isis also
also true.”
true.”
● x ∈ B and x ∈ A
● Conclude x ∈ B
 Theorem: If A, B, and C are sets and C ⊆ A ∩ B, then
C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B.

Rough Outline

● Assume C ⊆ A ∩ B

● Proving C ⊆ A
Try
Tryitityourself:
yourself:Take
Takeaafew
few
Pick an x ∈ C minutes
minutesand andwrite
writeup
upaaproof
proofof
●
of
the
thetheorem
theoremusing
usingthis
thisoutline.
outline.
● x∈A∩B
Then
Thenshare
shareyour
yourproof
proofwith
withyour
your
● x ∈ A and x ∈ B
neighbors
neighborsand
andcritique
critiqueeach
each
● Conclude x ∈ A other!
other!

Respond
Respondat
atpollev.com/cs103
pollev.com/cs103
 Next Time
●
First-Order Logic
●
Reasoning about groups of objects.
●
First-Order Translations
●
Expressing yourself in symbolic math!