The

Endocrine
system

Chapter 9
Pages 233-248
and for
Diabetes (MSc)
pages 255 - 258
 Learning outcomes
• To understand the structure and function of the
endocrine system.

• To explore the effects of dysfunction particularly in

relation to Diabetes (MSc)

⮊ First off listen to Animation 9.1 to get started on

understanding the Endocrine System. The hormones
mentioned are summarized on the next two slides.
 Endocrine glands
Network of glands that produce and secrete hormones
responsible for growth, reproduction, metabolism and mood

Ductless glands as hormones diffuse directly into the

bloodstream
The Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System.
The Organs and Tissues of the Endocrine System.
 What are hormones?
Endocrine hormones are bloodborne messengers

– Chemicals

– Produced by one organ/gland

– Secreted into blood

– Target specific tissue
 Types of hormones
– Growth Hormone
– Thyroid hormones
– Insulin
– Parathyroid Hormone
– Adrenaline
– Reproductive hormones
 Growth Hormone (GH)
• In children
– Supports muscular and skeletal development

• In adults

– Maintains normal blood glucose concentrations

– Mobilizes lipid reserves
 Reproductive Hormones
• Androgens in males
• Estrogens in females
• Stimulate cell growth and differentiation in target
tissues
• Produce gender-related differences in
– Skeletal proportions
– Secondary sex characteristics
 Functions of endocrine system
• Maintain homeostasis – see next slide for more

on this.

• Acts on all systems of the body for

– Growth & development

– Normal functioning and
– Metabolism
 Homeostasis (Page 34-36)
Dynamic ever changing physiological regulation of the
body’s
•Core temperature
•Water and electrolyte concentrations
•pH of body fluids
•Blood glucose levels
•Blood and tissue oxygen and CO2 levels
•Blood pressure
 Homeostasis and Intercellular
Communication
Endocrine Communication
– Endocrine cells release chemicals
(hormones) into bloodstream
– Alters metabolic activities of many tissues and
organs simultaneously
 The Pituitary Gland and
hypothalamus
• Hangs inferior to the
hypothalamus in brain, pea size
and they work together
• The hypothalamus controls the
release of 9 hormones from both
anterior & posterior pituitary
glands
 The Thyroid Gland
• Butterfly in shape, situated in the
neck in front of larynx and trachea at
the level of C5-7 & T1 vertebrae.
• Iodine is essential for the formation
of thyroid hormones T3 and T4
• Release of T3 & T4 is stimulated by
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).
• T3 & T4 are essential for normal
development of the skeletal and
nervous systems
 Thyroid Hormones
• Needed for foetal development or for first year
– Nervous system fails to develop normally

• If T4 concentrations decline before puberty

– Normal skeletal development will not continue
 Abnormal secretion of thyroid
hormones
Hyperthyroidism (increased T3 & Hypothyroidism (decreased T3 &
T4) T4)
Increased basal metabolic rate Decreased basal metabolic rate
Weight loss despite good appetite Weight gain despite anorexia
Anxiety, restlessness, mental Depression, psychosis, metal
excitability slowness
Hair loss Dry skin, brittle hair
Tachycardia, palpitations, atrial Bradycardia
fibrillation
Warm sweaty skin, heat intolerance Dry cold skin, prone to hypothermia
Diarrhoea Constipation
 Parathyroid gland
• Four parathyroid glands
embedded in the posterior lobe
of the thyroid
• Secrete parathyroid hormone
which regulates blood calcium
• Calcium is essential for muscle
contraction, transmission of
nerve impulses, blood clotting
and the normal action of many
enzymes
 Pineal Gland
• Releases Melatonin
responsible for the
coordination of sleep and
wakefulness, mood and
inhibition of growth and
development of sex organs
before puberty

The Pineal gland is

attached to the roof
of the third ventricle
shown above
Adrenal Glands
• 2 adrenal glands situated above
each kidney
• Release adrenaline and
noradrenaline. Together the
potentiate fight or flight functions
of the autonomic nervous
system.

• See page 243

 Pancreatic islets
• 2% of the pancreas has
an endocrine function
• This consists of clusters
of cells known as
pancreatic islets
• Pancreatic hormones are
released directly into the
bloodstream
• 1-2 million islets which
contain following
hormone secreting cell:
α cells =Glucagon
β cells = Insulin
δ cells = Growth
hormone
 Overview – Endocrine system
Organs involved:
• Hypothalamus controls the Pituitary Gland and influences
many others glands
• Thyroid gland
• Thymus
• Adrenal glands
• Pineal gland
• Parathyroid glands
 The Endocrine System
• Regulates long-term processes as well as short term
homeostasis
for example
– Growth
– Development
– Reproduction
Uses hormonal chemical messengers to relay information
and instructions between cells
 Blood Glucose Levels
When glucose levels rise

– Beta cells secrete insulin, stimulating transport of

glucose across plasma membranes
When glucose levels decline

– Alpha cells release glucagon, stimulating glucose

release by liver
The Regulation of Blood Glucose Concentrations
 The Pancreas, Insulin & Diabetes
Diabetes is due to:

– deficiency or absence of insulin

– impairment of insulin activity

•Insulin is produced in the pancreas – beta β cells

•Glucagon is also produced – alpha α cells
•Blood glucose levels are controlled by these pancreatic
hormones: Remember
– glucagon increases blood glucose levels
– insulin decreases blood glucose levels
 Glucose
• The normal blood glucose level is between 70-110 mg/dl

• Glucose is used by the nervous system (including the

brain) and by muscle cells

• A balanced diet should provide sufficient glucose for

storage and use

– it is available from carbohydrates (sugars and starches)

 Glucose and Insulin
• Glucose travels to the liver from the digestive system,
where it is:
– passed straight out into the blood
or
– converted to glycogen for storage
• Insulin:
– enhances the actions of the enzymes that convert
glucose into glycogen
– assists in moving the glucose to the cells of the body
for use
Quizizz
 Diabetes mellitus

• Most common endocrine disorder

• Primary sign is hyperglycemia- high level of blood glucose

level which can occur due to:

– a total lack of insulin (Type 1 diabetes)

– insufficient insulin (Type 2 diabetes)
• High levels of glucose concentrations overwhelm the
reabsorption capabilities of the kidneys
 Classification of Diabetes mellitus
Primary:
Type 1 – Insulin dependent
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C3AQIfgthh4

Type 2- Non Insulin dependent

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4SZGM_E5cLI

Secondary:
Acute/chronic pancreatitis
Drug therapy (corticosteroids)
Other endocrine disorders which increase plasma glucose levels
(Cushing syndrome etc.)

Gestational diabetes: pregnancy, may disappear but often recurs in

later life
 Complications
• The ‘extra’ glucose breaks down fats and proteins
– this leads to the loss of essential fats and proteins and some
by-products that are poisonous to the body.

• The consequences are complex degenerative vascular

changes. People with diabetes can get secondary
problems:
– retina damage, increased infection risk, kidney failure, peripheral
neuropathy, cardiac problems, lower limb vascular circulation and
wound healing
Treatment
https://pathways.nice.org.uk/pathways/type-1-diabetes-in-adults#path=view%3A/pat
hways/type-1-diabetes-in-adults/managing-type-1-diabetes-in-adults.xml&content=vi
ew-index

https://pathways.nice.org.uk/pathways/type-2-diabetes-in-adults
Diabetes and mental health
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pcO-alfiy
Eo
Endocrine Tissues of Other
Systems
Endocrine Tissues of Other
Systems
Functional Relationships between the Endocrine System and Other
Systems
Functional Relationships between the Endocrine System and Other
Systems
Functional Relationships between the Endocrine System and Other
Systems