AS 251

PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL NUTRITION

Course Tutors

Dr. V. Attoh-Kotoku
Dr. C. Antwi
Dept. Animal Science, KNUST
 Outline
• Feed Evaluation
– Proximate Analyses
– Conventional Feeding Trial
– In vitro systems of feed evaluation

• Measurement of Feed & Nutrient Utilisation

– Growth Trials
– Feed Conversion Ratio
– Digestion trials
• Conventional
• Indicator methods
 Outline CONT’D
• Ration Formulation
– Definitions
– Mathematics of ration formulation
• Feedstuffs
– Energy concentrates
– Protein concentrates
– Roughages/ Forages
• Fodder conservation
– Hay/ Baling
– Silage
• Feed Additives
 Reference:

1. Principles of Animal Nutrition by P.

McDonald. Seventh Edition.

2. Digestive Physiology & Nutrition of

Ruminants by D.C. Church. Vol 2
 Objectives
The course objectives are to :

•Know the nutrients in feedstuffs and how they can be

evaluated or assessed.
•Understand the techniques and the methods in feed evaluation
•Undertake growth and digestion trials.
•Formulate diets from available and common feed ingredients.
•Understand the principles and relevance of fodder
conservation
 Course learning outcomes
• Knowledge
Define the basic terms used in animal nutrition
Understand the principles formulating animal feeds

• Skills
Compound feed for different classes of animals
Interpret results obtained from a lab report or a feeding trial

• Competences
Select animal feeds based on their nutrient characteristics
Assess animal feed for their chemical and nutritive value
 INTRODUCTION
• Feed Bill - The largest operating cost in Animal Production

• Supply of the right amount of feed – keeps the cost minimal/

low.
• NB: Overfeeding is wasteful
• Underfeeding decreases animal performance &
Profitability
• Hence the importance of proper animal feeding

• The right amount of feed is known if one has an idea of the

nutritive value of the feed.
DETERMINATION OF CRUDE NUTRIENTS

Important nutrients present in feeding stuffs can be categorised into

the following groups:
carbohydrate,
proteins,
fats,
minerals, and
vitamins.
The method of analysis used in nutritive studies is that of the
Weende or Proximate system developed by Henneberg and
Stohmann in 1862.
• On the basis of this system, the feeding stuff is
analysed for its content of
water,
ash,
crude protein,
crude fibre,
ether extract and
nitrogen- free - extract.

These constituents represent rather heterogeneous groups

of substances and are therefore called ‘crude nutrients.
 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

Method for the quantitative analysis of the different

macronutrients in feed
or
partition of compounds in a feed into six categories
based on the chemical properties of the compound.

Categories: Moisture, ash, crude protein, crude

fibre, ether extract and nitrogen- free –
extract
A diagrammatic representation of the analysis is given in Figure 1 .

Air Dry Sample

Dry @ 1000C overnight

Moisture Free Sample

Ether Extraction with Pet

ether
Crude Protein Fat-Free Residue

Boil in Acid
Digest
Boil in Alkaline
Crude Fibre + Ash
Distillate
Burn in furnace
Titrate 500-6000C
Crude Fibre Ash
 Moisture and dry matter content (MC & DM)
Wide variations in the nutrient content of feeds.

To compare them
it is necessary to express them on a common basis (DM basis)
as
MC of feeding stuffs varies widely and as these can represent a large
proportion of total intake.

This necessitates the determination of the dry matter content.

On this basis (DM), feeds can be assessed in relation to

1. their durability and suitability for storage.

2. serves as a reference basis for the compilation of
ration formulation and
3. aids the comparison of material from similar and
different origins and locations.

Lab reports
Expressed on
DM basis or
Feed natural state (As-is basis/ as-fed
basis and as-received basis)
MOISTURE DETERMINATION

Put a moisture dish on electronic scale, set to zero ( you tare).

Add 2g of sample
Place it in an oven at 100oC for 24hrs
Put in a desiccator and weigh
• Calculation
%M.C = 100 (Sw – Ds)
Sw
• Errors possible
Loss of VFAs underestimating DM
Maillard product formed (CHON/CHO complex)
CRUDE PROTEIN (CHON)
Kjeldahl ( Danish chemist) discovered that all CHON contain 16% N.
CP is calculated on the basis: 100/16=6.25

N x 6.25 = CP (leaves & stem tissue proteins)

N x 5.90 = CP (cereal grains)

PRINCIPLE
In the presence of sulphuric acid (H2SO4), and catalyst (Cu), amino
N and organic material is converted to (NH4)2SO4.
The NH3 is distilled from an alkaline medium and absorbed in
standardized mineral acid.
NH3 is determined by back titration with a standard mineral base.
N (dry)= %N × 100
100- %moisture %CHON = %N ×6.25
ERRORS
Assumes all N present in the sample are in protein form ( could be urea
and ammonia)
Different CHON needs different correction factors .

CRUDE LIPID
Diethyl Ether extracts dissolved fats, oils, pigments and other fat soluble
substances from a sample (dry).
Ether is then evaporated from the fat solution
Resulting residue less the initial sample is ether extract or crude fat
NOTE
Sample and ether must be free from moisture to avoid co-extraction of
water soluble components (CHO, urea, lactic acid, glycerol)
Calculation: % Crude fat= fat residue × DM
Sample
Aim: Isolate feed with high caloric value.
 ERROR
Assumes that all substances soluble in ether are fats.
Plant pigments eg. Wax.

CRUDE FIBRE (represents insoluble CHO.)

2 fractions of CHO: CF & NFE
i.e. structural - cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin and & non-
structural carbohydrates (sugras, starch and pectin)

CF: Indication of the total amount of cell wall constituents.

NFE
Name misleading: Nothing to do with N and is not an extract either
Supposedly represent soluble CHO in feed ( starch and sugar).
Calculation
%NFE= %DM – ( %EE + %CP + %Ash +% CF)
 ERRORS
Only component in proximate which is not determined analytically but
calculated by difference.
Hence accumulates all errors existing in proximate analysis.

Limitations of proximate analysis

Only an indicator of the nutritive value of the feeding stuff;
it does not define the nutrient availability of feed but quantifies it

The detergent method

Developed by Van Soest and is an alternative to CF determination
NDF = Hemi + Cell + Lignin : Prediction of intake
ADF = Cell + Lignin : indication of energy content of feed

Hem= NDF – ADF

 MEASUREMENT OF FEED AND NUTRIENT UTILISATION IN ANIMALS

METHODS:
A). GROWTH TRIALS (GT):
•Growth by definition is: Increase in body weight or height
resulting from assimilation by body tissues of ingested
nutrients.

•Increase in absolute weight in a given period of time

•GT involves/include measurement of absolute gain in

body weight during a period of feeding a test diet.
• Rate of Gain = Weight gain/Period (week)
i.e. Weight gain = Final – Initial weight

PROCEDURE
• Feed a test diet (Cowpea haulm) concurrently with
similar animals fed a standard (basal diet – diet of
known nutritive quality that allows normal growth).

• This method allows:

1. Direct comparison among various feed
2. Ranking of diets in order of their ability to promote
weight gain/ efficiency of feed utilization.
 FEED CONVERSION EFFICIENCY/ RATIO (FCR)

• Feed required per unit of weight gain; OR Weight

gain per unit of feed.

• It is a useful tool in estimating the nutrient

adequacy of a test diet.

• i.e. FCR = Feed consumed OR Weight gain Weight

Weight gain Feed consumed
 Worked Example

DIET DAILY GAIN FEED TO GAIN

RATIO
1 717g 3.99
2 702g 3.49
3 695g 3.57
4 689g 3.74
How much feed was consumed to gain weights 717, 702 and 696?
FCR = Intake
Gain
Intake = 3.99 x 717 = 2.86kg
= 3.49 x 702 = 2.45kg
= 3.57 x 695 = 2.48kg
NB:
•Rapidly growing animals utilises less of the total
feed consumption

B). OTHER TYPES OF FEEDING TRIAL

•Feeding trial during lactation to measure the quality/
quantity of milk produced in response to intake/ diet
composition

➢Estimation of milk production

•Measuring gain of the young
•Weighing them before and after suckling (weigh-
suckle-weigh)
C). DIGESTION TRIALS – used to determine the
proportion of nutrients in a feed or diet that are
absorbed from the GIT.
•Conventional
•Indicator

➢Conventional Trial
•Feed a diet of known composition over a time
period of several days

•Collect faeces and later analyse for components of

interest.
• NB:
➢Time required for feed to traverse in the GIT is
1-2 days for Monogastrics and 3-5 days for
Ruminants.
• Therefore preliminary period of 3-10 days is
needed to void the GIT of residues of pre-test feed
and to allow adaptation of the animal to the diet.

➢ Between animals variability tends to be lower in

growth trial; therefore 4-6 animals per treatment
will suffice in detecting differences among diets.
Apparent digestibility, (AD %) = Nutrient Intake – Nutrient in Faeces x 100%
Nutrient intake

•Values can be obtained for AD of any nutrient except

vitamins and some minerals.

•WHY? – Because they are synthesized by GIT

microorganisms.

•Why Apparent digestibility?

A fraction of N, fat, CHO appearing in the faeces are
not only from the test diet but from endogenous
sources (sloughed intestinal cells, digestion secretion).
➢ Indicator Method (either Internal or External)
• Method of choice when it is impossible or
inconvenient to measure total feed intake or collect
total faeces.

• It involve the use of non-absorbed indicators/

reference substance

❖Characteristics
• Indigestive
• Non-absorbable
• Non-toxic
• Easily analysed in feed or faeces
❑Internal Indicators
1. Lignin (present in feed but are digestible to
a negligible degree)

Disadvantages
• Incomplete recovery
• Difficulty in analysis

2. Silica – problems with recovery,

presumably because of contamination with
soil (Z. japonica).

3. Acid insoluble ash (ash in the feed insoluble

in boiling HCl)
❑External Indicator
• Chromic oxide
• Alkane

NB: They are either added to the feed or given orally in

capsules or drenches or introduction into the rumen/
cannula

Disadvantages
• Irregular
• Incomplete recovery

AD= 100 – (100 X % indicator digested X % nutrient consumed)

%indicator consumed %nutrient digested
D). BALANCE TRIALS
•Similar to digestion trials but provide information on
utilization of nutrients after absorption from GIT.

•It offers accurate measure of total intake and total

excretion in order to determine whether there is net
retention (positive balance) or loss (negative balance)
of the nutrient in question.

➢PROCEDURE
•Collect faeces and urine and feed sample
• Determine the composition of the nutrient in
question

• Estimate NBAL = NFEED – (NFEC + NURINE)

NBAL > 1 Nutrient retention (Anabolism)
<1 Nutrient loss (Catabolism)
=1 Neutral
RATION FORMULATION
Ration formulation aims at compounding a diet that is balanced
in terms of nutrients and will meet the various metabolic or
physiological needs of the animal: maintenance, growth and
production.

Nutrient requirement: is a statement of the minimum amounts

of the various nutrient required by the animal in question to
support normal growth, health and production.

Nutrient allowance: the nutrient requirement plus a margin of

safety to take care of uncertainties in the requirements and
allow for individual variations in animals and foodstuffs.
Prerequisites in formulating a proper diet include:
Knowledge of the animal species: ruminant Or a Monogastric?

Know age or stage of development or production of the animal

Know the nutrient requirements of animal. Data from nutrients

requirement tables (NRC, ARC, etc very important).

Select foodstuffs that most nearly meet the requirements, not

forgetting relative costs and availability (periodic or all
year round).
• Determine limits of incorporation of ingredients. Some
feeds may contain toxic or antinutritional factors, which
can harm the animal above a certain limit of dietary
addition. Previous experimental results, books,
journals, etc can be a good guide.

• Calculate levels of nutrients in formulated diet

(foodstuffs analysis tables helpful)

• Balance the ration paying attention especially to energy

and protein levels and their ratio.
The Mathematics of Ration Formulation

Four recognized mathematical procedures for ration

formulation:
Pearson square method,
Trial-and error method,
Algebraic method and
computer based least cost formulation.
The Pearson Square Method:

Used when two foodstuffs are required to formulate a

ration supplying a definite percentage of a specific nutrient. It
may however be used in cases where more than two feeds are
involved.
When two feeds are involved: maize (9% crude protein)
and soybean meal (45% CP) containing 20% crude protein.
The steps are simple:
Draw a square and place the CP required in the mixture in the
center of the square

Place maize (9%CP) on the upper left corner of your square, and
soybean meal on the opposite side

Subtract the crude protein contents of maize and soybean meal

from the desired crude protein in the mixture ignoring the
negative sign. Place the results diagonally opposite maize and
soybean meal respectively.

Add the diagonal figures together. This gives the total mixture
required in the specified units of weight.

Express the diagonal figures as percentages of this total to give

the percentages of maize and soybean meal needed to give the
desired ration, as follows:
NB: A defect about this method is as the minerals a vitamins
are ignored and again this type of ration formulate is
expensive.

Maize (9% CP) 25 = Maize=25/36 x 100

20 = 69.4%

Soybean meal (45%CP) 11= SBM = 11/36 x 100

TOTAL36 =30.6%

In this case then it will require 69.4% maize and 30.6% soybean meal to
formulate the necessary diet.
 RATION FORMULATION

PEARSON SQUARE METHOD:

•Used when 2 feedstuffs are required.
•Example: Formulate a 100kg diet containing
20% CP with the following ingredients.

FEED %CP

Maize 9

Soya bean meal 45

Maize (9%) 25
20

20

SBM (45%) 11
36

Maize = 25 X 100kg SBM = 11 X 100kg

36 36
= 69.4kg = 30.6kg

Check
CP of maize = 9 X 69.4 SBM = 45 X 30.6
100 100
= 6.246%CP = 13.77%CP

Total CP = CP of Maize + CP of SBM

= 6.246 + 13.77
= 20%
Two or more ingredient using Pearson square
Ingredient %CP
Maize 9
Wheat bran 16
Concentrate 40

Farmer wants maize and WB in a ratio of 3:1.

Solve:

Separate the feeds into two groups

Energy (Maize + WB)
Protein (Concentrate)
• Maize = 3 x 9 WB = 1 x 16
= 27 = 16
Total of Mixture (27 +16) = 43

AVG CPmixture = 43 = 10.75%

4

Mixture (10.75%) 20

20

Conc. (40.00%) 9.25

29.25
Mixture = 20.00 X 100kg Concentrate = 9.25 X 100kg
29.25 29.25
= 68.38kg = 31.62kg
Check
CP of mixture = 10.75 X 68.38 Conc. = 40 X 31.62
100 100
= 7.35%CP = 12.65%CP

Total CP = CP of Mixture + CP of Concentrate

= 7.65 + 12.65
= 20%

Maize contribution from the mixture

Maize %CP = 3 X 7.65kg = 5.74
4
Wheat bran (WB) contribution from the mixture
WB %CP = 1 X 7.65 = 1.91
4

2. ALGEBRAIC METHODS
•Simultaneous equations: The amount of ingredients are the
unknowns.

•Example: Balance a 100kg diet so it contains 16% CP using

grain sorghum (9.5%CP) and SBM (49%CP).

Solve:
X = % of SBM in mix.
Y = % of grain sorghum in mix.
X + Y = 100 Eqn.1 for total amount of
each feedstuff
0.49X + 0.095Y = 16 Eqn.2 for CP.
Multiply eqn.1 by 0.095
0.095X + 0.095Y = 9.5 Eqn.3
Subtract eqn.3 from eqn.2
0.395X = 6.5 Eqn.4
Make X the subject in eqn.4
X = 6.5 = 16.46%
0.395
Substitute X in eqn.1 i.e. “amount equation”
0.49(16.46) + Y = 100
8.07 + Y = 100

Y = 91.93%

•This means that the % of SBM (X) in the

mixture is 8.07% and the % of grain sorghum
(Y) in the mixture is 91.93%.
3. TRIAL AND ERROR METHOD:
•Use for more than two or three ingredients
•Example: Formulate a 100kg diet so it contains 20%
CP with the following ingredients.
Ingredients % CP Quantity
Maize 9 50 60
Wheat bran 16 20 25
Soyabean 45 15 5
meal
Fish meal 55 13 8
Vitamin- 0 1 1
premix
Oyster shells 0 0.5 0.5
• Maize = 9 X 50 = 4.5
100

Wheat bran = 16 X 20 = 3.2

100

SBM = 45 X 15 = 6.75
100

FM = 55 X 13 = 7.15
100 21.60%

• NB: Since the %CP of 21.60% is more than the 20%CP

that you are looking for, you have to adjust the quantity
of the ingredients until you get the 20% that you are
looking for.
• In this example, he wants maize and wheat bran
in the ratio of 3 to 1. Thus the average protein in
the mixture of maize and wheat bran will be:

• Maize = 3 x 9 = 27 and wheat bran = 1 x 16 = 16

• Total = 43. Therefore average crude protein of

mixture = 43/4 = 13.25% CP

• The Pearson square can now be drawn using the

above mixture and the concentrate.
Guidelines In Ration Formulation

Feed intake as a percent of body weight based on DM content

of feeds

Horses; 1.5-2.5 Swine;2.0-6.0 Dairy heifer; 2.0-2.5

Beef cattle;2.0-3.0 Sheep/goats; 3.0-4.0 Dairy cow; 2.0-3.5

Special consideration in ruminant ration formulation

For full feeding in ruminants 1% of body weight as concentrate
Common salt is a must in all livestock rations.
For mature ruminants,
•roughage is obligatory in all rations and usually
satisfied when grazing is practised.

•Feed at least 1% of body weight as DM from forage.

•Objective: to maximize the use of forages as against

concentrates.
 Expected maximal daily forage DM consumption of ruminants1

Forage quality DM intake as % BW Examples of forages

Excellent 2.5 Alfalfa hay (prebloom) 90%
DM

Good 2.0 Alfalfa haylage (45% DM)

Corn silage (30%)

poor 1.5 Mature alfalfa hay(90%DM

Maize fodder (90%DM)

1Figuresapply to forage fed as sole food.

Values are lower if forages are mixed, e.g. poor alfalfa hay plus excellent hay

Haylage: silage made from partially dried grass

Groupings of ruminants according to nutrient requirements*

Protein / Energy Reqt Beef cattle Sheep Dairy Cattle

Low Breeding bulls, Mature rams Mature bulls

Older finishing Poor milk yielders

Cattle

Medium Finishing yearling Bred ewes Replacement

Cattle, weaned finishing lambs heifers.
Calves Good yield cows

High Finishing cattle Early weaned Lambs, High yield cows,

lactating Ewes, diary calves
Finishing Lambs
High quality forage will generally be adequate for the low requirement group while
some concentrate supplementation will be needed for the other group
Some sources of Nutrients
Energy: cereal grains like maize, wheat barely, oats, and rice
Tubers including cassava, potato, yams
Animal fats/vegetable oils
Protein:fishmeal, vegetable oil cakes (soybean meal, groundnut cake, copra
cake etc), brewer’s spent yeast.
Fiber: Cereal byproducts (rice bran, wheat barn, maize bran, cassava peels,
brewer’s grains
Statement of requirements
Protein: Percent of diet
Grams per day
Per cent of total protein in the diet (for NH acids only)
2
Energy: Kilocalories per kg diet
Megajoules per kg diet (MJ = 238 kilocalories)

Vitamins: International units or IU (also USP United States

Pharmacopoeia units) Parts per million
Milligrams
• FEEDSTUFFS
The raw materials that are converted into animal cells,
tissues, organs, and products.
Or
The component of a ration that serves some useful
function.
Several feedstuffs abound therefore discussion of feedstuff
must be made on the basis of groups or types.
NRC has used the feedstuff numbering system
(International Feed Number – 6 digit number) to
effect the groupings or identify feedstuffs.
The first digit in the IFN identifies the feed type as one of the
following

• Dry forages and roughages: comprises all cut and cured

forages and roughages as well as materials containing >18%
fiber or >35% cell wall constituents. Examples include
straw, hulls and pods.

• Pasture, range plants and forage fed green: all forages

and roughages fed fresh whether cut or not. Includes tree
foliage.

• Silages: green materials resulting from controlled anaerobic

fermentation of high moisture vegetable materials.
• Energy Feeds: materials containing less than 18%crude
fiber, 35% cell wall constituents and 20% crude protein.
cereal grains and their by – products (brans)
roots and tubers including cassava, potato, yam, etc.
• Protein concentrates: contain 20% or more protein, e.g.
fishmeal, soybean meal, groundnut cake, etc.

• Mineral supplements: containing mainly micro minerals

Vitamins supplements: essential vitamins

• Feed additives: non-nutritive compounds added to the food

for other specific purposes like disease treatment. e.g.
antibodies
• The remaining 5 digit in the IFN are classified as

1. Species/ variety/: - Alfafa Corn, soyabean, Oat

2. Part eaten: - Hay Aerial, Seeds Grain

3. Process & Treatment:- Sun cured Ensile Ground Rolled

Solv. Ext.

4. Stage of maturity: - Early bloomed & Well eared

5. Cutting/ crop grade/quality or guarantee: - 3% CF

• Energy Concentrates – These are feedstuff added to a ration
to increase energy density.
Sources of energy in diet: cereals, root crops and animal/plant
lipids
Cereal grains- maize, oats, barely, wheat, rice sorghum millet
Most important sources of energy in animal diets;
Rich sources of carbohydrates, primarily starch.
General characteristics of cereal grains
Dry matter: 80-90% (fresh grain); 12-14% (well-dried)
CP: generally deficient in essential amino acids, - lysine
and methionine also deficient in tryptophan.
Ether extract: very low, from 2-5% only. Lipids are highly
unsaturated (oleic and linolenic)
Crude fiber: variable, low in maize, high in rice and oats due
to presence of hull.
Minerals: Phosphorous in grains largely unavailable due to
complex with phytic acid; other minerals are
present in highly varying amounts.
Vitamins: cereals are generally good sources of vitamin E
and B.
 Cereal by-products
Eg: brewers grains, brewers spent yeast, wheat bran, maize
bran and rice bran.
Cereal by-products are the discarded “waste” resulting from
the industrial processing of cereal grains to produce
human foods.
Characteristics: high fiber content making them poor
sources of energy.
Brewers’ grains insoluble barely residue from the brewery
industry after the extraction of the useful part.
In wet state it contains up to 80% moisture and
is fed as such to pigs and ruminants.
Dried brewers’ grains contain 10% moisture and
are fed to poultry in limited amounts.
Spent (dried) brewers’ yeast: 40-45% CP
Saccharomyces cerevisiae high digestibility and nutritive value.
good source of Vit B complex and P
Low in Calcium is
It can be fed to all farms animals within limits.

Maize bran - by product of maize germ resulting from the

industrial extraction of starch and glucose from corn.
The bran is separated by milling pre-soaked maize in water. A
a result it needs to be well dried to prevent mold growth.
Wheat bran (coarse wheat feed) contains about 11% CF and
15-16% CP. It is the source of fiber in pig and poultry diets in
Ghana.
Rice bran (meal) includes the pericarp, aleurone layer germ and
some endosperm. The proportions of these fractions determine its
composition but generally contains 13% CF equal amount of
crude protein and ether extract. The high oil content may cause
problems with rancidity since most of the oil is unsaturated.
Root crops. Cassava (Manihot esculenta). High in moisture, Low
in protein (1-4%); high in energy and may be comparable to
maize as a source of energy.
Ground cassava can be very dusty. One Characteristic of cassava
is the presence of a potentially toxic cyanoglucosides that yield
hydrocyanate on hydrolysis.
• Animal/vegetable fats are the most concentrated sources of
energy. They are generally added to animal diets to an upper
limit of 5%. They have problems related to rancidity and
mycotoxins infestation. Examples include palm oil,
groundnut oil, lard and tallow.

Protein Concentrates
They are of two origins: vegetable or animal.
Vegetable proteins
derived as cakes or meals from the extraction of oil seeds
Groundnut, palm kernel, coconut, soybean, etc.
Three main industrial methods of oil extraction:
hydraulic (screw press),
expeller and solvent.
1. Hydraulic system - The cake will contain 7-10% residual
oil.
The seed is crushed to give flakes
Flakes are then treated at high temperatures to
reduce the water levels.
Material is made into cakes and pressed to release the
oil.

2. The screw press or expeller method is

similar to the hydraulic but the seed material passes
through a perforated bar having a screw.
Higher pressures in this method reduce the residual oil
level to only about 2-5%.
3. The solvent method is
for material containing no more than
about 30-35% oil.
Solvents ensure a higher rate of oil
extraction and
leave the residue or cake with only
about 1-2% oil.
• General features of vegetable proteins.
Contain up to 95% N as true protein with
high digestibility ranging from 70-90%
BVs are (higher) > cereals, but lower (<) animal proteins.
Generally deficient in various essential amino acids and
thus have low chemical scores (the quality of protein is decided
by that aa which is in greatest deficit when compared to the
standard).
The amino acids lysine, methionine, and cystine.
Lysine:Egg-7.2;Wheat-2.7% CS for wheat protein =2.7/7.2. The
Higher the better
Deficiencies of amino acids means that when used with
cereal grains, they must be supplemented with animal protein
or synthetic amino acids.
Soybean meal
is one of the most commonly used vegetable proteins in
animal nutrition;
of high quality , contains all the essential amino acids
although methionine and cystine are low.
Raw soybean contains the antitrypsin factor which must be
inactivated by heating for non-ruminants.
It is also, deficient in B complex vitamins and vitamin K.
Soybean contains the estrogenic compound, genistein -
isoflavone found in soy products that is a possible natural
cancer preventive.
Formula: C15H10O5. BV: represents the proportion of
absorbed food protein that is retained for body functions
Groundnut (Peanut) meal
Extracted by the expeller method
May contain up to 10% oil. The fresh kernels yield 30-60%
oil.
Limiting in lysine while cystine and methionine are low;
it is also low in calcium and B vitamins.
Infested with molds (mycotoxins) if not properly stored.
When infested with Aspergillus flavus, a metabolite called
aflatoxin is produced which has toxic effects on liver (liver
damage and necrosis, etc) and may lead to death in severe
cases.
Coconut (copra) cake
Residue from the processing of coconuts to produce coconut
oil for human use.
It can contain up to 7-10% oil that makes it easily subject to
rancidity and mold colonization in storage.
It is low in lysine and histidine.
The fiber level is high, about 11-12%.
Copra cake is recommended in ruminant diets to
increase milk fat content.
For Monogastric species it should normally not exceed
5-10% of the diet.
Palm kernel cake from industrial extraction of palm
kernel oil is
relatively low in protein (only 20%) but the protein
quality is high, but it is limiting in methionine. Its low
palatability and high fiber level of up to 15% limit its
use in Monogastric diets.
Recommended limit of incorporation is 10-20% of diet
for these species.
In ruminants it apparently increases butter fat levels.
Cottonseed cake
contains protein of high quality
Low in cystine, lysine and methionine . With Lysine being
the first limiting amino acid.
It has a high P: Ca ratio (6:1) and attention must be paid to
calcium levels in diets containing CSC.
The use of CSC in diets for young Monogastric stock and for
laying chickens requires supplementation with animal
protein, calcium, vitamins A and D,
CSC is not readily consumed by pigs and poultry because
it tends to be dusty. Cotton seed cake contains variable
quantities (0.3 – 20g/kg DM) of the toxic compound,
gossypol, a polyphenolic substance.
Symptons –toxicity-
anorexia, emaciation and death.
Death may result from acute and chronic effects.
2 forms of Gossypol
the free – toxic and bound forms.
For poultry and pigs it is generally accepted that the level of
free gossypol should not exceed 50-100 kg/tonne.
In laying chickens even low levels of free gossypol may cause
an olive discoloration of the yolk if eggs are stored.

Gossypol may be inactivated by the use of ferrous sulfate.

•
Animal Protein Sources – fishmeal, Meat meal, Blood meal
& meat n bone meal
of higher quality than vegetable ones,
but are also more expensive.
Fishmeal is a high CP concentrates 50% - 70%.
highly digestible (95%)
excessive heat effects digestibility as well as
nutritive value.
It excellent source of lysine, methionine,
tryptophan, Ca & P
rich in B vitamins.
Limitation :high cost.
Laying chickens, level >15% causes to fishy odour
of eggs.
Meat meal Product from grinding and drying of animal
carcasses less the hooves and horns;
60-70% CP with about 3-12% fat.
Limitation: Poor processing, it its can be a source of infection
and disease.

Meat-and-bone meal
45-55% crude protein
mixture of meat and bone meal.
thus a good source of Ca, P, Mn. and B complex vitamins.
Blood meal
drying the blood of slaughtered animals and poultry
The product is made by passing steam through the blood
until its temperature reaches 100o C;
high T0sterilizes the product
causing a clot.
The clot is drained, put under pressure (to release any serum)
and then dried with steam and finally ground.
Blood meal 80% CP and
rich ysine, methionine, cystine, Arginine
and leucine.
Poor in isoleucine.
Its aas are unbalanced and is lowly digestible and is lowly
palatable.
Blood meal - reduces the performances of poultry;
it is not to be used in diets for growing stock.
The upper limit of use for old birds is only 5% of
the diet

Single-cell proteins
produced when single cell organisms like bacteria and yeasts
are grown in fermentation vats.
Single-cell proteins contain varying amounts of nutrients,
but bacteria proteins contains higher levels of S-amino acids
and lower lysine than yeast proteins.
Non-proteins Nitrogen Sources – Urea, thiourea, biuret
ammonium salts of organic acids,
NPN compounds - important sources of nitrogen for
ruminant only.
Pigs and poultry - limited ability handle them. By far the
most important member of the group is urea.
Urea: 47% N or 29% CP.
Feed urea contains an inert conditioners to ensure its free flow.
Urea -broken down in rumen urease NH3 + CO2.

If the release is too Rapid release of products lead

excessive amounts being absorbed causing either a wastage or
even toxicity.
Conditions to satisfy when urea is being fed
• give in small amount to encourage slow release of ammonia
and to facilitate its use in microbial protein synthesis;
• used as a supplement in low protein diets
• Diets should contain readily fermentable carbohydrate
sources to promote microbial protein formation and also to
reduce rumen pH.
• Urea should normally not form more than 33% of dietary
nitrogen supply (excess may lead to deficiencies of sulfur-
amino acids)
• Poultry waste/manure is a satisfactory source of nutrients for
ruminant animals, but there is a great variability in nutrient
contents depending on whether it is form broilers or layers and
the type of housing (deep litter or cages, etc).
It is generally high in ash, low in energy and digestibility and may
contain up to 35% crude protein, but the nitrogen is largely in the
form of uric acid which must first be converted to urea then
ammonia to be useful.
Low rate of conversion and explains the low ammonia toxicity of
poultry waste.
• The Ca: P ratio in layer waste is wide (3:1); that of broilers is
almost 1:1.
The use of poultry waste has been hindered by
aesthetic; human health considerations, e.g. the presence of
disease organisms, pesticides and drug residues.
•
• Grasses - the grain cereals, sugar cane and bamboo.
• The grasses (Graminae) - are the main source of food for
herbivores and thus are the foundation of the livestock
industry.
Grasses occur in nature either as
components of natural grasslands or as
cultivated species.
They may also occur as mixed or pure swards.

Vary widely in their nutrient content which depends

species of grass, degree of maturity,
climatic environment, grazing practices,
application of fertilizers,
Composition of grass
Moisture: 60 – 80%
Proteins: as low as 3% in mature wilted grass and as high as
30% in green, young and fertilized pastures.
Crude fiber: 20 – 40% Lipids: less than 4%
Soluble carbohydrates: 4-30% Cellulose: 20-30%
Hemicellulose: 10-30%

The N in grasses is largely in the form of true protein and

declines with the maturity of the species, although the amino
acid proportions do not show much change with age.
Grass proteins tend to be rich in Arginine, lysine and glutamic
acid.
The NPN of grasses may be important with respect to nitrate
toxicity.
Nitrate from grasses is converted or reduced to nitrite in the
rumen. The nitrate then oxidizes ferrous ions in hemoglobin
to ferric (Fe++) which is incapable to carry oxygen to body
tissues.
Symptoms, include trembling, rapid respiration and death.
CAUSE: sudden intake of pasture high in nitrates.

Factors influencing the nutritive value of grasses:

stage of maturity, climate, edaphic factors, stocking
rates, use of fertilizers, etc.
The stage of growth or maturity is the single most important
factor affecting the nutrient composition and thus the
nutritive value of grasses.
With age proportion of structural carbohydrates and lignin
(crude fiber) increases and there is a concurrent decrease in
level of protein, ash, calcium, and other nutrients.
There is an important decline in digestibility reflecting a
change in leave: stem ratios.

Young grasses - stems are more digestible than the leaves, but
reverses as forage matures;
because stems constitute an increasing portion of the total
dry matter of mature grasses, it exerts a much greater
effect on digestibility than the leaves.
Temperate grasses receives evenly distributed rainfall and thus
grow and mature more slowly;
Tropical grasses have more restricted rainfall patterns and grow
more rapidly in the rainy seasons with consequent declines
in protein and other nutrients and increases in non-starch
polysaccharides.

Well-fertilized grasses will have higher levels of nitrogen and

other nutrients resulting from absorption from the soil.

Overstocking leading to overgrazing has deleterious /

adverse effects on nutrient availability.
• Preservation methods
Silage
Silage is simply the material produced when a high-moisture
crop is subjected to controlled fermentation in a silo.
2 main methods: the ordinary process and the acid process.
In the ordinary process, native bacteria present - ferment the
soluble CHO to yield lactic acid with a pH of 3.8-4.2. Such
silage is described as being well preserved and the lactic acid
forms 8-12% of the silage dry matter.
Conditions to be satisfied to produce such silage:
Presence of adequate amounts of easily fermentable
carbohydrates to produce lactic acid
Anaerobic conditions in the silage material
dry conditions within the silo
Where there is inadequate supply of carbohydrates or where
water wets the silage,
there may be a secondary clostridial fermentation which
degrades lactic acid to butyric acid;
in addition proteolytic clostridia hydrolyze amino acids to
ammonia, organic acids and carbon dioxide with pH rising to
as high as 5.0 resulting in poorly preserved silage.

In the acid process a mixture of acids usually

hydrochloric and sulfuric is added to the herbage material
to lower the pH to less than 4.0 .
 Problems
Very expensive and the risk from acid handling
Factors affecting the nutritive value of silage
chemical changes within the silage material,
the species of crop ensiled and the
degree of seepage or effluent.
2kinds of chemical changes that occur in the silage:
changes before ensiling and
those occurring post-ensiling.
Pre-ensiling Changes,
plant enzymes under anaerobic conditions, elicit - educe
respiratory breakdown of plant sugars to yield CO2 water
and heat.
The rise in temperature leads to overheating resulting in dark
brown or black mass.
The post-ensiling changes Involve anaerobic bacterial
fermentation of sugars and other chemical
constituents of the forage.

Fulfilled conditions, lactic acid is produced leading to well-

preserved silage. - has
Or In a well preserved silage;
small amounts of acetic acid and little butyric acid, which
occurs only in poorly preserved silage.
A major portion of the protein is broken down to form
amino acids, but in
Poorly preserved silage,
such breakdown may result in amines and toxic products.
Occurrence of acetic acid and butyric acid – inadequate CHO,
clostr. fermen
Things to consider in Silage production
1. The type of crop is important as it determines moisture
content and the amounts of soluble carbohydrates.
2. Crops should be cut at the right stage of growth, not too
young or too mature.
Silage production results in the production of a liquid
effluent,which drains out of the mass carrying away essential
nutrients.
The amount of effluent is affected largely by the moisture con-
tent of the crop and is worsened by rain getting to the silage.
•
Haymaking - another method for preserving green forages that
can be utilized as animal feed in lean period.
Aims
1 to reduce the moisture content of the material to low enough
levels (generally less than 20%) so that plant and microbial
enzymes are inhibited in their ability to hydrolyze essential
nutrients in the cut material
2. to facilitate storage,
Hay is stored either in bales or stacks.
In developing countries haymaking is dependent on the
prevalence of sunny weather since rapid drying ensures the
retention of essential nutrient in the mass.
In industrialized countries, machine drying is a very important
consideration.
The use of heat in the drying process may results in nutrients
loss depending on a variety of factors;
weather conditions , type of crop,
stage at harvesting, handling equipment,
plant enzymes, enzymes of microbial origin, etc.

Under dry, sunny and windy weather rapid drying of the

green material reduces the losses of nutrients to a minimum.

During normal drying some insoluble carbohydrates and

protein compounds are hydrolyzed by respective enzymes
to simpler units (e.g. fructose from polysaccharides and
amino acids and peptides from proteins).
 wet weather and prolonged drying may compound these and
results again in
leaching leading to a decline in hay quality due to losses of
sugars, amino acids, minerals and vitamins with the resultant
increase in the fiber fraction of the hay.
Prolonged drying as a result of poor weather also promotes the
activity of bacteria and fungi as illustrated by moldy hay.
Oxidative destruction of nutrients occurs in the drying process.
Vitamins are particularly susceptible to heat and it has been
estimated that carotene content may be reduced by as much as
90% if not more.
Leaves dry up more quickly than stems and tend to become
easily broken if handled. Loss of leaves will inevitably reduce
the nutritive value of hay since the leaves tend to be more
nutritive than the stems.
The nutritive value of hay is primarily determined
stage of growth at the time of harvest.
Immature crops generally give better quality hay than
mature plants.
plants species yield hays of differing nutritive quality and
legumes make better hays than grasses or cereals.
If hay is not properly stored further losses of nutrients can
occur especially if moisture levels are high and storage
temperatures are high,
High moisture levels further enzymes hydrolysis of soluble
sugars and proteins occur
High temperature may not only damage proteins, but may also
cause a fire in the stored stack or bales.
Hay preservatives (propionic acid) may be used to prevent or
inhibit the growth of mycotoxins especially in high-moisture
stored hay.
The main chemical used is propionic acid.

Treated chaff and straws in ruminant nutrition

• Straws and chaff have been as supplementary feeds for
ruminants for a long time. They suffer from being high in
cell wall constituents (fiber) and associated lignin and thus
of low nutritive value.
• Chaff is the husk left after the grains are removed in the
thresher while straw consists of the leaves and stem left
behind after the removal of ripe fruits of cereals (and
legumes?). The main straws are maize,rice, wheat, barely,
oat and rye.
Improvement of Poor quality straw chemical treatment with
alkali, anhydrous ammonium hydroxide and urea.
Chemical treatment aims to break the bonds between lignin
and cellulose or hemicellulose (lignocellulose) thereby
freeing the carbohydrates to be hydrolyzed by microbial
cellulases.
Constraint :alkali trt (sodium hydroxide) requires washing to
remove the residual alkali causing some loss of soluble
nutrients.
Ammonia trt not only improves digestibility of straw but also
adds protein or nitrogen to the straw, has fungicidal
effects and avoids the need for washing since the ammonia
escapes rapidly on exposure to air.
.
• Urea also contributes ammonia to the straw, but is
generally less effective in improving digestibility than
alkali and ammonia. In addition the straw must
contain enough urease enzyme to convert urea to
ammonia
FEED ADDITIVES
Non-nutritive compounds added to rations of animals to
perform an assortment of functions.
E.g. growth promotion (growth stimulants),
disease treatment/preventing,
improved food utilization,
increased shelf-life of and
modification of finished products.
Mode of Administration:
through the diet, drinking water, as pills or as implants.
The use of such compounds is strictly regulated by law in
advanced countries
Growth Stimulants
• Added to feeds to improve the rate of growth,
feed conversion efficiency and the
yield of useful produces like meat, milk and eggs.
Growth stimulators include
antibodies, hormones,
arsenicals, tranquilizers and CuSo4

Antibiotics chemical products synthesized by microbes to

inhibit the growth of or even kill other microbes.
Beneficial effects of antibiotics
improved feed consumption, improved FCR,
reduced incidence of diseases, increased growth rate
and more uniform growth pattern.
How these benefits achieved through a complex of actions.
Reduce or eliminate the activity of disease organisms inducing
sub-clinical disease.
Eliminate bacteria that produce harmful toxins.
Stimulate the growth of microbes that produce unidentified
growth factors.
Inhibit growth of microbes that competes with host animal
for nutrients.
Increase the intestinal ability to absorb nutrients from the
digestive tract.
Low levels of antibiotics are added to the feed to
improve growth and efficiency of utilization. For therapeutic
use however higher levels are required.
Examples of antibiotics are erythromycin, tetracycline,
penicillin, streptomycin, bacitracin, neomycin,
The best effects are obtained in situations where farm
sanitations compromised.

Hormones are mainly estrogens, androgens, progestogens,

growth hormone and thyroid extracts.
Thyroxin controls growth and metabolism.
Commercial preparations (iodinated casein) have been used
to increase growth in young calves and pigs and milk yield
in diary cattle.
Estrogens have been used in the chemical caponisation of
cocks to improve rate of gain, better carcass appearance and
better-feed conversion.
 Androgens stimulate proteins anabolism in cattle and other
animals.
DES or diethylstilbestrol was probably the first hormonal
product to be used as a growth stimulant. It reduced carcass
fat while improving growth rate. It use was banned since it
had carcinogentic effects in humans.
Bovine and porcine somatotropins (growth hormone) are
also used in North America.

Arsenicals are arsenic compounds, which promote growth via

intestinal microflora. Examples are arsinilic acid, sodium
arsanilate.
Copper sulfate is a cumulative poison and is poorly tolerated
by sheep.
Tranquilizers are used to reduce excessive movement or
activity in animals, e.g. chlorpromazine reserpine.
Medicaments
• Medicinal preparations include coccidiostats, dewormers
(antihelminthics), other drugs to treat or prevent diseases.
Coccidiostats include amprocox, coccistop and narcox
while dewormers include ivermectin, piperazine,
albendazole, etc.

Other additives - carotenoid pigments, flavoring agents,

antioxidants and anti- fungal agents.
Antioxidants are added to feeds to protect against destruction
of unsaturated fatty acids and fat soluble vitamins. Examples
of antioxidants are ethoxyquin, betahydroxyl toluene or
BHT.
Flavouring agents supposedly make feeds more palatable and
are recommended for changing feeds.

Pigmenting agents provides yellow color to broiler skins and

egg yolk ( preferred in several societies). SOURCES Green
leaves and vegetables

Antifungal agents (propionic acid, copper sulfate and gentian

violet)
protect feeds against infestation by molds which otherwise
infect the digestive tract or respiratory tract and cause disease
in animals and man by producing toxic metabolities.
Aspergillus and fusarium are the most important.
They include propionic acid, copper sulfate and gentian violet.
• Buffering agents include magnesium oxide (MgO), calcium
carbonate (CaCo3) and sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3).

• FOOD PREPARATION AND PROCESSING

Food processing has a variety of purposes:
To alter physical form or particle size
To preserve
Isolate specific parts.