Animal Feed Formulation

1
 Functions of Rations
• Must be considered when determining
nutrient requirements
• Functions include
– Maintenance
– Growth
– Fattening
– Production
– Reproduction
– Power generation

2
Standard may be given separately for each
function of the animal or as overall figures
for the combined function.
• The requirement of dairy cows are often
given separately for maintenance and for milk
production
• But for growing chicken are for maintenance
and growth combined.
• In some cases the requirements for single
functions are not known; this is true
particularly of vitamins and trace element
requirments.
 Maintenance
• Primary use of nutrients is to maintain life
• Animals must have energy for the functioning
of the heart, breathing and other vital body
processes or the basal metabolism
• Energy is also needed to maintain body
temperature
• The ration must also provide protein, vitamins
and minerals, fatty acids to replace those that
are naturally lost
• About ½ of the ration fed is needed for
maintenance
4
 Growth
• Nutrients can only be used for growth after
maintenance requirements are met
• Animals mature by growing
– Larger species mature slower
• Growth rate of large animals is slower than
that of smaller animals

5
 Fattening

• Nutrients that are not used for

maintenance or growth may be used
for fattening
• Fat is stored into the tissues of the body
• Fat within the muscle is called marbling
– Marbling makes meat juicy and good tasting
• The object of fattening is to obtain the right amount of
fat in the muscle without getting too much fat
• Feeds that are high in carbohydrates and fats are used
for fattening 6
 Production
• Cows, swine, horse, sheep, goats all produce
milk to feed their young
• Dairy goats and cows produce milk for human
use as well
• Chickens produce eggs
• Sheep and goats produce mohair
• All this production requires nutrients. The
nutrients depend on the kind of production

7
 Reproduction
• Requires proper nutrition
• Animals may become sterile
• Extremely important for pregnant animals
– Most of the fetus’s growth takes place during the
last third of the pregnancy
– Additional amounts of nutrients are needed
during pregnancy

8
 Work
• Horses-riding, driving, oxen ploughing
• Energy needed for work comes from carbohydrates,
fats, extra protein
• Other needs of the body are met before nutrients
are available for work
• Animal will use fat stored in the body for work if the
ration does not supply enough
• Extra salt is also needed due to animals sweating

9
Balancing Rations

10
 General Principles
• Must meet the nutritional needs
• Nutrient allowance should be met as close as
possible
– Not more than 3% below the requirement

11
 Dry Matter
• Must have a certain amount in the ration
• If not the animal will be hungry
• The digestive system will not function properly
• Also an upper limit that varies with the animal being
fed and its size
• Total dry matter in the ration of a full fed animal
should not be more than 3% above its need

12
 Protein
• Measured by the total protein (TP) need of
the animal
• Digestible protein may also be used to balance
the ration
• Essential amino acids must be included when
balancing a ration for nonruminants
• Acceptable to allow 5-10% more protein in the
ration than the animal needs

13
 Energy
• Four methods of measurement
– Digestible Energy (DE)
– Metabolizable Energy (ME)
– Net Energy (NE)
• Gross energy of feed is measured in a lab using a
bomb calorimeter
– The feed is burned completely and the total amount of
heat released from the burning is the gross energy

14
 Digestible Energy
• The gross energy of the feed minus the energy
remaining in the feces of the animal after the
feed is digested

15
 Metabolizable Energy
• For Ruminants
– The gross energy in the feed minus the energy
found in the feces, gaseous products of digestion
and urine
• For Non Ruminants
– The gross energy in the feed minus the energy
found in the feces and urine

16
 Net Energy
• Metabolizable energy minus the heat increment
• Energy used for
– Maintenance only NEm
• Amount of energy used to keep the animal’s energy in equilibrium-
there is no net gain or loss of energy in the animal’s body tissues
– Maintenance plus production NEm+p
– Production only NEp
• Amount of energy need above the amount used for maintenance
that is used for work, tissue growth, fat production, fetus growth,
or milk, egg, or wool production and so on

17
1. GE (Gross Energy)
– E in faeces
2. DE (Digestible Energy)
– E in urine(+gas)
3. ME (Metabolisable Energy)
– E in heat losses
– (heat increment)
4. NE (Net Energy)
maintenance: production:
- body functions - growth
- body temperature - milk
- tissue replacement - eggs
• movements - power (draught)
 Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN)
• Total of the digestible protein, digestible nitrogen-
free extract, digestible crude fiber and 2.25 X’s the
digestible fat
• Gives a measure of the total energy value of the feed
when it is fed
• Varies with the class of animal to which it is fed
• Should not be more than about 5% more than what
the animal needs

19
Balancing Calcium and Phosphorus
• Important in balancing rations
• Should be between a 1:1 and 2:1 ratio
• The ratio is more important than the total amount
being fed
– Total Ca and P are often more than needed when other
requirements are met
• Other mineral needs are usually not considered and
can be met with trace-mineralized salt

20
 Vitamins
• Vitamin A is taken into account when balancing the
ration
• Other vitamin needs are added with out calculating
the vitamin content of the feed
• Vitamin A will often be more than needed but is not
harmful
• Vitamin deficiencies can occur in cattle and sheep
during pregnancy if low quality legume hay is fed
– Vitamin supplements should always be added to
pregnancy rations

21
 Feeding standard
• Statement of the amount of nutrients
required by animals are described by the
general term is called feeding standards
• Two other terms used in the same context are
nutrient requirement and allowance.
• The requirement is a statement of what
animal on average require for a particular
function
 Maintenance requirements for
(lactating) adult dairy cows
Body DM TDN(g/ DCP Ca P
Weight (kg/day) day) (g/day) (g/day) (g/day)
(kg)
350 7-11 3000 280 14 11
400 8-13 3300 300 16 13
450 9-16 3600 320 18 14
500 10-17 3900 340 20 15
550 10-18 4200 360 21 16
600 10-19 4400 380 22 17
650 10-20 4700 400 23 18
 2. Allowances for growth (pregnant &
lactating heifers)
• young heifers, calving at approx. 2 - 2.5 years
of age should be given an extra allowance of
1000 g TDN / day and 250 g dCP / day
• older heifers, calving at approx. 2.5 - 3 years
of age should be given an extra allowance of
600 g TDN / day and 200 g dCP / day
 Feeding standards for Growth and
development:
• Increase body Rate is quite high in young animals
and declines with age
• Nutrient requirements are quite high for the growth
function.
• During the foetal period and during birth to puberty,
the rate of growth accelerate, after puberty it
decelerate and reach a very low value as the
matured weight is approached.
• Sigmoid Growth curve
 Feeding standards for Lactation:
• Increase production increases nutrient requirements
for energy, protein, minerals, vitamins and water.
Body DM TDN(g DCP Ca P
Weight (kg/da /day) (g/day) (g/day (g/day
(kg) y) ) )
350 7-11 3000 280 14 11
400 8-13 3300 300 16 13
450 9-16 3600 320 18 14
500 10-17 3900 340 20 15
550 10-18 4200 360 21 16
600 10-19 4400 380 22 17
650 10-20 4700 400 23 18
 For each kg of milk the following
nutrients are required:
Milk Fat grams grams grams Ca grams P
% TDN DCP
3.0 280 54 2.5 1.8
3.5 305 57 2.6 1.9
4.0 330 60 2.7 2.0
4.5 355 63 2.8 2.1
5.0 380 66 2.9 2.2
• If a cow weigh 350kg and give
milk20l/day with fat content of 5%
• If a cow weigh 450kg and give milk
10li/day with 5% of fat
• Calculate the maintainance and
lactating requirement of these two
cows
• Feeding standards for Reproduction: Less
critical than growth and lactation. Under
feeding of protein or energy will delay sexual
maturation
• Feeding standards for Work: Energy is
primary nutrient that is increased
 layer

Kcal CP C CF Lys Met M+ Ca p

fat h C
275 16.5 8.00 8.00 0.70 0.28 0.60 3.70 0.80
0
 Formulation of Feeds
 Feed formulation: the preparation of
nutritionally-complete diets for feeding animals
 Least-cost feed formulation:
 a feed formula that is both nutritionally-complete and,
 with a minimum ingredient cost
 Manual feed formulations (pearson square,
algebiric, trial error)
 Now-a-days is developed and completed
through the use of computers using linear-
programming software
-Nutrient composition (proximate + detergent fiber,
minerals, vitamins) basic for formulation of 32
feeds
 Least-cost Formulation

• Least-cost feed formulations require that the

following information be provided:
 cost of feed ingredients
 nutrient content of feed ingredients
 nutrient requirement of the animal
 availability of the nutrient to the animal
 minimum-maximum restrictions on levels
33
 Least-cost Formulations
 Costs of feed ingredients and nutrient content are
fairly available for most commercial feedstuffs
 costs can be evaluated on a daily basis
 nutrient requirements are fairly well known
 the most critical piece of information regards
digestibility/availability of nutrients within the feed
ingredient
 various indices: digestible energy (DE),
metabolisable energy (ME), apparent protein
digestibility (APD), etc.
 these can be set in formula with restrictions
 Expressing the Nutrient & Energy Content
(DM/as-is-bases, Air dry basis) 34
 Expressing the Nutrient & Energy Content
A) Dry matter (DM) basis - The amount contained in
only the DM portion of the feed ingredient/diet, i.e.,
without water.
B) As-is/fed basis - The amount contained in the feed
ingredient/diet as it would be fed to the animal;
including water.
C) Air-dry basis:
1. Usually, assumed to be approximately 90% DM.
2. Most feeds will equilibrate to about 90% DM after a
prolonged, aerobic storage.
3. Air-dry and as-fed basis may be the same for
many common feeds. 35
 Expressing the Nutrient & Energy
Content
1)Percent dry matter?
 Determined by drying a sample to remove all
the moisture, and the weight of the remaining
is expressed as a percent of the original
weight.
 Example - "1.0 g of maize grain is dried and
0.90 g of maize grain remained after drying,"
then:
0.9/1.0*100=90% DM
36
 2/As-Fed Basis Converted to DM Basis

a) Can be converted by:

% Nutrient (as-fed = % Nutrient (DM basis)

basis)
% Feed DM 100% DM

37
 As-Fed Basis Converted to DM Basis
• Example - "Alfalfa silage analyzed to contain 7%
CP on an as-fed basis and contained 40% DM.
What would be the CP content on DM basis?"
• (0.07 ÷ 0.40)*100 = 17.5% CP on DM basis, o

7 = X = 17.5% CP on DM basis
40 100

38
 3/DM Basis Converted to As-Fed
Basis
Can be converted by:
A) Nutrient % on DM basis x % DM in the feed
expressed as decimal fraction = Nutrient % on
as-fed basis
OR
% Nutrient (as-fed = % Nutrient (DM basis)
basis)
% Feed DM 100% DM
39
 3/DM Basis Converted to As-Fed
Basis
• Example 2 - "Alfalfa silage analyzed contain 10%
crude fiber (CF) on a DM basis. If the linseed meal
contains 91% DM, what would be the % CF
expressed on an as-fed basis?“
– 10.0 x 0.91 = 9.1, thus 9.1% on as-fed basis, or

x 10 = 9.1% Crude fiber on as-fed basis

91 100

40
 4/DM basis Converted to Air-Dry Basis

A) DM basis to air-dry basis (90% DM):

 Nutrient % on DM basis x 0.90 = Nutrient
% on air-dry basis
B) As-fed basis to air-dry basis (90% DM):
= (90/ % Feed DM)x Nutrient % on as-fed
basis = Nutrient % on air-dry basis

41
 5/Amount in DM and as-fed?
A) Amount in DM = Amount in as-fed  DM
content (decimal)
B) Amount in DM = X (amount in as-fed)  DM
content (decimal)
Amount in as-fed?
X = Amount in DM/ DM content (Decimal)

42
 6/ Rule of thumb for conversions

A. When converting from "as-fed to DM?"

• 1) The nutrient content will increase.
• 2)The weight will decrease
B. When converting from "DM to as-fed?"
• 1) The nutrient content will decrease.
• 2) The weight will increase.

43
 1.Steps in Balancing a Ration

• Nutrient requirements generally represent

the minimum quantity of the nutrients that
should be incorporated.
• Factors to be considered
– Age
– Breed
– Sex
– Body Size
– Type/intensity of production/reproduction
44
 2.Steps in Balancing a Ration
• Ruminants: • Non ruminants
Determine what feeds same as Ruminant,
are available and list but:
their respective – Dry matter
nutrient compositions – Protein
– Dry matter • Essential AA
– Protein – Energy
– Energy • Essential Fatty acids
– Phosphorus – Phosphorus
– Calcium – Calcium
– Vitamin A – Vitamin A,D, E and B
complex
– Vitamin D if confined
– Minerals

45
 3.Steps in Balancing a Ration
• Feed cost
• Processing Cost
• Transportation Cost
• Storage Cost
• Antioxidant
• Refrigeration Cost
• Nutritive value loss with storage

46
 4.Steps in Balancing a Ration

• Balance a ration that is useable.

– Can they eat that much, can they utilize that source of
the ingredient.
• Limitation of feed ingredients
– Consumption levels
– Limiting values such as: amount of forage that can be
consumed.
– What as percentage of diet
– Existence of Anti-nutritional factors
– They limit intake, digestibility, absorption

47
Ration Characteristics

48
 Ration Characteristics
• Animals need proper nutrition to efficiently produce
meat, milk, eggs, wool, work, etc
• A ration is the amount of feed given to an animal to
meet its needs during a twenty-four hour period
• A balanced ration is one that has all the nutrients the
animal needs in the right proportions and amounts
• Diet refers to the ration without reference to a
specific time period

49
 Palatability
• Ration must taste good
• Mold, insect and weather damage all lower
palatability

50
 Feed & Economics
• Feed accounts for approximately 75% of the
total cost of raising livestock
• Therefore it is necessary to develop rations
that are as economical as possible

51
 Poisonous Plants
• Should not be included in the diet
• Sometimes grow in hay fields or pastures

52
 Balancing for Species and Age
• Ruminants use more roughage than
nonruminants
• Younger animals cannot use as much
roughage either
• Also need to consider the purpose for which
the animal is being fed
– For example fattening animals generally should be
fed less roughage than breeding animals

53
Micronutrients and Feed Additives
• Used in small quantities
• Care needs to be taken to thoroughly mix
these for uniform distribution
• Excessive amounts of micronutrients can be
harmful

54
Functions of the Ration

55
 Functions of Rations
• Must be considered when determining
nutrient requirements
• Functions include
– Maintenance
– Growth
– Fattening
– Production
– Reproduction
– Power generation

56
 Maintenance
• Primary use of nutrients is to maintain life
• Animals must have energy for the functioning of the
heart, breathing and other vital body processes or
the basal metabolism
• Energy is also needed to maintain body temperature
• The ration must also provide protein, vitamins and
minerals, fatty acids to replace those that are
naturally lost
• About ½ of the ration fed is needed for maintenance

57
 Growth
• Nutrients can only be used for growth after
maintenance requirements are met
• Animals mature by growing
– Larger species mature slower
• Growth rate of large animals is slower than
that of smaller animals

58
 Fattening

• Nutrients that are not used for

maintenance or growth may be used
for fattening
• Fat is stored into the tissues of the body
• Fat within the muscle is called marbling
– Marbling makes meat juicy and good tasting
• The object of fattening is to obtain the right amount of
fat in the muscle without getting too much fat
• Feeds that are high in carbohydrates and fats are used
for fattening 59
 Production
• Cows, swine, horse, sheep, goats all produce
milk to feed their young
• Dairy goats and cows produce milk for human
use as well
• Chickens produce eggs
• Sheep and goats produce mohair
• All this production requires nutrients. The
nutrients depend on the kind of production

60
 Reproduction
• Requires proper nutrition
• Animals may become sterile
• Extremely important for pregnant animals
– Most of the fetus’s growth takes place during the
last third of the pregnancy
– Additional amounts of nutrients are needed
during pregnancy

61
 Work
• Horses-riding, driving, oxen ploughing
• Energy needed for work comes from carbohydrates,
fats, extra protein
• Other needs of the body are met before nutrients
are available for work
• Animal will use fat stored in the body for work if the
ration does not supply enough
• Extra salt is also needed due to animals sweating

62
Balancing Rations

63
 General Principles
• Must meet the nutritional needs
• Nutrient allowance should be met as close as
possible
– Not more than 3% below the requirement

64
 Dry Matter
• Must have a certain amount in the ration
• If not the animal will be hungry
• The digestive system will not function properly
• Also an upper limit that varies with the animal being
fed and its size
• Total dry matter in the ration of a full fed animal
should not be more than 3% above its need

65
 Protein
• Measured by the total protein (TP) need of
the animal
• Digestible protein may also be used to balance
the ration
• Essential amino acids must be included when
balancing a ration for nonruminants
• Acceptable to allow 5-10% more protein in the
ration than the animal needs

66
 Energy
• Four methods of measurement
– Digestible Energy (DE)
– Metabolizable Energy (ME)
– Net Energy (NE)
• Gross energy of feed is measured in a lab using a
bomb calorimeter
– The feed is burned completely and the total amount of
heat released from the burning is the gross energy

67
 Digestible Energy
• The gross energy of the feed minus the energy
remaining in the feces of the animal after the
feed is digested

68
 Metabolizable Energy
• For Ruminants
– The gross energy in the feed minus the energy
found in the feces, gaseous products of digestion
and urine
• For Non Ruminants
– The gross energy in the feed minus the energy
found in the feces and urine

69
 Net Energy
• Metabolizable energy minus the heat increment
• Energy used for
– Maintenance only NEm
• Amount of energy used to keep the animal’s energy in equilibrium-
there is no net gain or loss of energy in the animal’s body tissues
– Maintenance plus production NEm+p
– Production only NEp
• Amount of energy need above the amount used for maintenance
that is used for work, tissue growth, fat production, fetus growth,
or milk, egg, or wool production and so on

70
 Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN)
• Total of the digestible protein, digestible nitrogen-
free extract, digestible crude fiber and 2.25 X’s the
digestible fat
• Gives a measure of the total energy value of the feed
when it is fed
• Varies with the class of animal to which it is fed
• Should not be more than about 5% more than what
the animal needs

71
Balancing Calcium and Phosphorus
• Important in balancing rations
• Should be between a 1:1 and 2:1 ratio
• The ratio is more important than the total amount
being fed
– Total Ca and P are often more than needed when other
requirements are met
• Other mineral needs are usually not considered and
can be met with trace-mineralized salt

72
 Vitamins
• Vitamin A is taken into account when balancing the
ration
• Other vitamin needs are added with out calculating
the vitamin content of the feed
• Vitamin A will often be more than needed but is not
harmful
• Vitamin deficiencies can occur in cattle and sheep
during pregnancy if low quality legume hay is fed
– Vitamin supplements should always be added to
pregnancy rations

73
Pearson Square

45

74
 The Pearson Square
• Cannot balance rations by trial and error
• Pearson Square simplifies balancing rations
• Can only use two feeds

75
 Using the Pearson Square

• EXAMPLE
– 2,000 kgs of feed is needed to feed a 100-kg growing
calf. A feeding standards table shows that a 14%
crude protein ration is needed. Corn and Soybean oil
meal (SBOM) are selected as feeds. A feed
composition table shows that corn has 8.9% and
SBOM has 45.8% crude protein on an dry matter
basis. How much corn and soybean oil meal need to
be mixed together for 2,000 kg of feed?

76
 STEP 1
• Draw a square with lines connecting the
opposite corners.

• Write the percent of crude protein (14) in the

center of the square.
14

77
 STEP 2
• Write the feeds to be used and their crude
protein percents at the left hand corners of
the square.
Corn 8.9

14
Soybean
oil meal 45.8
78
 STEP 3
• Subtract the smaller number from the larger,
along the diagonal lines. Write the differences
at the opposite end of the diagonals.
31.8= 45.8-14
Corn 8.9

14
Soybean
oil meal 45.8 5.1=14-8.9
79
 STEP 3
• The difference between the percent protein in the
soybean oil meal and the percent protein in the
ration are the parts of corn needed.
• The difference between the percent protein in the
corn and the percent protein in the ration are the
parts of soybean oil meal neeeded.
• The sum of the numbers on the right equals the
difference in the numbers on the left. This fact is
used as a check to see if the square is set up
correctly.

80
 STEP 3

Corn 8.9 31.8 Parts Corn

14
Soybean
oil meal 45.8 5.1 Parts SBOM

36.9 36.9 81
 STEP 4
• Divide the parts of each feed by the total parts
to find the percent of each feed in the ration
– Corn 31.8/36.9x100=86.2%
– Soybean oil meal 5.1/36.9x100=13.8%

82
 STEP 5
• It is known that 2,000 kgs of the mixture is
needed. To find the kgs of each feed in the
mix, the percent of each feed is multiplied by
the total pounds of the mix
– Corn 2,000 x 0.862= 1,724 kgs
– SBOM 2,000 x 0.138= 276 kgs

83
 STEP 6
• Check the mix to ensure that the protein need is
met. Multiply the kgs of the feed in the it’s percent
protein .
– Corn 1,724 x 0.089= 153 kgs of Corn
– SBOM 276 x 0.458= 126 kgs of SBOM
• Add the pounds of protein together
– 153 + 126 = 279
• Divide by the total weight of the mix
– 279/2,000 x 100= 14%
• The mix is balanced for crude protein content!

84
 C. Pearson square
1) The same example - "Formulate a 12% CP diet using corn (8.8%
CP) and a protein supplement (35% CP), with 3% rye (11.9% CP)
and 7.5% milo (11.0% CP)."
2) Known quantities & fixed amount of CP?
a) 3% Rye + 7.5% milo = 10.5%, thus remaining 89.5% to be
balanced.
b) 0.119 (3) + 0.11 (7.5) = 0.357 + 0.825 = 1.182, or 1.182 lb of CP per
100 lb of diet (or 1.182%) is fixed.
 Thus, the remaining protein (10.818 lb/100 lb of feed or
10.818%) must be balanced with corn and supplement.
c) Need to determine the % CP necessary in corn supplement
combination to provide 10.818 lb/100 lb of feed . . . 10.818/89.5
x 100 = 12.087%.
3) Procedure & check? - See below
85
 Pearson square

• Subtract the smaller number from the larger,

along the diagonal lines. Write the differences at
the opposite end of the diagonals.

Corn 8.8 22.913 parts corn

12.08%
3.287 parts supplement
Supplement 35 %
26.2 total parts
26.2 total parts
Balancing factor
 Pearson square
• 22.913 parts corn/26.2 total parts100 =87.454% corn
• 3.287 parts supplement/26.2 total parts100 = 12.546% supplement
– 89.5 x 87.454% = 78.271 lb corn
– 89.5 x 12.546% = 11.229 lb supplement
• Check?
– 3.00 lb rye  11.9% CP = 0.357 lb CP
– 7.50 lb milo  11.0% CP = 0.825 lb CP
– 78.271 lb corn  8.8% CP = 6.888 lb CP
– 11.229 lb supplement  35.0% CP = 3.930 lb CP
– 100.00 lb diet 12.000 lb CP
87