TABLE OF CONTENTS

Description Page No
List of Notations i
List of abbreviations ii
List of tables iii
List of figures iv
Abstract v
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 objectives of the project 1
1.3 Problem statement 2
1.4 Methodology 2
1.5 Thesis Outline 2
1.6 Literature Review 3
1.7 Project background 5
1.7.1 Single phase induction motor 5
1.7.2 Pulse width modulation 5
1.7.3 Direction control 5
1.7.3 Directional control 6
Chapter 2 INDUCTION MOTOR 7
2.1 Introduction 7
2.2 Three phase induction motor 7
2.3 Single phase induction motor 8
2.3.1 Construction 8
2.3.1.1 Stator 8
2.3.1.2 Rotor 9
2.3.2 Working 9
2.4 Double revolving field theory 9
2.4.1 Why SPWM is not self-starting 10
2.5 Starting of SPIM 10
2.5.1 Split-phase winding motors 10
 2.5.2 Capacitor Start motors 12
2.5.3 Shaded pole motors 13
2.6 Applications and Advantages of SPIM 14
Chapter 3 METHODS OF CONTROLLING SPEED OF SPIM 15
3.1 Introduction 15
3.2 Constant volts/hertz (V/F) control 15
3.3 Vector control 17
3.4 Voltage control 18
3.4.1 Integral cycle control 18
3.4.1.1 Burst fire control 19
3.4.1.2 Single cycle control 19
3.4.2 Phase control 20
3.4.3 PWM control 20
3.5 Discussion 21
Chapter 4 HARDWARE AND ITS WORKING 22
4.1 Introduction 22
4.2 Components 22
4.2.1 Arduino UNO 22
4.2.1.1 ATMEGA 328/p 23
4.2.2 MOC3021 23
4.2.3 ULN2003A 24
4.2.4 16x2LCD 24
4.3 Block diagram of the project 24
4.4 General description of circuit diagram 25
4.4.1 Circuit diagram part by part description 26
4.5 Coding of Arduino 28
Chapter 5 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 32
5.1 Experiments 32
5.1.1 When supply is turned on 32
 5.1.2 Counter clock wise direction and speed control 33
5.1.3 Clock wise direction and speed control 34
5.2 Complete project 35

Chapter 6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK 36

6.1 Conclusion 36
6.2 Future work 36

REFERENCES 37
 LIST OF NOTATIONS

V = Voltage
I = Current
R = Resistance
C = Capacitance
F = Frequency
Te = Torque developed
Vg = Gate voltage
Ig = Gate Current

IL = Load Current

T NF = Off time

TM = Modulation time

I
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AC = Alternating Current

DC = Direct Current

PWM = Pulse Width Modulation

SPIM = Single Phase Induction Motor

SVPWM = Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation

EMF = Electro-Motive Force

RPM = Revolution Per Minute

LCD = Liquid Crystal Display

PIC = Programmable Integrated Circuit

LC = Inductor Capacitor

VSI = Voltage Source Inverter

mA = Milliampere

II
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1: Main components used in the hardware model 28

III
 LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Stator and rotor 08

Figure 2.2 Revolving fields at various instants 09
Figure 2.3: a) circuit diagram of SPIM with starting winding b) phasor diagram 11
Figure 2.4: c) waveforms for auxiliary and main windings current 11
c) d) torque speed characteristic curves with and without auxiliary 13
Figure 2.5: Torque speed characteristic of capacitor start motors 12
Figure 2.6: circuit diagram of capacitor-start-capacitor-run motor 13
Figure 3.1: Torque speed characteristic for constant v/f control 16
Figure 3.2: v/f control circuit diagram 16
Figure 3.3: Vector control of SPIM single-phase half bridge inverter 17
Figure 3.4: Space vector of SPIM 17
Figure 3.5: Voltage control Torque speed characteristics 18
Figure 3.6: Burst fire control 19
Figure 3.7: Waveforms of load voltage with single cycle control 19
Figure 3.8: Phase Control circuit 20
Figure 3.9: PWM waveforms 20
Figure 4.1: Block diagram of the project 24
Figure 4.2: Circuit diagram of the project 25
Figure 4.3: Rectifier 26
Figure 4.4: Aurduini and LCD 26
Figure 4.5: Opto-coupler and TRIAC 27
Figure 4.6: ULN2003A and relay 27
Figure 5.1: Motor in stop position 33
Figure 5.2: Motor running at 15% of the rated speed in counter clock 33
Figure 5.3: Motor running at 30% of the rated speed in counter clock 34
Figure 5.4: Motor running at 15% of the rated speed in clock wise direction 34
Figure 5.5: Motor running at 30% of the rated speed in clock wise direction 35
Figure 5.6: Complete project 35

IV
 ABSTRACT

This work presents speed and direction control of single-phase induction motor. Speed

is controlled through PWM signal generated with Arduino. The effective value of the

voltage applied to the motor is changed by PWM signal. Which in turn changes the

speed of SPIM. Direction of SPIM can be changed by just connecting one terminal of

supply voltage to either side of the capacitor. This terminal is connected to relay, which

adjusts terminal’s position to either side of the capacitor depending on the control signal

given by the user. Finally, rpm and direction of the rotor along with temperature of the

windings are shown on LCD.

V
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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Due to its simplicity and lower cost single phase induction motor is widely used for

domestic purpose. Although their use in big industries is limited, where three phase

induction motors are used, they are must for home and small industries. This project is

basically a control scheme for single phase induction motor. This control scheme

includes speed control and direction control. Some additional features like displaying

rpm of the rotor and temperature of the winding are also added so that the desired rpm

and temperature of the winding can easily be set. The choice of control scheme depends

on the cost, the process and the control needed. Mostly pulse width modulation (PWM)

technique is used to vary the rotational speed of induction motor. whereas direction

control of SPIM is quite easy as it depends on whether the magnetic field due to

auxiliary winding leads or lags the main magnetic field. This angle can be set by making

the current in the auxiliary windings lead or lag to the current in the main windings by

switching the connections of the auxiliary winding while leaving the connections of

main winding unchanged

1.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The objectives of the project are:

• To control the speed of single-phase induction motor by PWM

• To control the direction of rotation
• To display temperature of the windings and rpm of the rotor on screen

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Due to simplicity, rugged construction and economic cost induction motor is commonly

used in small industrial applications. So, to get optimum production, it is necessary to

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control the speed of SPIM. controlling the speed through PWM is considered one of

the best methods available. Manual controls are also available but they are energy

wasting, time consuming and less reliable.

1.4 METHODOLOGY
• Survey of literature
• Designing of Speed controller
• Designing of direction controller
• Development of Hardware model Results

1.5 THESIS OUTLINE

Chapter 2 describes single phase induction motors. Their construction, working and

types.

Chapter 3 gives different speed control techniques of SPIMs.

Chapter 4 contains design details, circuit diagram and Hardware details.

Chapter 5 concludes the whole thesis.

1.6 LITERATURE REVIEW

D.G. Holmes & A. Kotsopoulos (1993) suggest a method to control the speed of SPIM

using a three-phase voltage source inverter (VSI). The both auxiliary and main

windings of SPIM are connected across the bridge. These windings act as an

unbalanced three phase load. A three phase VSI bridge is used in this method. The rating

of the switches is increased by times the motor rated current. This is so because current

from both the windings enter into the center phase. A modulation strategy for supply

frequencies ranging from 0 to motor rated frequency is proposed to get the motor rated

torque at any speed with low slip. This has been verified not only in simulation but also

experimentally.
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Cunha, B. S, et al. (2001) studied the control of SPIM through PIC (programmable

integrated circuit), controlled sinusoidal PWM inverter. along with other controls, this

configuration can also vary the speed of single-phase induction motor via PIC. Without

using microcomputer generation of PWM pulses is the beauty of this configuration [2].

Asghar, M.S.J (1999)., describes here smooth speed control of SPIM through integral

cycle control as: Although ICC (integral cycle control) method of speed control of

SPIM introduces subharmonics in the line, it is better and more rugged as compared to

Ac phase-controlled switching method of speed control, which produces large high

order harmonics. however, discontinuous phase-controlled switching mitigates these

subharmonics appreciably. Combination of phase-controlled switching with ICC is

proposed here. By varying the number of on/ off cycles of supply voltage V, speed of

SPIM can be varied.

Sakina Tabassum, et al. (2017) describe the speed control of SPIM using Arduino with

the controlling objectives PWM and SPWM. Arduino generates the pulses (voltage

pulses), speed is varied by varying the width of these pulses. the width of the pulses is

changed by using inverter. the operating principle of DC-AC inverters is PWM (pulse

width modulation). by using various methods like varying on or off time of the pulses,

width of the gate pulses are controlled in PWM technique [4].

T.pavani, et al. (2017) describe and illustrate the method of speed control of single

phase induction motor using solid state relay. 230v ac is stepped down through

transformer, that stepped down voltage is given to a rectifier. In turn, rectified output is

given to Arduino microcontroller. Considered microcontroller in their project has two

inputs and two outputs in order to control the speed of single-phase induction motor.
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Deniz Yildirim et al. (2008) mentions PWM ac chopper technique to control the speed

of SPIMs and universal motors. Through PWM voltage applied to the motor is changed

and hence the speed of motor is varied in accordance with the applied pulse. In this

method, however, harmonics are generated. To minimize these harmonics a filter is also

added at the input side. This method is simple, effective, and cost effective [6].

Mr. Aung Zaw Latt and Dr. Ni Ni Win (2009) describe here method to design variable

speed drive for SPIM by using controlling frequency. Design aspects, in this drive, are

divided into 4 parts: rectifier, PWM control circuit, driver circuit and Hbridge inverter.

Making a compact sinusoidal PWM inverter for varying the speed of single phase

induction motor is the main objective in this drive. By using H-bridge inverter

(composed of 4 IRF 840), the hardware of this drive is reduced to a minimum. It is

shown experimentally that proposed method can successfully control the speed of of

SPIM.

1.7 PROJECT BACKGROUND

Overview of the project is described in this section

1.7.1Single phase induction motor

Rotating magnetic is produced in three phase induction motors naturally. However, in

single phase induction motors it is not naturally available. What is available is just

fluctuating magnetic field i.e. it increases and decreases in horizontal direction. So

other means are applied to make rotating magnetic field in single phase induction

motors. Unavailability of rotating magnetic field is the cause of not self-starting of this

motor. in order to tackle this issue several techniques including shaded poles, starting
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windings, capacitors etc. are used. Applications of single phase induction motors

include food mixer, hair drier, vacuum cleaners and electric shavers. Their rating is

generally less than one kilowatt hour.

1.7.2Pulse width modulation

As its name indicates PWM is a technique to vary the width of the pulse. In PWM, time

period hence the frequency of the original signal is unchanged, however duty cycle of

the signal is varied. Given voltages are modulated by this technique. Square wave is

the special case of PWM signal, in which on and off times are same. It has 50% duty

cycle. Whereas PWM signal can have any value of duty cycle ranging from 0-100%.

For switching electrical power (on and off), pulse width modulation is an efficient

technique. Pulse width modulation is handy not only in controlling the frequency and

voltage across the load but also in reducing the harmonics in the output voltage and

current. Sinusoidal PWM is one of the most commonly used PWM techniques. Owing

to its on/off nature, PWM works well with digital control. In PWM duty cycle of the

pulse is varied. According to this voltage applied to the motor is also varied and hence

speed is also varied.

1.7.3 Direction control

Controlling direction in single phase induction motor is very easy. Magnetic field in the

auxiliary winding peaks before the magnetic field in the running winding since current
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in the auxiliary winding leads the current in the running winding. The space angle

between these magnetic fields, i.e. whether magnetic field due to auxiliary winding

leads or lags by 900 to magnetic field due main magnetic field, determines the direction

of rotation.
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CHAPTER 2 INDUCTION MOTOR

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Induction motor is also known as asynchronous motor because it moves at speed
lower than synchronous speed. Working principle of Induction motor is Faraday’s
law of electromagnetic induction. Changing magnetic field in the stator induces
EMF in the rotor, which in turn produces current, this current interacts with the
main stator current. This is followed by revolution of the rotor. There are two
types of induction motor: Three phase induction motor and Single-phase
induction motor.

2.2 THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

The stator of the three-phase induction motor consists of three phase field
windings separated from each other by 120. As soon as field windings are
supplied with a 3phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is produced. According
to faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction this rotating magnetic field induces
EMF in rotor conductors. As rotor conductors in induction motor are either short
circuited through end rings or closed through external resistance, current starts
flowing in the rotor conductors. Due to interaction of magnetic fields of stator
and rotor, rotor starts rotating.as the cause of EMF generation in the rotor is
relative speed between stator and rotor, so according to Lenz’s law rotor rotates
in the same direction as that of rotating magnetic field. Three phase induction
motor is also called rotating transformer.
An induction motor cannot achieve synchronous speed. If it does so then no EMF
will be generated in the rotor due to zero relative speed between rotating magnetic
field and rotor. Hence, no current and in turn no torque will be exerted on rotor
to make it rotate.
Three phase induction motor is:
• Self-starting
• Robust
• Economical
• Lacking commutator and brushes, hence less armature reaction.
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2.3 SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR

Unlike three phase induction motor, SPIM is not self-starting. This is because it
does not produce rotating magnetic field naturally. Some starting schemes are
employed to give it initial torque. Once it starts rotating, it does not require extra
stuff.

2.3.1 Construction
Two main parts of single-phase induction motor like are: stator and rotor.

2.3.1.1 Stator of single-phase induction motor

In order to reduce hysteresis loss stator of single-phase induction motor consists
of laminated stampings. Slots are made in stampings for stator windings. To
reduce hysteresis loss stampings are made from silicon steel. As soon as we apply
single phase ac supply to its stator magnetic field is produced, which rotates at
speed Ns given in equation 2.1.

Ns = 120f/p
Where:
f = frequency of supply voltage
P = no of poles on stator.
Stator of single-phase induction motor has two windings:
1. Main field winding
2. Auxiliary winding.
Auxiliary windings are used for starting purpose only. These both windings are
placed at 900 to each other.
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2.3.1.2 Rotor
Rotor construction of SPIM is similar to that of three phase squirrel cage
induction motor. The cylindrical rotor has slots all over its periphery. Slots are
made skewed. skewed construction of slots not only prevents magnetic locking
but also reduces noise and makes the operation of induction motor smooth. The
rotor conductors are made from either aluminium or copper bars. These bars are
short circuited through end rings. There are no slip rings and brushes.

2.3.2 Working
No sooner do we supply the stator winding with ac supply than alternating current
starts flowing in the stator windings. This in turn produces alternating magnetic
field in the stator. This flux links with the rotor. EMF gets induced in the rotor
windings in accordance with faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. As rotor
conductors are short circuited through end rings, current starts flowing in the rotor
conductors. As magnetic field produced by stator is not rotating type rather a
alternating type i-e decreases and increases in a single direction. So, this flux is
unable to rotate the rotor. Rotor just buzzes at its initial position unless given a
initial rotation through hand or by any other means.

2.4 DOUBLE REVOLVING FIELD THEORY

To understand working of single-phase induction motor and why it is not self-
starting double revolving field theory is used. This theory states that stationary
pulsating magnetic field can be resolved into two oppositely revolving magnetic
fields. If one moves in clock wise, another moves anti clock wise. Main magnetic
field at any instant is the sum of two oppositely rotating magnetic fields and net
torque will be sum of individual torques produced due to revolving fields.
Mathematically flux density of stationary magnetic field is given in equation 2.2.

Figure 2.2: revolving fields at various instants

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2.4.1 Why SPWM is not self-starting

This fact could easily be understood with a help of double revolving field theory.
At the starting instant both clock wise rotating field and counter clock wise
rotating magnetic field are equal and opposite to each other, hence neutralize each
other’s effect. These produce zero starting torque, hence give no rotation.

2.5 STARTING OF SPIM

As mentioned earlier single-phase induction motors are not self-starting.
However, once started its rotor keeps rotating. hence, it needs one initial push.
This initial push can even be given by hand but this method is neither suitable nor
recommended. There are mainly three methods for starting single phase induction
motor. Each of these methods consists in making one of the two revolving fields
stronger than the other, hence giving the rotor initial push in one direction. These
methods are:
• Split-phase windings
• Capacitor-type windings
• Shaded stator poles

2.5.1 Split-phase winding motors

In this method one extra winding besides main field winding is wound on the
stator. This extra winding is called auxiliary winding. Both auxiliary and main
field windings are put at 90 to each other. A centrifugal switch is also provided in
series with auxiliary winding in order to cut the auxiliary winding off the circuit
once rotor has attained some set speed. auxiliary winding has more resistance to
reactance ratio to make the current in the auxiliary winding lead the current in the
field winding.
High resistance to reactance ratio of auxiliary winding can be made larger by
simply using wire of smaller diameter for auxiliary winding. Current hence
magnetic field of auxiliary winding Ba peaks before the current hence magnetic
field of main field winding Bm. Hence, it gives initial rotation in the counter clock
wise rotation.
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Figure 2.3 (a) circuit diagram of single-phase induction motor with starting
winding b) phasor diagram

Figure 2.4: c) waveforms for auxiliary winding current and main winding
current d) torque speed characteristic curves with and without auxiliary
winding

Split phase motors:

• Have a medium starting torque
• Not suitable for high starting torque application
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2.5.2 Capacitor start motors

Capacitor start motors are used for high starting torque purposes. Capacitor start
motors can be subdivided into:
• Capacitor start motors
• Capacitor start capacitor run motors
Both Capacitor start motors and capacitor-start-capacitor-run induction motors
have

Figure 2.5: torque speed characteristic curve for capacitor start motors

Same working principle. Only the difference is: In capacitor start motors
capacitor is disconnected when rotor attains 75% full load speed. however, in
latter capacitor remains permanently in the circuit and helps in improving the
power factor and running conditions for the motor. By selecting a proper capacitor
size, the mmf of starting current in the auxiliary windings can be made equal to
the mmf of starting current in the main winding and current in the auxiliary
winding can lead the current in the main winding by 90 ° . 90 ° phase difference
in current would produce a uniform magnetic field since windings are separated
also by 90 ° . It would be as if motor were starting from a three-phase power
supply. Figure 2.5 shows the torque speed characteristics of the capacitor start
motor. In order to improve torque speed characteristics of SPIM a smaller
capacitor is left permanently in the circuit. This configuration:
• Has no centrifugal switch
• At normal loads, they are more efficient
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Figure 2.6 Circuit diagram of capacitor-start-capacitor-run motor

Permanent split capacitors have low starting torque than capacitor start motors
because capacitor must be sized to balance the current in the main winding at
normal loads.

2.5.3 Shaded pole motors

It has only one winding i.e. main winding. It has salient poles instead of an
auxiliary winding. A shading coil surrounds one portion of each pole. Shading
coil is short circuited. Main winding induces changing magnetic flux in the poles.
Time-varying flux induces voltage in the shading coil. As coil is short circuited,
a current start flowing in the coil. According to Lenz’s law induced current
opposes the original change in flux. This in turn opposes the change in flux under
the main poles. Hence, slight imbalance is created between two oppositely
rotating magnetic fields. So, net starting torque is produced in the rotor in the
direction from unshaded to shaded portion. Shaded pole motors:
• Produce less starting torque than other methods
• Less efficient
• Have a higher slip
• Have a difficulty in the reversing the direction
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2.6 Applications and Advantages of Single-Phase Induction Motors

• Single phase induction motors are widely used in various
commercial and domestic applications. Although Single-phase induction motors’
performance is inferior when compared with 3-phase induction motors, due to its
zero starting torque and bigger frame size, yet they are used in small ratings,
where 3-phase supply is not available or not preferred.
• Because single-phase induction motors are single speed motors; In
domestic applications they are used in dishwashers, clothes washers, clothes
dryers, hermitic compressors, fans (half horse power), draft inducer etc.
• In industrial applications 3-phase induction motors come into
picture, however in residential applications single-phase motors are preferred due
to wide availability of single-phase supply.
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CHAPTER 3
METHODS OF CONTROLLING SPEED OF SPIM

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this section, different ways of controlling speed of SPIM are discussed, keeping
in view advantages and disadvantages of different methods of speed control.
While keeping in view the advantages of PWM method over several other
methods discussed, comparing the results, why PWM method is used here for
speed control will be described. There are two main techniques for SPIM speed
control:
1) Volt/Hertz kept constant control (v/f):
2) Vector control and Voltage control:
In first technique an inverter is used to provide a constant voltage and frequency
(v/f) in order to produce the required speed. On the other hand, vector control
controls both magnitude and phase of the variables. Lastly voltage control varies
the speed of SPIM by changing the effective value of the load voltage.

3.2 CONSTANT VOLTS/HERTZ(v/f) CONTROL

Like in Three Phase Induction Motor, we have variable speeds for different
frequency values, same is case in SPIM also. Therefore, constant V/F technique
can be used in control of SPIM. This type of control is mostly used in three phase
induction motors. In three phase induction motors, while neglecting the
magnetizing inductance and the iron losses.

Air gap flux Φm is related to v/f ratio in the steady state operations. Therefore,
maximum torque sensitivity and stator current will be achieved by keeping a
constant air-gap flux. From equation 3.1, by keeping v/f ratio constant, the air-
gap flux can be kept constant, therefore Torque-Speed characteristics can be seen
in figure 3.1.
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Figure 3.1: Torque speed characteristics for constant v/f control

By observing figure 3.1, it can be seen that Te (Torque equation) expressed in

equation 3.1 is approximately valid in high frequency region, where stator
impedance drops occur owing to reduced air-gap flux. In the region of low
frequency, Auxiliary Voltage will be injected due to the stator impedance drop
effects, so that we can maintain rated air-gap and full torque. The circuit diagram
which is generally used for open loop constant V/f control shown in Figure 3.2.
The power circuit comprises a phase-controlled rectifier with single- or three-
phase ac power supply LC filter (DC link) and an inverter.

Figure 3.2: V/f control circuit diagram

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3.3 VECTOR CONTROL

The component of the motor stator current can be controlled by controlling the
vector in the rotating reference frames d and q aligned with the rotor flux. The
system requires dynamic model equations and returns instantaneous currents and
voltages to calculate and control variables. The technique of vector control
instead of complexity has been popularly used in three phase AC motors (servo
systems). This technique is popular due to its superior performance. But in SPIM
drives the vector control techniques is not widely used, because of less use in
literature. Single phase half bridge inverter for the SPIMS and four space vectors
is shown in figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: vector control of SPIM single -phase Half Bridge Inverter

Figure 3.4: space vectors of SPIM

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3.4 VOLTAGE CONTROL

An induction motor’s speed can be controlled by varying the effective value of
stator voltage when frequency is kept constant. In figure 3.4 the torque-speed
characteristics are shown by varying the voltage.

Figure 3.5: voltage control torque-speed characteristics

Usually, this speed control method is used in fans or blower type motors with
high slips s. Such type of speed control operates by decreasing the air-gap flux
value. By increasing the slip air gap flux can be decreased. The stator voltage can
be controlled by following methods.

3.4.1 Integral cycle control

In this technique we allow certain number of complete cycles of supply voltage
through the load. By turning on and off the source voltage, this task can be
achieved. Due to this Integral cycle control technique is also called On-Off
control, Burst Fire control, Single cycle control and Advanced single cycle
control are three different ways used in this technique.
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3.4.1.1 Burst fire control

In this type of control, the burst of complete cycles of firing voltage are supplied
to the load.

Figure 3.6: burst fire control

3.4.1.2 single cycle control

Mode of firing control when only one firing and one non-firing cycles are used
for controlling speed such control is known as single cycle control.

Figure 3.7: waveforms of load voltage with single cycle control

Firing is set to 50% of applied nominal power therefore the firing time and
nonfiring time are equal.
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3.4.2 Phase control

Phase control technique is one of the voltage-controlled techniques in which
power flows towards load and is controlled by delay of TRIAC firing angle shown
in Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8: phase control circuit

3.4.3 PWM control

Pulse width modulation technique is one of the most widely used techniques of
controlling speed of SPIM. In this method effective value of voltage applied to
the motor is changed. As speed is directly proportional to voltage applied to
motor, so speed control is achieved through this method. In pulse width
modulation width of the signal is changed. In other words, duty cycle of the signal
is changed.

Figure 3.9: PWM control

If duty cycle of the signal is high, the speed obtained will be high. Conversely if
duty cycle is low, speed will also be low. This PWM signal is generally at 5v, so,
it cannot be directly given to motor. for this purpose, optocoupler is used.
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3.5 DISCUSSION
The above-mentioned control techniques are used for SPIM Speed control. Each
control technique has advantages as well as disadvantages of its own. Selection
of method is done keeping in view the application for which speed control is
required and also relative advantages and disadvantages of different methods. The
constant V/f control method is considered to be one of the best techniques for the
speed control applications. This technique, however, is not generally used due to
increased cost and complexity of control network.
The vector control technique is high performance speed control technique which
is mostly used in three phase Induction motors. Although this technique is
applicable in SPIMs, however control circuit becomes more complex than
constant v/f control.
Besides this, voltage control method is simpler in structure, easy to control and
cost effective. Due to these advantages voltage control technique is more
preferred in industries for fan and blower applications. In this technique we vary
the slip rate, this is difference between rotors actual speed and synchronous speed.
Increased slip rate causes the decrease in speed. The increase in stator currents
produces more copper loss and machine heating.
The integral cycle control technique is based on providing supply and cutting the
supply for the instance. Therefore, in non-firing time motor is not supplied with
current which is a disadvantage of this technique. By increasing the total on and
off time this problem can be improved. Another effect of non-firing time in this
technique is that the stator voltage is reduced to zero in each control cycle and
then increases to the supply voltage which in turn increases the transient effects
of motors.
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CHAPTER 4
HARDWARE AND ITS WORKING

4.1 INTRODUCTION
SPIMs are commonly used in homes and in small industries due to their rugged
construction and low cost. it is necessary to control the speed of single-phase
induction motor in order to get maximum production and also for protection of
induction motor’s winding. Of many available methods to control the speed of
SPIM, pulse width modulation (PWM) technique is used here. PWM is more
efficient than other methods. Pulse width modulation changes the magnitude of
applied voltage to the motor; hence it varies the speed. this PWM signal is
generated through Arduino UNO.

4.2 COMPONENTS
Table 4.1: Main components used in the hardware model
Component name Rating

SPIM hp,220v

Arduino UNO 5V, 28-pins

MOC3021 -pins, 400volts peak,

ULN2003a 500ma, 50v

1 x2LCD 1 -pins, 5v

DC RELA 5-pin, 12v, 10A

IND4007 700V, 1 AMP

4.2.1 Arduino UNO

Arduinos are circuit boards that have microcontroller chips on them, but they
have a lot of other stuff on there too. Arduino UNOs use a series of
microcontrollers called ATMEGA AVRs. Connected to the microcontroller is a
crystal resonator. This controls how fast the microcontroller is running. There is
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another microcontroller in order to upload the software. Through this chip USB
cable is connected to the Arduino board, and communicate via USB and once the
program is running, this chip is what allows to send message back and forth
between computer and Arduino.
Arduinos can be powered purely from USB cable. But it can also be powered
directly through 9v dc power source with the barrel jack. The Uno has a built-in
voltage regulator that will reduce the voltage to 5v. there is reset button on
Arduino to reboot the program.

4.2.1.1 Atmega 328/p

This is microcontroller built in Arduino. its features are:
•32 Kbytes of In-System Programmable Flash with Read-While-write
•1Kbytes EEPROM
•2Kbytes SRAM
•32 general purpose working registers

4.2.2 MOC3021
To interface between electronic components and high-power AC circuits
MOC3021 was designed. The MOC3021 is a Zero-Crossing TRIAC driven
Optocoupler or optoisolator. The features of MOC3021 include:
•Zero crossing ability: this avoids direct peak voltage to the load. Thus
avoids damage.
•Appropriate rise and fall time.
Because of these features it is used to control high voltage AC loads with MPU
or MCU. We can control the speed of motor since the intensity of light can be
controlled. By turning LED on or off, loads can be switched with MOC3021.
When TRIAC is switched with PWM signal, output voltage across the load can
be controlled hence the speed of AC motor can be controlled.
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4.2.3 ULN2003A
It is an array of seven NPN Darlington transistors. They have capability of 500mA
and 50V. If higher current capability is needed these drivers can be paralleled. It
is, generally, used for interfacing with motors, which require higher ratings.

4.2.4 16x2LCD
It is used for displaying various quantities on screen. In this project following
quantities are displayed:
• Temperature of windings
• Speed in % of full speed
• Direction of rotor
• Power supply

4.3 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF THE PROJECT

Figure 4.1: Block diagram of the project

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4.4. General description of circuit diagram

As Arduino is operated on 7-12V dc, so 220v ac is stepped down to 12v and
rectified; then it is fed to the Arduino. Arduino here serves two purposes: 1.
Generates PWM signal 2. Drives LCD. The PWM signal generated at pin no:10
is used for speed control. This PWM signal is 5v, whereas motor circuit is
operated at 220v. So, these two circuits cannot be connected directly. To solve
this issue an optocoupler is used. Through this opto-coupler the PWM signals are
fed into the motor circuit. The output connection of the optocoupler is fed into
the gate of the TRIAC. The TRIAC is connected in between 220v ac supply and
the motor windings. The TRIAC is fired in accordance with the PWM signal
generated through Arduino. In this way voltage supplied to the motor windings is
controlled and in turn speed is controlled. The width of the PWM signal is
controlled through potentiometer connected at Arduino pin A. For direction
control relay is used. The output from Arduino is connected to uln2003a (relay
driver IC), Which drives the relay to alter the connections of the windings so as
to change the direction of the rotation.

Figure 4.2: circuit diagram of the project

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4.4.1 Circuit diagram part by part description

• Rectifier

Figure 4.3: Rectifier

220v ac supply is stepped down to 12v and then rectified to be fed into Arduino
pin vin. The capacitor is connected in order to smoothen the dc output.

• Arduino and LCD

Figure 4.4: Arduino and LCD

The dc output from rectifier is given to Arduino through pin 22 Vin. Generally,
7-12 voltage dc are given as input to Arduino. Arduino has built in voltage
regulator to regulate the voltage to 5v dc inside. Arduino generates 5v on pin 25
which is used for different circuit components. Through this we power push
buttons connected on pin no: 7,8, and 9. On analog input A potentiometer is
connected, which is also supplied through 5v on pin25, through which the speed
of SPIM is varied. The PWM signal is generated on pin no 8, which is coupled to
 P a g e | 27

motor circuit. The speed depends on the voltage applied to this pin. If the voltage
is 0v, the speed will be zero. However, if voltage is full(5V), the full speed (rpm)
is obtained. Of these analog pins only two are used. Rx and Tx pins are used to
communicate to LCD. Pins 7,8 and 9 are used as input pins, where bush buttons
are connected. Their programming is set such that middle bush button stops the
motor, one rotates the rotor clockwise, whereas last one rotates the rotor counter
clock wise. From LCD’s data pins D4 to D7 are used which are read pins.
Whereas write pins Do to D3 are left unused. 5v dc Supply to LCD is given on
VDD. On VEE variable resistor is connected to set the contrast of the LCD screen.

• Opto-coupler and TRIAC

Owing to their different voltages Arduino circuit and motor circuit can not be
connected directly. This is done through opto-coupler (MOC 3021). Signal from
the DIAC is given to the gate of TRIAC, which is triggered in accordance with
the PWM signal. The TRIAC is connected to the winding of the motor which in
turn changes the speed of the SPIM.

Figure 4.5: Opto-coupler and TRIAC

• ULN2003A and relay

Figure 4.6: ULN2003A and relay

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Direction of single-phase induction motor can easily be changed by just changing

auxiliary winding connection while leaving main winding connections
unchanged. For this purpose, 12v DC relay is used. Pin no 12 of Arduino is
connected with relay driver IC (ULN2003a), whose output is then connected to
relay. Diode d1 is used for protection purpose. It gives path to back EMF
generated due to switching operation of relay.

4.5 CODING OF ARDUINO

Code
// Include the required libraries
#include <PID_v1.h>
#include <OneWire.h>
#include <DallasTemperature.h>

// Define the pin assignments for the motor control

const int motorPin1 = ; // Motor input 1
const int motorPin2 = 5; // Motor input 2
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const int motorEnablePin = 3; // Motor enable pin

// Define the pin assignments for the temperature sensor

const int temperatureSensorPin = A0; // Temperature sensor pin

// Define the setpoint temperature and the PID parameters

double setpointTemperature = 25; // Target temperature
double kp = 2, ki = 5, kd = 1; // PID parameters

// Create the PID object

PID myPID(&currentTemperature, &motorSpeed, &setpointTemperature, kp,
ki, kd, DIRECT);

// Define the OneWire and DallasTemperature objects

OneWire oneWire(temperatureSensorPin);
DallasTemperature sensors(&oneWire);

// Define the variables

int motorSpeed = 0; // Motor speed (PWM value)
int currentTemperature; // Current temperature reading

void setup() {
// Initialize the serial communication
Serial.begin(9 00);

// Set the pin modes

pinMode(motorPin1, OUTPUT);
pinMode(motorPin2, OUTPUT);
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pinMode(motorEnablePin, OUTPUT);

// Start the DallasTemperature sensor

sensors.begin();

// Set the sample time and enable the PID controller

myPID.SetSampleTime(1000); // PID updates every 1 second
myPID.SetOutputLimits(-255, 255); // Motor speed limits
myPID.SetMode(AUTOMATIC); // PID starts running
}

void loop() {
// Get the current temperature reading
sensors.requestTemperatures();
currentTemperature = sensors.getTempCByIndex(0);

// Compute the PID output

myPID.Compute();

// Set the motor speed and direction

if (motorSpeed > 0) {
digitalWrite(motorPin1, HIGH);
digitalWrite(motorPin2, LOW);
} else if (motorSpeed < 0) {
digitalWrite(motorPin1, LOW);
digitalWrite(motorPin2, HIGH);
} else {
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digitalWrite(motorPin1, LOW);
digitalWrite(motorPin2, LOW);
}
analogWrite(motorEnablePin, abs(motorSpeed)); // Set the motor speed

// Print the current temperature and motor speed

Serial.print("Temperature: ");
Serial.print(currentTemperature);
Serial.print("C, Motor speed: ");
Serial.print(motorSpeed);
Serial.println();

delay(1000); // Wait for 1 second

}
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CHAPTER 05
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

In this chapter, the real-time images of the experimental results, shows outcome
of successful manufacturing of Arduino based speed and direction control of
single-phase induction motor. The experimental results shown below were
conducted in laboratory for the purpose of testing of hardware model.

5.1 EXPERIMENTS
Different experiments are given below.

5.1.1 When supply is turned on

Figure 5.1 shows when supply is turned on LCD starts indicating, it

indicates that motor is not started yet, hence its wiring temperature can
be seen 25˚ Celsius.
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Figure 5.1: Motor in stop position

5.1.2 Counter clock wise direction and speed control

Figure 5.2 indicates that motor is started by pressing the extreme left button below
LCD display, it can be seen now that motor is running at 15% speed in counter-
clock wise direction, now to vary the speed we will regulate the potentiometer
knob.

Figure 5.2: Motor running at 15% of rated speed in counter clock wise
direction
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Figure 5.3: Motor running at 30% of rated speed in counter clockwise

direction.

5.1.3 Clock wise direction and speed control

In Figure 5.4 motor is started by pressing the third button below LCD display, it
can be seen nowt that motor is running at 15% of the rated speed in clockwise
direction. Similarly, by regulating the potentiometer knob we will vary the speed
and it can be seen from Figure 5.5

Figure 5.4: motor running at 15% of rated speed in clock direction

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Figure 5.5: motor running at 30% of rated speed in clockwise direction

In Figure 5.5, Motor is running at 30% of the rated speed in clock-wise

direction

5.2 COMPLETE PROJECT

Complete project is given in figure 5. .

Figure 5.6: complete project

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CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

6.1 CONCLUSION
Single phase induction motors are widely used in homes and to some extent in
industries. In this project control of SPIM is designed. This control included speed
and direction control. For controlling speed PWM technique, being one of the
most widely used techniques for this purpose, is used. The PWM signal is
generated through Arduino, which is then coupled to the motor through opto-
coupler. To control direction DC relay is used. Which alters the connection of
windings to the supply according to the given command by the user. Lastly LCD
is used to display speed, direction and temperature of the windings of the motor.

6.2 FUTURE WORK

Future work is proposed for:
•Mitigating harmonics effects generated with PWM technique of speed
•Suppressing unwanted noise created.
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REFERENCES
[1]Holmes, D.G. and Kotsopoulos, A., 1993, October. “Variable speed control of
single and two phase induction motors using a three phase voltage source
inverter”. In Industry Applications Society Annual Meeting, 1993., Conference
Record of the 1993 IEEE (pp. 13- 20). IEEE.

[2]Cunha, B.S., Camacho, J.R. and Bissochi, C.A., 2001. “Single-phase induction
motor speed control through a PIC controlled sinusoidal PWM inverter-the
mathematical model and various load conditions”. In Power Tech Proceedings,
2001 IEEE Porto(Vol. 2, pp. -pp). IEEE.

[3]Asghar, M.S.J., 1999. “Smooth speed control of single-phase induction motors

by integral-cycle switching”. IEEE transactions on energy conversion, 14(4),
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[4]Sakina Tabassum1, Syed Sarfaraz Nawaz2 and M.N Sandhya Rani. “Speed
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[5]T Pavani, T., Devi, U.R., Revanth, I.K., Babu, K.S. and Kumar, K.S., 2017.
“Speed Control of Single Phase Induction Motor Using Solid State Relay”. Asian
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[ ] ildirim, D. and Bilgic, M., 2008, November.” PWM AC chopper control of

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[7]Latt, A.Z. and Win, N.N., 2009, April. “Variable speed drive of single phase
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 P a g e | 38

[8]Texas Instruments, “Digital Signal Processing for AC Induction Motor”.

Application Note BPRA043

[9]Jang, H. and oon D., 2003 "Space-Vector PWM Technique for Two-Phase
Inverter-Fed Two-Phase Induction Motors", IEEE Transactıons on Industry
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[10]https://learnengineering.org/working-of-single-phase-inductionmotors/

[11]Chapman, S., 2005. Electric machinery fundamentals. Tata McGraw-Hill

Education.

[12][Online] https://circuitglobe.com/capacitor-start-induction-motor.html

[13]http://www.rroij.com/open-access/three-phase-induction-motor-drive-using
single-phase-inverter-and-constantvf-method.php?aid=42584

[14]Bose, B.K. 198 . “Power Electronics and AC Drives”, Prentice-Hall, New

Jersey.

[15] Jang, H. and oon D., 2003 "Space-Vector PWM Technique for Two-Phase
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[17] ucel E., 200 . “Bir Fazlı Sürekli Kondasatörlü Asenkron Motorlarda Hız
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