SLENDERNESS RATIO 25 (b) If e < 1/24 where t is the wall/column thickness, ignore the stress due to eccentricity and calculate and check the axial stress only (Table 2-9 zero eccentricity case). (©) If e>t/24 but < t/6, the resulting combined axial and bending stress may be allowed to exceed the permissible stress as per Table 2-9 by not more than 25%. Ife > (6, tension_will occur on the section, Then ignoring the part of the thickness in tension, the compressive stress on extreme fibre will be —— 2P. 3 (t/2-e) where Pi sthe vertical load. This stress may exceed the allowable stress as per Table 2-9 by not more than 25%. 2.8 TYPE OF, LOADING The roa 00 walls may be distributed-axial or eccentric or concentrated in nature depending upon the manner in which the floors or roof are supported. For interior walls carrying continuous slabs, the load may be taken distributed and axial. This assumption may also be made for interior walls when they carry independent floors whose spans do not differ by 15% or more. For exterior walls carrying floor or roof slabs, the load may be normally assumed to be acting at centre of bearing. Ifthe span happens to be flexible, say 30 times the thickness of wall, the point of application of the load is assumed at third point of bearing towards the span, For usual concrete slabs having partial bearing on the walls, an eccentricity of 1/12 may be assumed. Due to eccentricity, the basic stress is reduced as shown in Table 2-9. ‘When the walls support the concentrated load of a beam or colump, there is a concentration of stress at point of support but a dispresion of the stress through masonry may be assumed ‘on both sides of the beam at an angle of 30° from the direction ‘of the concentrated load. The angle of dispersion through concrete bed block is taken 45°.26 BRICK MASONRY IN BUILDINGS Some times the walls and columns are subjected to bendin, moments due to lateral loads of wind or earthquake, The resulting stresses must be superimposed on the stresses due to axial or eccentric loads as explained in section 27 ‘Now, when the bending stresses due to eccentricity or lateral loads are combined with stresses due to—axial loads, the permissible stresses are The procedure of 1 by 25%. considering this was explained in article 2.7. When local stresses are combined, the permissible increase becomes 50% or the concentrated load may be takn as distributed with two-third intensity. For this purpose a load is considered concentrated if the area stressed under it is less than or equal to 1/3 of the total cross-sectional area of the member. 2.9 NET PERMISSIBLE STRESS fe stress It will now be well to summarise ‘cients entering into the final expression of Considering all the (a) Compressiv the various coef the net permissible compressive stress. factors, we shall have $ Fea = Fe ka ku kee ky 2-2) Fag = Fes ks 5 ee where Fes is the net allowable compressive stress, Fe the basic jide Table 2-3, ka is area factor given by Eq, (2-1), kv is factor for shapes of masonry unitas given in Table 2-4, ker is the slenderness-eccentricity factor vide Table 2-9, and ks is the factor for load equal to 1.0 for axial, 1.25 for load causing bending and 1.5 for localised loads. : compressive stress. ‘The following examples will illustrate the use of Eq. 2-2 and various tables. (b) Tensile stress. In general, stone or brick masonry is not relied upon for carrying any tensile stress, and the portion under tension is assumed cracked and ineffective. Only the part in compression is assumed to carry stress varying from yero to maximum ina linear distribution, However, in free ‘standing and panel walls a stress of 0.07 N/mm? in bending tension niay be permitted in a vertical direction and upto 0.14 N/mm? in horizontal direction in masonry built using MI rtars. Higher tensile stress may be permitted in richerNET PERMISSIBLE STRESS 2 rs, For example, the Indian Railway Bridge code for tructures permits a. tensile stress equal to 25% of allowable pressive stress in bending for mortar of 1:3 cement d mix. , (©) Shear stress. For masonry built in MI mortar or uivalent, a horizontal shear stress f+ may be permitted on ‘area of mortar bed joint, as given by fe = 0.1 + fal6 but < 0.5 N/mm* (23) fa is the actual compressive stress on the section due dead loads. —— elt trac: Determine the allowable axial load on a column 30.cm>%60_ 6 cement mortar The ight Of the pier between the footing and the top slab is.5.1'm. ‘The strength of units may be assumed as 10 MPa, Solution > ~ 300 Ex= 0.81 MPa (Table 2-8, mortar M2 unit 10 MPa A= 0.30 x 0.60 = 0.18 m* = 0.2 m®, hence use ka (Ref. Eq. 2-1) 2 vide Table 2-4 for height to width ratio of masonry unit as 1.0, le =T Tkss = 0,580 — 0.5 X 0.08 = 0.54 (vide Table 2-9, e/t = 0) ge {1.0 since no bending, no point load. a Fea = 0,81 x 0.97 X 12 x 0.54 x 1.0 = 0,509 N/mm? Pex = 0,509 x 300 *_600 = 91644 N =91.64 KN Example 2.2 What would be the allowable compressive stress and load on the coluan of Example 2.1 if the load was applied at an eccentricity of 100 mm about the major axis of bending.28 BRICK MASONRY IN BUILDINGS Solution Here Fe, ka and ko remain the same as before. Due eccentricity the factors kex and kt will be modified. i elt = 100/600 = 0.1667, h/b = 17 Osu ‘gir © 0.4645 (by double interpolation in Table 2 = ONS 58 1 = 1.25 (for load causing bending) i “ea = 0.81 X 0.97 x 1.2 x 0.4645 * 125 re, ¢ = 0.547 N/mm® ae ee ae ond I P px100_ _ _?P LOA oa = ea0 * Soo 60076 ~ 90000 °° 79 a Equation to Fes, P = 90000 x 0.547 = 49220 N = 49.23 kN ) fs om ae SS Example 2.3 Design a brick column 3m high to carry an axial load of TOKN. The width of the pier is limited to 18 normal’ brick size for architectural reasons. Assume cement-lime * mortar 6 and first class brick with 10 MPa strength. The column may be taken as Fixed-Restrained. Solution Clie 4 Effective height = 1.0.x 3 (3.0. Thickness = 1.5228 = 342mm MG A) 00 (o~ 38 For usual bricks, @= (0) Unless length of pier cross section “d" is can not be found, hence ka is unknown. 0.70 to 1.0, the average value being 0.875. Let us assume known, the area A Now ka varies from this value. ri Fe = 0.96 Nmm® (Table 2-3, Mortar M1, Unit 10 MPa) 77 kex = 0.920 — Fy 7 08 = 0.889 kx. = 1.0 since load is axial Fea = 0.96 % 1.0 X C878 x 0889 < 1.0 = 0.747 MPa 110000 2 ar yay = 147300 min 147300 __ : a 431 mm A-EXAMPLES 29 refore d = 2 brick lengths i e. 456 mm may be adopted. A = 0.342 x 0.456 = 0 156 m* ka = 0,70+1.5%0.156 = 0.934 > 0.875 assumed OK column section of 1} x 2 bricks may be used. ora 0 the wall of a room, 5m long 30 em thick and 3.6 m there are three window openings 0.9 m wide 1.5m high. piers between the windows are 20cm wide each. If the per m length of the wall at lintel level is 40 kN/m, mine what minimum mortar strength must be used in the Strength of bricks may be-taken as 9.0 N/mm? ition ‘ Effective height of pier in the plasé of the wall will be as fa fixed-fixed column, that is 1.0 = 1.50 = 1.5 m and its At richt angles to the plane of the wall, the effective height will be lf times the height of opening since the height of opening is less than half height of the wall. Thus ha = 15X15 = 2.25 mand ny _ 20 by 300 This value governs the design since it is equal to that in the - plane of wall. As before we get the various stress factors as follows : ko =-1.2 for. modular bricks 200 ~ 100 x 200 mm ko = 0.70 + 15 ¥ 0.2 x 03 =0.79 =15 os ker = 0.92 + 55 x 008 = 0.94 kn = 1.0 Fea 1.2 x 0:79 x 0.94 x 1.0 x Fe = 0.891 F, Now load on the pier = 40 (0.9 + 0.2) = 44kN 44 1000 fo Sq 300 = 0.733 Nimm?30 BRICK MASONRY IN BUILDINGS Equating the actual stress to the allowable value 0733 © 9.493 Ninn? Fe = 9301 0.823 N/mm’ With reference to Table 2-3, for a masonry-unit. strength of 9 MPa, the weakest mortar that can be used is MI, that jg Sor C-L-S1:1:6. The allowable basic 0.74 + 2225 x (0.96 — 0.74) = 0.872 N/mm* Example 2.5 Determine the allowable axial load per m length of a (a) 200 mm solid wall (b) 240 mm cavity wall with 40 mm cavity The height of the wall between thicker plinth wall and slab is 3.5m, The wall is continuous and its length between cross wall is Sm, Take Fe = 0.55 MPa. Effective height of wall = 0.85 x 3.5 = 2.97 m, Effective length of wall = 0.80 5.0 = 4,00 m. Solution (a) Solid Wall Sola’ Waller Effective thickness = 200 mm Slenderness ratio will be smaller of A/b and Jb, Sinceh <1 A = BP = tats { A for wall is more than 0.2 m*, hence ka = 1.0 ke for modular bricks = 1.2 ker = 0.632 (by interpolation from Table 2-9) and ku=1.0 Fea = 0.55 x 1.0 x 1.2 x 0.632 x 1.0 = 0.417 N/mm? Pea = 0.417 x 200 x 1000 = 83400 N/m = 83.4 kN/m d 'b) Cavity wall TT Effective thickness = 2/3 x 200 = 133.3 mm. Since / > h, h governs the slenderness ratio. A _ 2970 & 133. = 22.3 < 27, permissible. vEXAMPLES 31 As in case (a) kez = 0.457 from Table 2-9 Fea = 0.55 X 1.0 x 1.2 x 0.457 x 1.0 = 0,302 N/mm? Pea = 0.302 = 200 x 1000 = 60400 N/m = 60.4 kN/m This load capacity is less than 2 of the solid wall considered in (a). If greater load capacity is desired, two alternatives are possible as follows (the effective thickness is to be increased, say, by increasing the thickness of the inner leaf to 200 mm. Now effective thickness = # x 300 = 200 mm. Therefore Fea = 0.417 MPa as incase (a) and allowable load Pea = 0.417 x 300 x 1000 = 125100 N/m = 125.1 kN/m Gi)_pillasters are to be provided for buttressing the wall at intermediate points. Let one intermedicte pillaster be used at mid point of the Tength of wall. With reference to Fig. 2.3, let us use ¢ = 100 mm, fp = 300mm, b = 300 mm and L=2.5 m. Such a pillaster will increase effective thickness of inner leaf but is not adequate for providing full lateral support since its Projection of 200 mm is less than } of wall height., For this pillaster to fo 30,4. = 2500 sy = ER = 8.33 Therefore factor kn is found from Table 2-8 as ke = 17-23 x03 = 165 2 Effective thickness of pillastered leaf = 1.65 x 100— 165 mm Effective thickness of cavity wall for vertical buckling = 4X (165 + 100) = 176.7 mm Slenderness ratio with respect to height fh _ 290 Ber Eahgh 0.8 kor = 0.580 ~ 3 x 0.08 = 0.548 Fea = 0.55% 1.0 1.2X0.548X 1.0 = 0.362 N/mm® Pea = 0.362200 1000 = 72400 N/m = 72.4 KN/m In addition to the load carried by the wall, the pier will also take load on its area projecting out of the wall. The allowable Zeells & Abutment; Foundations, Piers, 41 WALL AND COLUMN FOOTINGS IN BUILDINGS ‘A. Loads on foundatins The foundations are designed for two load combinations f dead and live loads. (1) Normal loads consisting of deac (2) Occasional loads involving normal loads ‘&_wind or seismic loads. Tid BEE ing consists_of (a) dead and The total normal load on a footin live Joads on ro°f and floors, (b) self weight of wall or column, and (c) the weight of footing and earth lying over 't For. known live and dead loads, the roof trusses or the roof and floor slabs and béamsare first designed The reaction of these is the load ta) To it is added the load (b). The weight of the foundation is not known before hand, so it has to_be suitably assumed. The usual assumption for the weight to. the footing of a wall is 10% of the loads (a) and (b) combined. For columns and piets it is about 20%. i re The wind or earthquake load is horizontal and causes shearing and bending or overtirning actions. As a consequence Sauer of resultant load is caused_on the foundations. In calculating the bearing pressure on the soil, all such icitie! are taken into account, ee B. Safe bearing capacity The beari it i moisture content, i Pes claetl ¢rala see, . compaction, consolidation and position of water 68DEPTH OF FOUNDATION 69 table. Two terms are used for bearing capacity: (1) Gross safe bearing capacity is the total safe bearing pressure at the bottom of the footing including the load of” superstructure, the weight of footing and that of the earth fying over the footing ; (2) Net safe bearing pressure at the bottom of footing additional to the weight of earth which existed at that level before the trench for the footing was dug. Thus the net safe bearing capacity is equal to the Bross bearing capacity less_the weight per unit dug out of trench. The net bearing capacity of the alluvium of Indo-Gangetic plain usually adopted is 8 to 11.0 tonnes per m?, Nominal values for other types of soil are given in Table 41. Rational determination of safe bearing capacity requires consideration of soil properties, cobesion C and angle of internal friction 4, depth and width of footing, allowable settlement, etc., as discussed later in Art 4.5. . For a filler treatment of subject, reference may be made to IS: 1904— 1978, or the National Building Code, 1983 Section Vi-2. When the effect of wind is considered, the, safe bearing capacity values may be-exceeded by 25%. When effects of earthquake are considered, the safe valuésthay te exceeded by about 50% for hard soils having safe bearing capacity of 440 KN] oF greater, 25% for soils having net safe be capacity of 150 KN/m? or more, and no increase in softer soils, C. Depth of foundation The principal factors which determine the depth to which the foundation should be taken down, are the following : (1) Ao secure adequate bearing strength, (2)/To penetrate below the zone where seasonal_weather changes are likely to cause appreciable movements due to shrinkage and swelling of soils. This usually happens in clayey soils. _ 4) To penetrate below the zone in which frost may catise trouble. This usually happens itrfine sand and silt. In all soils a minimum depth of 500 mm is_necessary. When rock is met at smaller depth only removal of top soil may be sufficient. To secure enough bearing strength, a conservative estimate of depth of footing below ground level in sandy soils may be obtained by using Rankine’s formula. Consider a footing as70 Table 4-1 Net safe bearing capacity of soils ang , N = Type of Soil ne Dg Cap, ie I Rocks 10. Me 12. 13. “4. 15. FOUNDATIONS, PIERS AND ABUTMENT, 3 (IS : 19¢4—1978) Hard rocks without lamination and defects (granite, trap and diorite etc.) Laminated rocks (sandstone, lime stone ete in sound condition) Residual deposits of shattered and broken bed rock and hard shale, cemented material Soft rock I. Non-Cohesive Soils (Sandy and Gravelly) Gravel, sand and gravel, compact and offering high resistance to penetration when excavated by tools Coarse sand, compact and dry* ‘Medium sand, compact and dry* Find sand, silt (dry lumps easily pulverized by the fingers) Loose gravel or sand gravel mixture : loose coarse to medium sand, dry* Fine sand, loose, dry* HI. Cohesive Soils (Clayey) Soft shale, hard or stiff clay in deep bed, dry Medium. clay, readily. indented. with a thumb nail Moist clay and sand clay mixture which can be indented with strong thumb pressure Soft clay indented with moderate thumb pressure Very soft clay which can be penetrated by several tens of millimeters with the thumb * 324 162 880 440 440 440 245 150 245 100 440 245 150, 100 50 Bie ee aed Dry means tat the ground water level iat a dept at feast equal the width of foundation below the base of the foundation.DEPTH OF FOUNDATIONS 1 in Fig. 4.1, The fora/load on the footing is Wand the area of the foundation is A The bearing pressure on the soil is p= W/A per unit area, Now a small element abed (shown exaggerated) of unit surface area ab under the footing has a pressure p applied at the top. To keep the element in equilibrium—an-equal and apposite pressure_p shoul je surface de. (Weight of Opp clement is neglected), To prevent spreading ofthe soil sideways, itis found that a minimum pressure_p’ is required on the faces be and ad, as shown, such that F (rina) 6 where $ is the angle of repose or the angle of internal friction of the soil. The angle of repose is the angle from-the horizontal Se ee reece Hoeizoatal Note : The allowable bearing values may pe increased by an amount equal to the weight of material removed from above the bearing, level, that is, the base of foundation. This will give cross safe bearing capacity. 2. For non-cohesive soils, the allowable bearing value shall be reduced by 50% if the water table is above or near the bearing surface of the soil. If the water table is below the bearing surface of the soil at a distance at least equal to the width of the foundation no such reduction shall apply. For intermediate depth of the water table, proportional reduction of the allowable bearing pressure may be made.7: 2 FOUNDATIONS, PIERS & ABUTMENTS eee nese of soil will normally stand unaided. The angle of tate tiction is the maximum angle which_2ny resultant os ross any plane inside the soil mass can make with the rmal to this plane without causing failure of the soil by slipping on that plane. The two angles have slightly different values but the same value is adopted in practice. Consider now another clement efeh just, outside the footing. Its face eh is being compressed by a Presshte. p’ and for equilibrium it will require 7’ 0M face fe also. Again to prevent spreading of the soil, fuces ef and gh require a_miimum pressure p’ such that Fig Pop (eee ii ve (ipo ) ug Ifw is the weight of the soil per unit volume, that is, the density of the soil, and A, ,is_the depth of foundation below ground level, the pressure at foundation level is whi. To prevent failure of element efgh, the pressure why_should_be greater than or at least equal top whi —,, [icsing “ ? (L324 ) rom Eq. (ii) substituting for p's ts value from Bq (D, we ave 1—sing i win =? (TFsinb in sy mae (j ter than the gross safe bearin _ 2 (ising? , iw (Fim +) pth of found all points bel For practical g capacity Py (et) or ‘As p cannot be grea jation to avoid failure ts below ground level reasons aS stated undation equal to. 500, mm is For non-bearing walls it ma} ne minimtim de and the depth at ore than this. depth of fo This gives of foundation, should be kept ™ before a mininum adopted for load bearing walls. a In all_cases, it must be ensured be kept 120 mm to 30m thar the loose soil at round level penetrated bY roots of grass ip earth is removed before laying the and other plants OF filled ui footing.DEPTH OF FOOTING 13 Example 4.1 Determine the area and minimum depth of the foundation of a column carrying a load of 700 kN including its own weight. The gross safe bearing capacity of the soil is 110 kN/m’, the angle of repose 30° and the unit weight of soil 16 kN/m*. Solution Load on column including its own weight = 700 kN Assumed weight of foundation @ 20% of above = 140 kN Total load on foundation = 840 kN Area of foundation required = 840/110 = 7.64 m? i 6 eG ina Min. depth of foundation = +2 ( 205 = 0.764 m Note: Assuming that actually an area of 7.8 m? and depth of 0.8 m are adopted and taking the combined unit weight of soil backfill and the footing 18 kN/m3, weight of the footing = 18 0.87.8 = 1123 KN < 140 kN assumed OK Example 4.2 A wall carries a load of 100 KN/m including its own weight. Find a suitable width and depth of its foundation. Take P= 90 kN/m®, w = 16 kN/m® and $ = 30° Solution Consider one m length of the wall. Load including own weight Assumed weight of foundation @ 10% of above = 10 kN/m Total load on foundation = 100 kNim 110 kN/m Area of foundation = 100/90 1.22 m* Width of foundation = 1.22/10 = 122m i, 90 (1—sin 30° \2 Min, depth of foundation = Ty (}7S20- ) = 0,625 m > 0.50 m OK74 FOUNDATIONS, PIERS AND ABUTMENTS 1.25 m, depth=0.65 m and 18 kN/m?, = 18.0% 1.25% 0.65 = 14.6 kN/m > 10 kN/m assumed. Revising, width required is 1 28 m. Note ; Using width unit weight weight of footin; Example 4.3 ‘A wall of a three storeyed building is 300 mm thick ony ground floor and 200 mm thick on first. and second fi Each storey is 3.5 m high floor to floor. ‘There is a para 0.9 m high 200 mm thick at the top of the wall. From t three floors combined, the wall receives a load of 110 KNj length, Find out a suitable width and depth of the foundation, Gross bearing capacity of soil is 160 kN/m?. Unit weight of f soil 16 kN/m®, and = m, brick work 192 kN/m®. Density 0} | Solution Consider one m length of wall. Load from floors = 10KN Wt. of parapet a: 0.2 ¥ 0.9 X 192 = 3.46 KN sot, ofwail; T-and, tf tear 2K 228.5172 ~ 26.90 kN. We. of wall, ground floor = 03 X 3.5 x. 192 = 20.2_kN Total of above 160.58 KN ‘Assumed wt, of foundation 10% of above — 16.06 KN Total load on foundation 176.62 KN ‘ 176.62 Width of foundation required = “769 ~ 110m 32° \ Min. Depth of foundation 10 (G2) = 0,942 m Hence width, 1.1 m and depth 0.95 m may be adopted. dation 0.95 m will be filled by lime concrete in average art by earth. Assuming ap 2veiae weight of foundation | If The total wt oD foundation more than the assumed Check for weight of. “fount Part of the trench 1.1 m and brickwork and pé weight of 17.6 KN’, the 17.6% 1.10.95 = 18.4 kN/m- becomes 178.6 kN/m which is only 1.3% value. |SECTION OF FOOTINGS 18 D. Section of footings The section of footings is designed on the principle of corbelling. The extra width required is corbelled out from the wall in steps such that the projection BC (Fig. 4.2) beyond B—which bends as a cantilever upwards due to earth reaction from below—does not cause bending and shear on AB more than those allowable for brickwork or concrete. Alternatively load dispersion lines drawn on either side below AA at an apy below the steps. footing should not be Propriate dispersion angle should be According to NBC-1983, the width of less than that given by B=2W + 300 Where B = width of footing in mm, In Brickwork and Stone Mi lasonry + Horiz t In Lime concrete ope % Horiz to In Cement concrete es 1 Horiz to 1 Vert.16 FOUNDATIONS, PIERS & ABUTMENTS thickness and steps $7 mm (or 50mm) on each course 114mm (or 100 nam) every alternaté course are then ‘giv For greater bearing pressures upto about 270 kN/nt, ¢ dispersion angle of } horizontal to 1 vertical is suitable, 4 such, thickness of the step is kept about twice the projection, Alternatively, reinforced concrete footings (Fig. 4.3) are ae YA Cement Concrete Fig. 4.3 provided. Example 4.4 Design a suitable section for the footing of Ex. 4.2. The wall is 300 mm thick above plinth constructed in 200 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm bricks (nominal size). Solution The thickness of the wall above the plinth is 300mm. As stated earlier, the thickness of the foundation wall is usually kept halfbrick larger It will therefore be 400 mm thick. The width of foundation required is 1.22 m. Provide 300 mm Allowing 150 mm projection thick lime concrete at the base. on both sides, the maximum width of brickwork is 1220300 oe 20 mm. ‘Hence the width of 400 mm is to be increased to 920 mm. Corbelling required on either side = (920—400)/2=260 mm. Let the step be # brick wide. No, of 100 mm steps = 260/100 = 2.6 say, 3 steps. {the concrete is reduced to 110mm. The section is as shown in Fig. 4.4 (a). This section shows @ plinth projection on the outside of the building. If the Visibility of this projection on the outside is not desirable from vrethetic reasons, an alternative arrangement of step is possible ge shown in Fig. 4.4 (b). By providing a projection of 100mm The projection ofSECTION OF FOOTINGS 1 \tplinth level wholly on the inside of the building, the wall ‘oad would become eccentric on the foundation. To have the oad axial, a similar projection of 100 mm is given on the putside at lower level below ground. Peal euntn covesere coverere }_—— mo _——-20 ——+| (a) INTERIOR WALL (D)EXTERIOR WALL Fig. 4.4 Example 4.5 The total load on the foundation of a brick column 400 mm x 800 mm is 400 KN. The gross bearing capacity of the soil is 160 kN/m*. Design suitable sections of a stepped footing. Solution Area of the foundation required = 400/160 = 2.5 m? For equal projection of the footing beyond the column, the length should be 400 mm more than the width. A foundation 1.40 x 1,80 gives 2.52 m? and may be adopted. Size of the column below the plinth becomes $00 mm x 900 mm. Therefore, the projection on all sides is (1400—$00)/2 = 450 mm. Required thickness is double of this because the bearing capacity is more than 110 kN/m®. Therefore 50 mm wide by 100 mm thick or 100 mm wide by 200 mm thick steps may be adopted. Providing 3 steps of 100 mm each with 200 mm thickness, the projection of concrete is 150 mm whichTIONS, PIERS AND ABUTMENTS ss of concrete. ig. 4.5. 78 FOUND. The may be allowed for 300 mm thickne: footing plan and sections are shown in Fi bees lx— 800 PUNTH WEVEL BRICK WORK BRICK WORK os _- CONCRETE « Se sae ae Agia = 1600 Fig. 4.5