8

Ignition systems

8.1 Ignition fundamentals ● Engine combustion temperature.

● Intended use.
● Emission regulations.
8.1.1 Functional requirements
The fundamental purpose of the ignition system is 8.1.2 Types of ignition system
to supply a spark inside the cylinder, near the end
of the compression stroke, to ignite the compressed The basic choice for types of ignition system can be
charge of air–fuel vapour. classified as shown in Table 8.1.
For a spark to jump across an air gap of 0.6 mm
under normal atmospheric conditions (1 bar), a volt- 8.1.3 Generation of high tension
age of 2–3 kV is required. For a spark to jump across
a similar gap in an engine cylinder, having a com- If two coils (known as the primary and secondary)
pression ratio of 8 : 1, approximately 8 kV is required. are wound on to the same iron core then any change
For higher compression ratios and weaker mixtures, in magnetism of one coil will induce a voltage into
a voltage up to 20 kV may be necessary. The ignition the other. This happens when a current is switched
system has to transform the normal battery voltage on and off to the primary coil. If the number of
of 12 V to approximately 8–20 kV and, in addition, turns of wire on the secondary coil is more than the
has to deliver this high voltage to the right cylinder, primary, a higher voltage can be produced. This is
at the right time. Some ignition systems will supply called transformer action and is the principle of the
up to 40 kV to the spark plugs. ignition coil.
Conventional ignition is the forerunner of the The value of this ‘mutually induced’ voltage
more advanced systems controlled by electronics. It depends upon:
is worth mentioning at this stage that the funda- ● The primary current.
mental operation of most ignition systems is very ● The turns ratio between the primary and second-
similar. One winding of a coil is switched on and off ary coils.
causing a high voltage to be induced in a second ● The speed at which the magnetism changes.
winding. A coil-ignition system is composed of
various components and sub-assemblies, the actual Figure 8.1 shows a typical ignition coil in section.
design and construction of which depend mainly on The two windings are wound on a laminated iron
the engine with which the system is to be used. core to concentrate the magnetism. Some coils are
When considering the design of an ignition sys- oil filled to assist with cooling.
tem many factors must be taken into account, the
most important of these being: 8.1.4 Advance angle (timing)
● Combustion chamber design. For optimum efficiency the ignition advance angle
● Air–fuel ratio. should be such as to cause the maximum combus-
● Engine speed range. tion pressure to occur about 10 ° after top dead centre
● Engine load. (TDC). The ideal ignition timing is dependent on

Table 8.1 Types of ignition system

Type Conventional Electronic Programmed Distributorless

Trigger Mechanical Electronic Electronic Electronic

Advance Mechanical Mechanical Electronic Electronic
Voltage source Inductive Inductive Inductive Inductive
Distribution Mechanical Mechanical Mechanical Electronic
 Ignition systems 171

two main factors, engine speed and engine load. An combined either mechanically or electronically in
increase in engine speed requires the ignition tim- order to determine the ideal ignition point.
ing to be advanced. The cylinder charge, of air–fuel The energy storage takes place in the ignition
mixture, requires a certain time to burn (normally coil. The energy is stored in the form of a magnetic
about 2 ms). At higher engine speeds the time taken field. To ensure the coil is charged before the igni-
for the piston to travel the same distance reduces. tion point a dwell period is required. Ignition tim-
Advancing the time of the spark ensures full burn- ing is at the end of the dwell period.
ing is achieved.
A change in timing due to engine load is also 8.1.5 Fuel consumption and
required as the weaker mixture used on low load
conditions burns at a slower rate. In this situation,
exhaust emissions
further ignition advance is necessary. Greater load The ignition timing has a significant effect on fuel
on the engine requires a richer mixture, which burns consumption, torque, drivability and exhaust emis-
more rapidly. In this case some retardation of timing sions. The three most important pollutants are hydro-
is necessary. Overall, under any condition of engine carbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and nitrogen
speed and load an ideal advance angle is required to oxides (NOx).
ensure maximum pressure is achieved in the cylin- The HC emissions increase as timing is advanced.
der just after top dead centre. The ideal advance NOx emissions also increase with advanced timing
angle may be further refined by engine temperature due to the higher combustion temperature. CO
and any risk of detonation. changes very little with timing and is mostly
Spark advance is achieved in a number of ways. dependent on the air–fuel ratio.
The simplest of these being the mechanical system As is the case with most alterations of this type, a
comprising a centrifugal advance mechanism and a change in timing to improve exhaust emissions will
vacuum (load sensitive) control unit. Manifold vac- increase fuel consumption. With the leaner mixtures
uum is almost inversely proportional to the engine now prevalent, a larger advance is required to com-
load. I prefer to consider manifold pressure, albeit pensate for the slower burning rate. This will pro-
less than atmospheric pressure, as the manifold vide lower consumption and high torque but the
absolute pressure (MAP) is proportional to engine mixture must be controlled accurately to provide the
load. Digital ignition systems may adjust the timing best compromise with regard to the emission prob-
in relation to the temperature as well as speed and lem. Figure 8.2 shows the effect of timing changes
load. The values of all ignition timing functions are on emissions, performance and consumption.

8.1.6 Conventional ignition

components
Spark plug
Seals electrodes for the spark to jump across in the
cylinder. Must withstand very high voltages, pres-
sures and temperatures.

Figure 8.2 Effect of changes in ignition timing at a fixed engine

Figure 8.1 Typical ignition coil speed
172 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

Figure 8.3 Conventional and electronic ignition components

Ignition coil primary current and hence a more rapid collapse of

Stores energy in the form of magnetism and delivers coil magnetism, which produces a higher voltage
it to the distributor via the HT lead. Consists of output.
primary and secondary windings.
HT Distributor
Ignition switch Directs the spark from the coil to each cylinder in a
Provides driver control of the ignition system and is pre-set sequence.
usually also used to cause the starter to crank.

Ballast resistor Centrifugal advance

Shorted out during the starting phase to cause a Changes the ignition timing with engine speed. As
more powerful spark. Also contributes towards speed increases the timing is advanced.
improving the spark at higher speeds.
Vacuum advance
Contact breakers (breaker points) Changes timing depending on engine load. On con-
Switches the primary ignition circuit on and off to ventional systems the vacuum advance is most
charge and discharge the coil. important during cruise conditions.
Figure 8.3 shows some conventional and elec-
Capacitor (condenser) tronic ignition components.
Suppresses most of the arcing as the contact break- The circuit of a contact breaker ignition system
ers open. This allows for a more rapid break of is shown in Figure 8.4.
 Ignition systems 173

Figure 8.4 Contact breaker ignition system

8.1.7 Plug leads (HT)

HT, or high tension (which is just an old fashioned
way of saying high voltage) components and sys-
tems, must meet or exceed stringent ignition prod-
uct requirements, such as:
● Insulation to withstand 40 000 V systems.
● Temperatures from 40 ° C to 260 ° C (40 ° F
to 500 ° F).
● Radio frequency interference suppression.
● 160 000 km (100 000 mile) product life.
● Resistance to ozone, corona, and fluids.
● 10-year durability.
Delphi produces a variety of cable types that meet
the increased energy needs of leaner-burning engines
without emitting electromagnetic interference (EMI).
The cable products offer metallic and non-metallic
cores, including composite, high-temperature
resistive and wire-wound inductive cores. Conduc-
tor construction includes copper, stainless steel,
Delcore, CHT, and wire-wound. Jacketing materi-
als include organic and inorganic compounds, such
as CPE, EPDM and silicone. Figure 8.5 shows the
construction of these leads. Table 8.2 summarizes
some of the materials used for different tempera- Figure 8.5 Ignition plug leads
ture ranges.

which cause inefficiency due to the heating effect

8.1.8 Ignition coil cores (iron losses). If thinner laminations or sheets are used,
Most ignition coil cores are made of laminated iron. then the better the performance.
The iron is ideal as it is easily magnetized and Powder metal is now possible for use as coil
demagnetized. The laminations reduce eddy currents, cores. This reduces eddy currents to a minimum but
174 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

Table 8.2 Materials used for various ignition components for different temperatures

Ignition component Operating temperature (continuous)

110 ° C 175 ° C 232 ° C

Terminals Zinc plated Phosphor bronze or stainless steel Stainless steel

Boot material EPDM or silicone Silicone High-temperature silicone
Jacket CPE Silicone Silicone
Insulation EPDM EPDM Silicone
Conductor Delcore copper or stainless steel Delcore or CHT CHT or wire-wound core

Figure 8.6 Electronic ignition system

the density of the magnetism is decreased. Overall, ● Weaker mixtures require more energy from the
however, this produces a more efficient and higher spark to ensure successful ignition, even at very
output ignition coil. Developments are continuing high engine speed.
and the flux density problem is about to be solved,
These problems can be overcome by using a power
giving rise to even more efficient components.
transistor to carry out the switching function and a
pulse generator to provide the timing signal. Very
early forms of electronic ignition used the existing
8.2 Electronic ignition contact breakers as the signal provider. This was a
step in the right direction but did not overcome all
8.2.1 Introduction the mechanical limitations, such as contact bounce
and timing slip. Most (all?) systems nowadays are
Electronic ignition is now fitted to almost all spark constant energy, ensuring high performance igni-
ignition vehicles. This is because the conventional tion even at high engine speed. Figure 8.6 shows
mechanical system has some major disadvantages. the circuit of a standard electronic ignition system.
● Mechanical problems with the contact breakers,
not the least of which is the limited lifetime.
● Current flow in the primary circuit is limited to
8.2.2 Constant dwell systems
about 4 A or damage will occur to the contacts – The term ‘dwell’ when applied to ignition is a
or at least the lifetime will be seriously reduced. measure of the time during which the ignition coil
● Legislation requires stringent emission limits, is charging, in other words when the primary cur-
which means the ignition timing must stay in rent is flowing. The dwell in conventional systems was
tune for a long period of time. simply the time during which the contact breakers
 Ignition systems 175

speeds, the time available to charge the coil could

only produce a lower power spark. Note that as engine
speed increases, the dwell angle or dwell percentage
remains the same but the actual time is reduced.

8.2.3 Constant energy systems

In order for a constant energy electronic ignition
system to operate, the dwell must increase with
engine speed. This will only be of benefit, however,
if the ignition coil can be charged up to its full
capacity, in a very short time (the time available for
maximum dwell at the highest expected engine
speed). To this end, constant energy coils are very
low resistance and low inductance. Typical resistance
values are less than 1  (often 0.5 ). Constant
energy means that, within limits, the energy avail-
able to the spark plug remains constant under all
operating conditions.
An energy value of about 0.3 mJ is all that is
required to ignite a static stoichiometric mixture. In
Figure 8.7 OPUS ignition system the case of lean or rich mixtures together with high
turbulence, energy values in the region of 3–4 mJ are
were closed. This is now often expressed as a percent- necessary. This has made constant energy ignition
age of one charge–discharge cycle. Constant dwell essential on all of today’s vehicles in order to meet
electronic ignition systems have now been replaced the expected emission and performance criteria.
almost without exception by constant energy systems Figure 8.8 is a block diagram of a closed loop con-
discussed in the next section. stant energy ignition system. The earlier open loop
An old but good example of a constant dwell systems are the same but without the current detec-
system is the Lucas OPUS (oscillating pick-up sys- tion feedback section.
tem) ignition. Figure 8.7 shows the pulse generator Due to the high energy nature of constant energy
assembly with a built-in amplifier. The timing rotor ignition coils, the coil cannot be allowed to remain
is in the form of a plastic drum with a ferrite rod switched on for more than a certain time. This is not
for each cylinder embedded around its edge. This a problem when the engine is running, as the vari-
rotor is mounted on the shaft of the distributor. The able dwell or current limiting circuit prevents the
pick-up is mounted on the base plate and comprises coil overheating. Some form of protection must be
an ‘E’-shaped ferrite core with primary and sec- provided for, however, when the ignition is switched
ondary windings enclosed in a plastic case. Three on but the engine is not running. This is known as
wires are connected from the pick-up to the amplifier the ‘stationary engine primary current cut off’.
module.
The amplifier module contains an oscillator
used to energize the primary pick-up winding, a
8.2.4 Hall effect pulse generator
smoothing circuit and the power switching stage. The operating principle of the Hall effect is dis-
The mode of operation of this system is that the cussed in Chapter 2. The Hall effect distributor has
oscillator supplies a 470 kHz AC signal to the pick-up become very popular with many manufacturers.
primary winding. When none of the ferrite rods Figure 8.9 shows a typical distributor with a Hall
are in proximity to the pick-up the power transistor effect sensor.
allows primary ignition to flow. As the distributor As the central shaft of the distributor rotates, the
rotates and a ferrite rod passes the pick-up, the vanes attached under the rotor arm alternately
magnetic linkage allows an output from the pick-up cover and uncover the Hall chip. The number of
secondary winding. Via the smoothing stage and vanes corresponds to the number of cylinders. In
the power stage of the module, the ignition coil will constant dwell systems the dwell is determined by
now switch off, producing the spark. the width of the vanes. The vanes cause the Hall
Whilst this was a very good system in its time, chip to be alternately in and out of a magnetic field.
constant dwell still meant that at very high engine The result of this is that the device will produce
176 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

Figure 8.8 Constant energy ignition

Figure 8.9 Ignition distributor with Hall generator

effect pulse generator can easily be tested with a

DC voltmeter or a logic probe. Note that tests must
not be carried out using an ohmmeter as the voltage
from the meter can damage the Hall chip.

Figure 8.10 A Hall effect sensor output will switch between 8.2.5 Inductive pulse generator
0 V and about 7 V
Inductive pulse generators use the basic principle
of induction to produce a signal typical of the one
almost a square wave output, which can then easily shown in Figure 8.11. Many forms exist but all are
be used to switch further electronic circuits. The based around a coil of wire and a permanent magnet.
three terminals on the distributor are marked ‘, The example distributor shown in Figure 8.12
0, ’, the terminals  and , are for a voltage sup- has the coil of wire wound on the pick-up and, as
ply and terminal ‘0’ is the output signal. Typically, the reluctor rotates, the magnetic flux varies due
the output from a Hall effect sensor will switch to the peaks on the reluctor. The number of peaks, or
between 0 V and about 7 V as shown in Figure 8.10. teeth, on the reluctor corresponds to the number of
The supply voltage is taken from the ignition ECU engine cylinders. The gap between the reluctor and
and, on some systems, is stabilized at about 10 V to pick-up can be important and manufacturers have
prevent changes to the output of the sensor when recommended settings.
the engine is being cranked.
Hall effect distributors are very common due to
the accurate signal produced and long term reliabil-
8.2.6 Other pulse generators
ity. They are suitable for use on both constant dwell Early systems were known as transistor assisted
and constant energy systems. Operation of a Hall contacts (TAC) where the contact breakers were
 Ignition systems 177

Figure 8.11 Inductive pulse generators use the basic principle

of induction to produce a signal

used as the trigger. The only other technique, which

has been used on a reasonable scale, is the optical
pulse generator. This involved a focused beam of
light from a light emitting diode (LED) and a photo-
transistor. The beam of light is interrupted by a
rotating vane, which provides a switching output in
the form of a square wave. The most popular use for
this system is in the after-market as a replacement
for conventional contact breakers. Figure 8.13 shows
the basic principle of an optical pulse generator;
note how the beam is focused to ensure accurate
switching.

8.2.7 Dwell angle control

(open loop)
Figure 8.14 shows a circuit diagram of a transistor-
ized ignition module. For the purposes of explain-
ing how this system works, the pulse generator is
the inductive type. To understand how the dwell
is controlled, an explanation of the whole circuit is
necessary.
The first part of the circuit is a voltage stabilizer
to prevent damage to any components and to allow
known voltages for charging and discharging the
capacitors. This circuit consists of ZD1 and R1.
The alternating voltage coming from the
inductive-type pulse generator must be reshaped Figure 8.12 Inductive pulse generator in a distributor
into square-wave type pulses in order to have the cor-
rect effect in the trigger box. The reshaping is done
by an electronic threshold switch known as a
Schmitt trigger. This circuit is termed a pulse shap- negative pulses of the alternating control voltage to
ing circuit because of its function in the trigger box. reach the base of transistor T1. The induction-type
The pulse shaping circuit starts with D4, a silicon pulse generator is loaded only in the negative phase
diode which, due to its polarity, will only allow the of the alternating control voltage because of the
178 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

output of energy. In the positive phase, on the other The energy stored in the ignition coil can be put
hand, the pulse generator is not loaded. The nega- to optimum use with the help of the dwell section in
tive voltage amplitude is therefore smaller than the the trigger box. The result is that sufficient high volt-
positive amplitude. age is available for the spark at the spark plug under
As soon as the alternating control voltage, any operating condition of the engine. The dwell
approaching from negative values, exceeds a thresh- control specifies the start of the dwell period. The
old at the pulse shaping circuit input, transistor T1 beginning of the dwell period (when T3 switches on),
switches off and prevents current passing. The out- is also the beginning of a rectangular current pulse
put of the pulse-shaping circuit is currentless for a that is used to trigger the transistor T4, which is the
time (anti-dwell?). This switching state is maintained driver stage. This in turn switches on the output stage.
until the alternating control voltage, now approach- A timing circuit using RC elements is used to pro-
ing from positive values, drops below the threshold vide a variable dwell. This circuit alternately charges
voltage. Transistor T1 now switches off. The base of and discharges capacitors by way of resistors. This is
T2 becomes positive via R5 and T2 is on. This alter- an open loop dwell control circuit because the com-
nation – T1 on/T2 off or T1 off/T2 on – is typical of bination of the resistors and capacitors provides a
the Schmitt trigger and the circuit repeats this fixed time relationship as a function of engine speed.
action continuously. Two series-connected diodes, The capacitor C5 and the resistors R9 and R11
D2 and D3, are provided for temperature compensa- form the RC circuit. When transistor T2 is switched
tion. The diode D1 is for reverse polarity protection. off, the capacitor C5 will charge via R9 and the base
emitter of T3. At low engine speed the capacitor will
have time to charge to almost 12 V. During this time
T3 is switched on and, via T4, T5 and T6, so is the
ignition coil. At the point of ignition T2 switches on
and capacitor C5 can now discharge via R11 and T2. T3
remains switched off all the time C5 is discharging.
It is this discharge time (which is dependent on how
much C5 had been charged), that delays the start of
the next dwell period. Capacitor C5 finally begins
to be charged, via R11 and T2, in the opposite direc-
tion and, when it reaches about 12 V, T3 will switch
back on. T3 remains on until T2 switches off again.
As the engine speed increases, the charge time avail-
able for capacitor C5 decreases. This means it will
Figure 8.13 Basic principle of an optical pulse generator only reach a lower voltage and hence will discharge

Figure 8.14 Circuit diagram of Bosch transistorized ignition module

 Ignition systems 179

more quickly. This results in T3 switching on earlier The primary current is allowed to build up to its
and hence a longer dwell period is the result. pre-set maximum as soon as possible and then be
The current from this driver transistor drives held at this value. The value of this current is calcu-
the power output stage (a Darlington pair). In this lated and then pre-set during construction of the
Darlington circuit the current flowing into the base amplifier module. This technique, when combined
of transistor T5 is amplified to a considerably higher with dwell angle control, is known as closed loop
current, which is fed into the base of the transistor control as the actual value of the primary current is
T6. The high primary current can then flow through fed back to the control stages.
the ignition coil via transistor T6. The primary cur- A very low resistance, high power precision resis-
rent is switched on the collector side of this transis- tor is used in this circuit. The resistor is connected in
tor. The Darlington circuit functions as one transistor series with the power transistor and the ignition coil.
and is often described as the power stage. A voltage sensing circuit connected across this resis-
Components not specifically mentioned in this tor will be activated at a pre-set voltage (which is
explanation are for protection against back EMF proportional to the current), and will cause the out-
(ZD4, D6) from the ignition coil and to prevent the put stage to hold the current at a constant value.
dwell becoming too small (ZD2 and C4). A trigger Figure 8.16 shows a block diagram of a closed loop
box for Hall effect pulse generators functions in a dwell control system.
similar manner to the above description. The hybrid Stationary current cut-off is for when the ignition
ignition trigger boxes are considerably smaller than is on but the engine is not running. This is achieved
those utilizing discrete components. Figure 8.15 is in many cases by a simple timer circuit, which will
a picture of a typical complete unit. cut the output stage after about one second.

8.2.8 Current limiting and 8.2.9 Capacitor discharge

closed loop dwell ignition
Primary current limiting ensures no damage can be Capacitor discharge ignition (CDI) has been in use
caused to the system by excessive primary current, for many years on some models of the Porsche 911
but also forms a part of a constant energy system. and some Ferrari models.
Figure 8.17 shows a block diagram of the CDI
system. The CDI works by first stepping up the bat-
tery voltage to about 400 V (DC), using an oscilla-
tor and a transformer, followed by a rectifier. This
high voltage is used to charge a capacitor. At the
point of ignition the capacitor is discharged through
the primary winding of a coil, often by use of a
thyristor. This rapid discharge through the coil pri-
mary will produce a very high voltage output from
Figure 8.15 Transistorized ignition module the secondary winding. This voltage has a very fast

Figure 8.16 Closed loop dwell control system

180 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

Figure 8.17 CDI system

rise time compared with a more conventional sys- ● Other inputs can be taken into account such as
tem. Typically, the rise time for CDI is 3–10 kV/s engine knock.
as compared with the pure inductive system, which ● The number of wearing components in the igni-
is 300–500 V/s. This very fast rise time and high tion system is considerably reduced.
voltage will ensure that even a carbon- or oil-fouled
Programmed ignition, or ESA, can be a separate
plug will be fired. The disadvantage, however, is that
system or be included as part of the fuel control
the spark duration is short, which can cause prob-
system.
lems particularly during starting. This is often over-
come by providing the facility for multi-sparking.
However, when used in conjunction with direct igni- 8.3.2 Sensors and input
tion (one coil for each plug) the spark duration is information
acceptable.
Figure 8.18 shows the layout of the Rover pro-
grammed ignition system. In order for the ECU to
8.3 Programmed ignition calculate suitable timing and dwell outputs, certain
input information is required.
8.3.1 Overview
Engine speed and position –
‘Programmed ignition’ is the term used by some
manufacturers, while others call it ‘electronic spark
crankshaft sensor
advance’ (ESA). Constant energy electronic ignition This sensor is a reluctance sensor positioned as
was a major step forwards and is still used on count- shown in Figure 8.19. The device consists of a per-
less applications. However, its limitations lay in still manent magnet, a winding and a soft iron core. It is
having to rely upon mechanical components for mounted in proximity to a reluctor disc. The disc
speed and load advance characteristics. In many has 34 teeth, spaced at 10 ° intervals around the
cases these did not match ideally the requirements periphery of the disc. It has two teeth missing, 180 °
of the engine. apart, at a known position before TDC (BTDC).
Programmed ignition systems have a major dif- Many manufacturers use this technique with minor
ference compared with earlier systems, in that they differences. As a tooth from the reluctor disc passes
operate digitally. Information about the operating the core of the sensor, the reluctance of the mag-
requirements of a particular engine is programmed netic circuit is changed. This induces a voltage in
into the memory inside the electronic control unit. the winding, the frequency of the waveform being
The data for storage in ROM are obtained from rig- proportional to the engine speed. The missing tooth
orous testing on an engine dynamometer and from causes a ‘missed’ output wave and hence the engine
further development work on the vehicle under vari- position can be determined.
ous operating conditions.
Programmed ignition has several advantages. Engine load – manifold absolute
● The ignition timing can be accurately matched pressure sensor
to the individual application under a range of Engine load is proportional to manifold pressure in
operating conditions. that high load conditions produce high pressure and
● Other control inputs can be utilized such as lower load conditions – such as cruise – produce
coolant temperature and ambient air temperature. lower pressure. Load sensors are therefore pressure
● Starting is improved and fuel consumption is transducers. They are either mounted in the ECU or
reduced, as are emissions, and idle control is as a separate unit, and are connected to the inlet
better. manifold with a pipe. The pipe often incorporates a
 Ignition systems 181

Figure 8.18 Programmed ignition system

sensor is used for the operation of the temperature

gauge and to provide information to the fuel control
system. A separate memory map is used to correct
the basic timing settings. Timing may be retarded
when the engine is cold to assist in more rapid
warm up.

Detonation – knock sensor

Combustion knock can cause serious damage to an
engine if sustained for long periods. This knock, or
detonation, is caused by over-advanced ignition
timing. At variance with this is that an engine will,
in general, run at its most efficient when the timing
is advanced as far as possible. To achieve this, the
data stored in the basic timing map will be as close
to the knock limit of the engine as possible (see
Figure 8.20). The knock sensor provides a margin
for error. The sensor itself is an accelerometer often
of the piezoelectric type. It is fitted in the engine
block between cylinders two and three on in-line
four-cylinder engines. Vee engines require two sen-
Figure 8.19 Position of a programmed ignition crankshaft sors, one on each side. The ECU responds to sig-
sensor nals from the knock sensor in the engine’s knock
window for each cylinder – this is often just a few
restriction to damp out fluctuations and a vapour degrees each side of TDC. This prevents clatter
trap to prevent petrol fumes reaching the sensor. from the valve mechanism being interpreted as
knock. The signal from the sensor is also filtered in
Engine temperature – coolant the ECU to remove unwanted noise. If detonation is
sensor detected, the ignition timing is retarded on the
Coolant temperature measurement is carried out by fourth ignition pulse after detection (four-cylinder
a simple thermistor, and in many cases the same engine) in steps until knock is no longer detected.
182 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

The steps vary between manufacturers, but about 8.3.3 Electronic control unit
2 ° is typical. The timing is then advanced slowly in
steps of, say 1 °, over a number of engine revolu- As the sophistication of systems has increased,
tions, until the advance required by memory is the information held in the memory chips of the
restored. This fine control allows the engine to be ECU has also increased. The earlier versions of the
run very close to the knock limit without risk of programmed ignition system produced by Rover
engine damage. achieved accuracy in ignition timing of 1.8 °
whereas a conventional distributor is 8 °. The infor-
mation, which is derived from dynamometer tests
Battery voltage as well as running tests in the vehicle, is stored in
Correction to dwell settings is required if the bat- ROM. The basic timing map consists of the correct
tery voltage falls, as a lower voltage supply to the ignition advance for 16 engine speeds and 16 engine
coil will require a slightly larger dwell figure. This load conditions. This is shown in Figure 8.21 using
information is often stored in the form of a dwell a cartographic representation.
correction map. A separate three-dimensional map is used that
has eight speed and eight temperature sites. This is
used to add corrections for engine coolant tempera-
ture to the basic timing settings. This improves dri-
vability and can be used to decrease the warm-up
time of the engine. The data are also subjected to an
additional load correction below 70 ° C. Figure 8.22
shows a flow chart representing the logical selec-
tion of the optimum ignition setting. Note that the
ECU will also make corrections to the dwell angle,
both as a function of engine speed to provide con-
stant energy output and corrections due to changes in
battery voltage. A lower battery voltage will require
a slightly longer dwell and a higher voltage a slightly
shorter dwell.
Typical of most ‘computer’ systems, a block dia-
gram as shown in Figure 8.23 can represent the pro-
grammed ignition ECU. Input signals are processed
Figure 8.20 Ideal timing angle for an engine and the data provided are stored in RAM. The

Figure 8.21 Cartographic map representing how ignition timing is stored in the ECU
 Ignition systems 183

program and pre-set data are held in ROM. In these with most electronic ignitions, consists of a heavy-
systems a microcontroller is used to carry out the duty transistor that forms part of, or is driven by, a
fetch execute sequences demanded by the program. Darlington pair. This is simply to allow the high
Information, which is collected from the sensors, is ignition primary current to be controlled. The switch
converted to a digital representation in an A/D cir-
cuit. Rover, in common with many other manufac-
turers, use an on-board pressure sensor consisting
of an aneroid chamber and strain gauges to indicate
engine load.
A flow chart used to represent the program held
in ROM, inside the ECU, is shown in Figure 8.22. A
Windows 95/98/2000 shareware program that simu-
lates the ignition system (as well as many other
systems) is available for downloading from my web
site (details in Preface).

Ignition output
The output of a system, such as this programmed Figure 8.23 Typical of most ‘computer’ systems, the pro-
ignition, is very simple. The output stage, in common grammed ignition ECU can be represented by a block diagram

Figure 8.22 Ignition calculation flow diagram

184 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

off point of the coil will control ignition timing and

the switch on point will control the dwell period.

HT distribution
The high tension distribution is similar to a more
conventional system. The rotor arm however is
mounted on the end of the camshaft with the dis-
tributor cap positioned over the top. The material
used for the cap is known as Velox, which is similar
to the epoxy type but has better electrical character-
istics – it is less prone to tracking, for example. The
distributor cap is mounted on a base plate made of
Crasline which, as well as acting as the mounting
point, prevents any oil that leaks from the camshaft
seal fouling the cap and rotor arm. Another import-
ant function of the mounting plate is to prevent the Figure 8.24 DIS ignition system
build-up of harmful gases such as ozone and nitric
oxide by venting them to the atmosphere. These
gases are created by the electrolytic action of the An interesting point here is that the spark on one
spark as it jumps the air gap between the rotor arm of the cylinders will jump from the earth electrode
and the cap segment. The rotor arm is also made of to the spark plug centre. Many years ago this would
Crasline and is reinforced with a metal insert to not have been acceptable, as the spark quality when
relieve fixing stresses. jumping this way would not have been as good as
when it jumps from the centre electrode. However,
the energy available from modern constant energy
systems will produce a spark of suitable quality in
8.4 Distributorless ignition either direction. Figure 8.24 shows the layout of the
distributorless ignition system (DIS) system.
8.4.1 Principle of operation
Distributorless ignition has all the features of pro-
grammed ignition systems but, by using a special
8.4.2 System components
type of ignition coil, outputs to the spark plugs The DIS system consists of three main compon-
without the need for an HT distributor. ents: the electronic module, a crankshaft position
The system is generally only used on four-cylinder sensor and the DIS coil. In many systems a mani-
engines because the control system becomes more fold absolute pressure sensor is integrated in the
complex for higher numbers. The basic principle is module. The module functions in much the same way
that of the ‘lost spark’. The distribution of the spark as has been described for the previously described
is achieved by using two double-ended coils, which electronic spark advance system.
are fired alternately by the ECU. The timing is The crankshaft position sensor is similar in
determined from a crankshaft speed and position operation to the one described in the previous sec-
sensor as well as load and other corrections. When tion. It is again a reluctance sensor and is pos-
one of the coils is fired, a spark is delivered to two itioned against the front of the flywheel or against a
engine cylinders, either 1 and 4, or 2 and 3. The reluctor wheel just behind the front crankshaft pul-
spark delivered to the cylinder on the compression ley. The tooth pattern consists of 35 teeth. These are
stroke will ignite the mixture as normal. The spark spaced at 10 ° intervals with a gap where the 36th
produced in the other cylinder will have no effect, tooth would be. The missing tooth is positioned at
as this cylinder will be just completing its exhausted 90 ° BTDC for cylinders number 1 and 4. This ref-
stroke. erence position is placed a fixed number of degrees
Because of the low compression and the exhaust before top dead centre, in order to allow the timing
gases in the ‘lost spark’ cylinder, the voltage used or ignition point to be calculated as a fixed angle
for the spark to jump the gap is only about 3 kV. after the reference mark.
This is similar to the more conventional rotor arm The low tension winding is supplied with bat-
to cap voltage. The spark produced in the compres- tery voltage to a centre terminal. The appropriate
sion cylinder is therefore not affected. half of the winding is then switched to earth in the
 Ignition systems 185

Figure 8.25 DIS coil

module. The high tension windings are separate

and are specific to cylinders 1 and 4, or 2 and 3.
Figure 8.25 shows a typical DIS coil.
Figure 8.26 Direct ignition system

8.5 Direct ignition

as to which cylinder is on the compression stroke. A
8.5.1 General description system that does not require a sensor to determine
Direct ignition is, in a way, the follow-on from which cylinder is on compression (engine position
distributorless ignition. This system utilizes an is known from a crank sensor) determines the infor-
inductive coil for each cylinder. These coils are mation by initially firing all of the coils. The voltage
mounted directly on the spark plugs. Figure 8.26 across the plugs allows measurement of the current
shows a cross-section of the direct ignition coil. for each spark and will indicate which cylinder is
The use of an individual coil for each plug ensures on its combustion stroke. This works because a
that the rise time for the low inductance primary burning mixture has a lower resistance. The cylinder
winding is very fast. This ensures that a very high with the highest current at this point will be the
voltage, high energy spark is produced. This volt- cylinder on the combustion stroke.
age, which can be in excess of 40 kV, provides effi- A further feature of some systems is the case
cient initiation of the combustion process under cold when the engine is cranked over for an excessive
starting conditions and with weak mixtures. Some time, making flooding likely. The plugs are all fired
direct ignition systems use capacitor discharge with multisparks for a period of time after the igni-
ignition. tion is left in the on position for 5 seconds. This will
In order to switch the ignition coils, igniter units burn away any excess fuel.
are used. These can control up to three coils and are During difficult starting conditions, multispark-
simply the power stages of the control unit but in a ing is also used by some systems during 70 ° of
separate container. This allows less interference to crank rotation before TDC. This assists with start-
be caused in the main ECU due to heavy current ing and then, once the engine is running, the timing
switching and shorter runs of wires carrying higher will return to its normal calculated position.
currents.

8.5.2 Control of ignition 8.6 Spark plugs

Ignition timing and dwell are controlled in a manner
similar to the previously described programmed
8.6.1 Functional requirements
system. The one important addition to this on some The simple requirement of a spark plug is that it
systems is a camshaft sensor to provide information must allow a spark to form within the combustion
186 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

Figure 8.27 Spark-plug construction

chamber, to initiate burning. In order to do this pure), is a popular choice, it is bonded into the
the plug has to withstand a number of severe metal parts and glazed on the outside surface. The
conditions. Consider, as an example, a four-cylinder properties of this material, which make it most suit-
four-stroke engine with a compression ratio of 9 : 1, able, are as follows:
running at speeds up to 5000 rev/min. The following
conditions are typical. At this speed the four-stroke ● Young’s modulus: 340 kN/mm2.
cycle will repeat every 24 ms. ● Coefficient of thermal expansion: 7.8  10 K1.
● Thermal conductivity: 15–5 W/m K (Range
● End of induction stroke –0.9 bar at 65 ° C. 200–900 ° C).
● Ignition firing point –9 bar at 350 ° C. ● Electrical resistance: 1013 /m.
● Highest value during power stroke –45 bar at
3000 ° C. The above list is intended as a guide only, as actual
● Power stroke completed –4 bar at 1100 ° C. values can vary widely with slight manufactur-
ing changes. The electrically conductive glass seal
Besides the above conditions, the spark plug must between the electrode and terminal stud is also used
withstand severe vibration and a harsh chemical as a resistor. This resistor has two functions. First,
environment. Finally, but perhaps most important, to prevent burn-off of the centre electrode, and sec-
the insulation properties must withstand voltage ondly to reduce radio interference. In both cases the
pressures up to 40 kV. desired effect is achieved because the resistor damps
the current at the instant of ignition.
Flash-over, or tracking down the outside of the
8.6.2 Construction plug insulation, is prevented by ribs that effectively
Figure 8.27 shows a standard and a resistor spark increase the surface distance from the terminal to
plug. The centre electrode is connected to the top the metal fixing bolt, which is of course earthed to
terminal by a stud. The electrode is constructed of a the engine.
nickel-based alloy. Silver and platinum are also
used for some applications. If a copper core is used in
the electrode this improves the thermal conduction
8.6.3 Heat range
properties. Due to the many and varied constructional features
The insulating material is ceramic-based and of involved in the design of an engine, the range of
a very high grade. Aluminium oxide, Al2O3 (95% temperatures in which a spark plug is exposed to, can
 Ignition systems 187

vary significantly. The operating temperature of the

centre electrode of a spark plug is critical. If the
temperature becomes too high then pre-ignition
may occur as the fuel–air mixture may become
ignited due to the incandescence of the plug elec-
trode. On the other hand, if the electrode tempera-
ture is too low then carbon and oil fouling can occur
as deposits are not burnt off. Fouling of the plug
nose can cause shunts (a circuit in parallel with the
spark gap). It has been shown through experimenta-
tion and experience that the ideal operating temper-
ature of the plug electrode is between 400 and
900 ° C. Figure 8.28 shows how the temperature of
the electrode changes with engine power output. Figure 8.28 Temperature of a spark plug electrode changes
The heat range of a spark plug then is a measure with engine power output
of its ability to transfer heat away from the centre
electrode. A hot running engine will require plugs
with a higher thermal loading ability than a colder
running engine. Note that hot and cold running of
an engine in this sense refers to the combustion
temperature and not to the efficiency of the cooling
system.
The following factors determine the thermal
capacity of a spark plug.

● Insulator nose length.

● Electrode material.
● Thread contact length.
● Projection of the electrode.

All these factors are dependent on each other and

the position of the plug in the engine also has a par-
ticular effect.
It has been found that a longer projection of the
electrode helps to reduce fouling problems due to
low power operation, stop–go driving and high alti- Figure 8.29 Heat conducting paths of a spark plug
tude conditions. In order to use greater projection
of the electrode, better quality thermal conduction
is required to allow suitable heat transfer at higher constituents. These alloys exhibit excellent properties
power outputs. Figure 8.29 shows the heat conduct- with respect to corrosion and burn-off resistance.
ing paths of a spark plug together with changes in To improve on the thermal conductivity, compound
design for heat ranges. Also shown are the range of electrodes are used. These allow a greater nose pro-
part numbers for NGK plugs. jection for the same temperature range, as discussed
in the last section. A common example of this type
of plug is the copper-core spark plug.
8.6.4 Electrode materials Silver electrodes are used for specialist applica-
The material chosen for the spark plug electrode tions as silver has very good thermal and electrical
must exhibit the following properties: properties. Again, with these plugs nose length can
be increased within the same temperature range.
● High thermal conductivity. The thermal conductivity of some electrode materials
● High corrosion resistance. is listed for comparison.
● High resistance to burn-off.
● Silver 407 W/m K
For normal applications, alloys of nickel are used ● Copper 384 W/m K
for the electrode material. Chromium, manganese, ● Platinum 70 W/m K
silicon and magnesium are examples of the alloying ● Nickel 59 W/m K
188 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

Figure 8.30 The semi-surface spark plug has good anti-fouling

characteristics

Figure 8.31 V-grooved plug

Compound electrodes have an average thermal
conductivity of about 200 W/m K. Platinum tips are
used for some spark plug applications due to the
very high burn-off resistance of this material. It is
also possible because of this to use much smaller
diameter electrodes, thus increasing mixture acces-
sibility. Platinum also has a catalytic effect, further
accelerating the combustion process.
Figure 8.30 shows a semi-surface spark-plug,
which, because of its design, has good anti-fouling
properties.

8.6.5 Electrode gap

Spark plug electrode gaps have, in general, increased
as the power of the ignition systems driving the spark
has increased. The simple relationship between plug
gap and voltage required is that, as the gap increases
so must the voltage (leaving aside engine operating
conditions). Furthermore, the energy available to
form a spark at a fixed engine speed is constant,
which means that a larger gap using higher voltage
will result in a shorter duration spark. A smaller gap
will allow a longer duration spark. For cold starting
an engine and for igniting weak mixtures, the dura- Figure 8.32 V-grooved spark plug firing, together with a graph
tion of the spark is critical. Likewise the plug gap indicating potential improvements when compared with the
must be as large as possible to allow easy access conventional plug
for the mixture in order to prevent quenching of
the flame.
The final choice is therefore a compromise flame front and less quenching due to contact with
reached through testing and development of a par- the earth and centre electrodes. Figure 8.32 shows a
ticular application. Plug gaps in the region of V-grooved plug firing together with a graphical
0.6–1.2 mm seem to be the norm at present. indication of the potential improvements when
compared with the conventional plug.
8.6.6 V-grooved spark plug
The V-grooved plug is a development by NGK
8.6.7 Choosing the correct plug
designed to reduce electrode quenching and allow Two methods are often used to determine the best
the flame front to progress more easily from the spark plug for a given application. In the main it is
spark. This is achieved by forming the electrode the temperature range that is of prime importance.
end into a ‘V’ shape, as shown in Figure 8.31. The first method of assessing plug temperature
This allows the spark to be formed at the side is the thermocouple spark plug, as shown in Figure
of the electrode, giving better propagation of the 8.33. This allows quite accurate measurement of the
 Ignition systems 189

Figure 8.33 Thermocouple spark plug

temperature but does not allow the test to be carried

out for all types of plug.
A second method is the technique of ionic cur-
rent measurement. When combustion has been ini-
tiated, the conductivity and pattern of current flow
across the plug gap is a very good indication of the
thermal load on the plug. This process allows accur-
ate matching of the spark plug heat range to every
engine, as well as providing data on the combustion
temperature of a test engine. This technique is start-
ing to be used as feedback to engine management
systems to assist with accurate control.
In the after-market, choosing the correct plug is
a matter of using manufacturers’ parts catalogues.

8.6.8 Spark plugs development

Most developments in spark plug technology are
incremental. Recent trends have been towards the
use of platinum plugs and the development of a plug
that will stay within acceptable parameters for long
periods (i.e. in excess of 50 000 miles/80 000 km).
Multiple electrode plugs are a contribution to
long life and reliability. Do note though that these
Figure 8.34 Platinum spark plug
plugs only produce one spark at one of the elec-
trodes each time they fire. The spark will jump
across the path of least resistance and this will nor- 8.7 Case studies
mally be the path that will produce the best ignition
or start to combustion. Equally, the wear rate is
spread over two or more electrodes. A double elec-
8.7.1 Introduction
trode plug is shown as Figure 8.30. Figure 8.34 Most modern ignition systems are combined with
shows a platinum spark plug. the fuel management system. For this reason I have
190 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

Figure 8.35 Toyota integrated ignition assembly

Figure 8.36 Toyota integrated ignition circuit

chosen older case studies. I have even induced con- and igniter (module) are all mounted on the distribu-
tact breakers, for fear that we forget how they work! tor. The unit contains conventional advance weights
and a vacuum/load sensitive advance unit. This also
8.7.2 Integrated ignition doubles as an octane selector.
The circuit diagram is shown in Figure 8.36.
assembly (Toyota) This shows how the inductive rotor triggers a
Figure 8.35 shows the components of an integrated Darlington pair in the igniter unit to operate the coil
ignition assembly. The pulse generator, ignition coil primary.
 Ignition systems 191

Mounting all the components as one unit can

cause overheating problems. If the system is dis-
mantled then any heat sink grease disturbed must
be replaced.

8.7.3 Contact breaker ignition

(lots of older cars)
Figure 8.4, at the start of this chapter, shows the circuit
of a typical contact breaker ignition system. The dis-
tributor rotates at half engine speed, and a cam causes
the contacts to open and close. This switching action
turns the current flow in the coil primary on and off
which, by mutual induction, creates a high voltage
in the secondary winding. This voltage is distributed
in the form of a spark via the cap and rotor arm.
A distributor is shown in Figure 8.37 complete
with the centrifugal advance weights and vacuum
capsule. As the engine speed increases, the weights
fly outwards under the control of springs. This move-
ment causes the cam on the top central shaft of the
distributor to rotate against the direction of rotation
of the lower shaft. This opens the contacts earlier in
the cycle, thus advancing the ignition timing.
A vacuum advance unit moves the base plate on
which the contacts are secured, in response to changes
in engine load. This has most effect during cruising
due to the advance needed to burn a weaker mixture
used under these conditions.
Figure 8.20 shows the advance characteristics of
this type of distributor. The straight lines are nor-
mally described as the advance curve.

8.7.4 Bosch spark plugs –

100 years of development
It is now almost a hundred years since Bosch pre-
sented the first spark plug combined with a high-
tension magneto ignition system. On January 7,
1902 the company was awarded a patent for this
ground-breaking development. The reliable Bosch
ignition system solved what Carl Benz saw as the
main problem of the early automotive technology.
Together with improvements in production technol-
ogy it was the spark plug that laid the foundations
for the rapid increase in automobile production
over the decades that followed. As a result, the time Figure 8.37 Contact breaker distributor
came when everyone could afford a car.
Nowadays the Bosch spark plug, which has been now about 20 000 to 30 000 km, some 20 to 30 times
developed and improved continuously over the higher than the figure 90 years ago. Some special
decades, is a major system component which plays a spark plugs even have a service life of 100 000 km
key role in fuel economy, clean and efficient combus- (Figure 8.38).
tion and the reliable operation of engines and catalytic Bosch is continually adapting to new develop-
converters. Despite the tremendous increase in spark ments in engine technology such as four-valve
plug performance, the useful life of a spark plug is cylinder heads or lean mix engines. The latest
192 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

example (2003–4) is the Volkswagen Lupo FSI, the

first mass-produced car with a very low-consumption
gasoline engine featuring both direct injection and
stratified charging. Bosch supplies the entire injec-
tion and ignition system as well as specially devel-
oped spark plugs. Go to the www.bosch.com
web site to find the correct plug for any application.
Design variants and special materials such as
platinum or yttrium allow Bosch spark plugs to be
used in a wide variety of applications. Countless
different types of spark plug can also be produced
by changing the type, number and shape of the
electrodes. The current Bosch spark plug catalogue
includes 26 different electrode designs. All these
possibilities help engines meet ever more stringent
emission limits at the same time as ensuring greater
efficiency and a higher power output (Figure 8.39).
In 1902 Bosch produced about 300 spark plugs.
Now the company’s plant in Bamberg alone pro-
duces about a million spark plugs every working
day and worldwide production is about 350 million
spark plugs per year.
Bosch also produces spark plugs to Bosch world-
wide quality standards at plants in India, Brazil,
China and Russia for local markets and manufactur-
ers. In total Bosch has produced excessively more
than seven billion spark plugs. Laid end to end, they
Figure 8.38 The core material of a spark plug is important for would stretch more than 350 000 kilometres – all the
performance (Source: Bosch Press) way to the moon!

100 years of Bosch spark plugs – the highlights:

1902 Bosch is granted a patent for a new type of spark plug combined with a high-tension magneto on
January 7, 1902. The first systems are supplied to Daimler-Motorengesellschaft in Bad
Cannstatt on September 24, 1902
1902 (onwards) In the first few years, production totals a few hundred units per year
1914 The first spark plug factory is founded in Stuttgart
1927 Bosch introduces the term ‘heat range’, which has remained the standard measure of the thermal
capacity of a spark plug (important for the ideal adaptation of a spark plug to a specific engine)
to this day
1939 The Bamberg spark plug factory is founded
1953 Bosch spark plug with composite centre electrode ensuring reliable cold starting and a longer serv-
ice life is used on the Mercedes Benz 300 SL gull-wing
1968 The Bamberg plant produces the billionth spark plug
1976 Mass production of the thermoelastic plug with composite centre electrode starts
1980s Spark plugs are adapted to changes in fuels and engine design making motors cleaner, more economi-
cal and more efficient (lead-free petrol, catalytic converters, four valves per cylinder, lean mix, etc.)
1983 Platinum centre electrodes and composite materials with noble metal alloys boost the service life
of spark plugs to well in excess of 60 000 km
1991 The Bosch spark plug with surface/air gap prevents carbon fouling, timing drift and misfiring even
in operation with frequent short trips
1995 Nickel yttrium electrode material prolongs the service life of spark plugs
2000 The seven billionth Bosch spark plug is produced
2000 Supply of tailor-made spark plugs for the first direct injection stratified charge gasoline engine
(with ignition and injection system also supplied by Bosch)
2002 (January 7) 100th anniversary of the first Bosch spark plug.
 Ignition systems 193

Figure 8.40 Constant energy electronic ignition distributor

and ignition module

conditions. An energy value of about 0.3 mJ is all

that is required to ignite a static stoichiometric
(ideal proportion) mixture. However, with lean or
rich mixtures, together with high turbulence, energy
values in the region of 3 to 4 mJ are necessary. This
has made constant energy ignition essential on all
Figure 8.39 Four-electrode spark plug (Source: Bosch Press) of today’s vehicles so they can meet emission and
performance requirements.
Programmed ignition is the term used by some
It is interesting to note that a standard spark plug manufacturers for digitally controlled ignition; others
has up to 100 sparks per second or more than 20 call it electronic spark advance (ESA). Constant
million sparks over a useful life of 20 000 km. Spark energy electronic ignition was a major step for-
plug working conditions include voltage up to wards and is still used on many vehicles, together
30 000 V, temperatures up to 10 000 ° C and pres- with a standard distributor. However, its limitations
sures up to 100 bar, as well as extremely aggressive lie in still having to rely upon mechanical compon-
mixtures of hot petrol vapour, combustion products ents for speed and load advance characteristics. In
and fuel–oil residues. many cases these did not match ideally the require-
ments of the engine. With a digital system, informa-
tion about the operating requirements of a particular
8.7.5 Ignition overview engine is programmed in to memory inside the
Modern ignition systems are now part of the engine electronic control unit. This data, stored in read only
management, which controls fuel delivery, ignition memory (ROM), is obtained from testing on an
and other vehicle functions. These systems are under engine dynamometer and then under various oper-
continuous development and reference to the manu- ating conditions (Figure 8.41).
facturer’s workshop manual is essential when work- Distributorless ignition has all the features of
ing on any vehicle. The main ignition components programmed ignition systems but, by using a spe-
are the engine speed and load sensors, knock sen- cial type of ignition coil, operates the spark plugs
sor, temperature sensor and the ignition coil. The without the need for a distributor. The basic prin-
ECU reads from the sensors, interprets and com- ciple is that of the ‘lost spark’. On a four-cylinder
pares the data, and sends output signals to the actu- engine, the distribution of the spark is achieved by
ators. The output component for ignition is the coil. using two double-ended coils, which are fired alter-
Some form of electronic ignition is now fitted to all nately by the ECU. The timing is determined from a
spark ignition vehicles (Figure 8.40). crankshaft speed and position sensor as well as load
In order for a constant energy electronic ignition and other corrections. When one of the coils is fired
system to operate, the dwell must increase with a spark is delivered to two engine cylinders, either 1
engine speed. This will only be of benefit, however, and 4, or 2 and 3. The spark delivered to the cylin-
if the ignition coil can be charged up to its full capa- der on the compression stroke will ignite the mix-
city in a very short time. Constant energy means ture as normal. The spark produced in the other
that, within limits, the energy available to make the cylinder will have no effect, as this cylinder will be
spark at the plug remains constant under all operating just completing its exhaust stroke.
194 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

Figure 8.41 Distributorless ignition coil in position

Figure 8.42 Six direct ignition coils in position. Some systems use CDI

Direct ignition is similar, but has one ignition coil voltage across the plugs allows measurement of
for each cylinder, which is mounted directly on the the current for each spark and will indicate which
spark plug. The use of an individual coil for each cylinder is on its combustion stroke. This works
plug ensures that the charge time for the low induct- because a burning mixture has a lower resistance.
ance primary winding is very fast. This ensures that The cylinder with the highest current at this point
a very high voltage, high-energy spark is produced will be the cylinder on the combustion stroke
(Figure 8.42). (Figure 8.43).
Ignition timing and dwell are controlled digit- Modern ignition systems that are part of an
ally. On some systems a camshaft sensor is used engine management system, usually have a limp-
to provide information about which cylinder is home facility that allows the engine to continue to
on the compression stroke. An interesting method, operate when defects are detected by the ECU.
which does not require a sensor to determine Basic settings are substituted and a warning light is
which cylinder is on compression (engine position illuminated to alert the driver. Self-test and on-
is known from a crank sensor), determines the board diagnostic (OBD) links are provided for
information by initially firing all of the coils. The diagnostic tests to be carried out.
 Ignition systems 195

Table 8.3 Common symptoms of an ignition system

malfunction and possible faults

Symptom Possible fault

Engine rotates but ● Damp ignition components

does not start ● Spark plugs worn to excess
● Ignition system open circuit
Difficult to start when ● Spark plugs worn to excess
cold ● High resistance in ignition circuit
Engine starts but then ● Ignition wiring connection
stops immediately intermittent
● Ballast resistor open circuit
(older cars)
Erratic idle ● Incorrect plug gaps
● Incorrect ignition timing
Figure 8.43 Combustion taking place (Source: Ford Media) Misfire at idle speed ● Ignition coil or distributor cap
tracking
● Spark plugs worn to excess
Ignition systems continue to develop and will Misfire through all speeds ● Incorrect plugs or plug gaps
continue to improve. However, keep in mind that the ● HT leads breaking down
simple purpose of an ignition system is to ignite the Lack of power ● Ignition timing incorrect
fuel–air mixture every time at the right time. And, ● HT components tracking
Backfires ● Incorrect ignition timing
no matter how complex the electronics may seem, ● Tracking
the high voltage is produced by switching a coil on Runs on when switched ● Ignition timing incorrect
and off. off ● Carbon build-up in engine
Pinking or knocking ● Ignition timing incorrect
under load ● Ignition system electronic fault
8.8 Diagnosing ignition ● Knock sensor not working

system faults 3. Check supply to ignition coil (within 0.5 V of

battery).
8.8.1 Introduction 4. Spark from coil via known good HT lead
As with all systems, the six stages of fault-finding (jumps about 10 mm, but do not try more).
should be followed. 5. If good spark then check HT system for track-
1. Verify the fault. ing and open circuits. Check plug condition
2. Collect further information. (leads should be a maximum resistance of
3. Evaluate the evidence. about 30 k/m and per lead) – stop here in this
4. Carry out further tests in a logical sequence. procedure.
5. Rectify the problem. 6. If no spark, or it will only jump a short dis-
6. Check all systems. tance, continue with this procedure (colour of
spark is not relevant).
The procedure outlined in the next section is 7. Check continuity of coil windings (primary
related primarily to Stage 4 of the process. Table 8.3 0.5–3 , secondary several k.
lists some common symptoms of an ignition system 8. Supply and earth to ‘module’ (12 V minimum
malfunction together with suggestions for the pos- supply, earth drop 0.5 V maximum).
sible fault. 9. Supply to pulse generator if appropriate
(10–12 V).
8.8.2 Testing procedure 10. Output of pulse generator (inductive about 1 V
Caution/Achtung/Attention – high voltages can AC when cranking, Hall type switches 0 V to
seriously damage your health! 8 V DC).
The following procedure is generic and with a 11. Continuity of LT wires (0–0.1 ).
little adaptation can be applied to any ignition sys- 12. Replace ‘module’ but only if all tests above are
tem. Refer to the manufacturer’s recommendations satisfactory.
if in any doubt.
1. Check battery state of charge (at least 70%).
8.8.3 DIS diagnostics
2. Hand and eye checks (all connections secure The DIS system is very reliable due to the lack of
and clean). any moving parts. Some problems, however, can be
196 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

Figure 8.44 Assessing spark plug condition

experienced when trying to examine HT oscillo- by a number of factors. The HT produced is mainly
scope patterns due to the lack of a king lead. This dependent on this value of primary current. The
can often be overcome with a special adapter but it rate of increase of primary current is vital because
is still necessary to move the sensing clip to each this determines the value of current when the cir-
lead in turn. cuit is ‘broken’ in order to produce the collapse of
The DIS coil can be tested with an ohmmeter. the magnetic field.
The resistance of each primary winding should be If the electrical constants of the primary ignition
0.5  and the secondary windings between 11 and system are known it is possible to calculate the
16 k. The coil will produce in excess of 37 kV in instantaneous primary current. This requires the
an open circuit condition. exponential equation:
The plug leads have integral retaining clips to pre-
vent water ingress and vibration problems. The max-
imum resistance for the HT leads is 30 k per lead.
i
V
R
(
1  eRt/L )
No service adjustments are possible with this where i instantaneous primary current, R total
system, with the exception of octane adjustment on primary resistance, L inductance of primary
some models. This involves connecting two pins winding, t time the current has been flowing,
together on the module for normal operation, or e base of natural logs.
earthing one pin or the other to change to a differ- Some typical values for comparison are given in
ent fuel. The actual procedure must be checked Table 8.4
with the manufacturer for each particular model. Using, as an example, a four-cylinder engine
running at 3000 rev/min, 6000 sparks per minute
8.8.4 Spark plug diagnostics are required (four sparks during the two revolutions
Examination of the spark plugs is a good way of to complete the four-stroke cycle). This equates to
assessing engine and associated systems condition. 6000/60 or 100 sparks per second. At this rate each
Figure 8.44 is a useful guide as provided by NGK spark must be produced and used in 10 ms.
plugs. Taking a typical dwell period of say 60%, the
time t, at 3000 rev/min on a four-cylinder engine, is
6 ms. At 6000 rev/min, t will be 3 ms. Employing
8.9 Advanced ignition the exponential equation above, the instantaneous
technology current for each system is:

3000 rev/min 6000 rev/min

8.9.1 Ignition coil performance
Conventional system 3.2 A 2.4 A
The instantaneous value of the primary current in the
Electronic system 10.9 A 7.3 A
inductive circuit of the ignition coil is determined
 Ignition systems 197

Table 8.4 Comparison of conventional and electronic ignitions 5. Make a sketch to show the difference between
a hot and cold spark plug.
Conventional ignition Electronic ignition 6. Describe what is meant by ‘mutual induction’
in the ignition coil.
R 3–4  R 1
7. Explain the term ‘constant energy’ in relation
V 14 V V 14 V
L 10 mH L 4 mH to an ignition system.
8. Using a programmed ignition system fitted
with a knock sensor as the example, explain
This gives a clear indication of how the energy
why knock control is described as closed loop.
stored in the coil is much increased by the use of
9. Make a clearly labelled sketch to show the
low resistance and low inductance ignition coils. It
operation of an inductive pulse generator.
is important to note that the higher current flowing
10. List all the main components of a basic (not
in the electronic system would have been too much
ESA) electronic ignition system and state the
for the conventional contact breakers.
purpose of each component.
The energy stored in the magnetic field of the
ignition coil is calculated as shown:
8.11.2 Assignment
E
1
2
(
L  i2 ) Draw an 8  8 look-up table (grid) for a digital
ignition system. The horizontal axis should repre-
where E energy, L inductance of primary
sent engine speed from zero to 5000 rev/min, and
winding, and i instantaneous primary current.
the vertical axis engine load from zero to 100%.
The stored energy of the electronic system at
Fill in all the boxes with realistic figures and
6000 rev/min is 110 mJ; the energy in the conven-
explain why you have chosen these figures. You
tional system is 30 mJ. This clearly shows the
should explain clearly the trends and not each indi-
advantage of electronic ignition as the spark energy
vidual figure.
is directly related to the energy stored in the coil.
Download the ‘Automotive Technology –
Electronics’ simulation program from my web site
8.10 New developments and see if your figures agree with those in the pro-
gram. Discuss reasons why they may differ.
in ignition systems
8.10.1 Engine management 8.11.3 Multiple choice questions
Most serious developments in ignition are now The ignition component that steps up voltage is the:
linked with the full control of all engine functions. 1. capacitor
This means that the ignition system per se is not 2. condenser
likely to develop further in its own right. Ignition 3. coil
timing, however, is being used to a greater extent 4. king lead
for controlling idle speed, traction control and Setting spark plug gaps too wide will cause running
automatic gearbox surge control. problems because the firing voltage will:
We have come a long way since ‘hot tube’ 1. increase and the spark duration will decrease
ignition! 2. increase and the spark duration will increase
3. decrease and the spark duration will increase
8.11 Self-assessment 4. decrease and the spark duration will decrease
A spark is created as the coil primary winding is:
8.11.1 Questions 1. switched on
2. switched off
1. Describe the purpose of an ignition system.
3. charged
2. State five advantages of electronic ignition
4. stabilized
compared with the contact breaker system.
3. Draw the circuit of a programmed ignition sys- Cruising conditions require the ignition timing to be:
tem and clearly label each part. 1. retarded
4. Explain what is meant by ignition timing and 2. reversed
why certain conditions require it to be advanced 3. allocated
or retarded. 4. advanced
198 Automobile electrical and electronic systems

An inductive pulse generator in an ignition distri- A vehicle fitted with a system known as ‘Limp
butor will NOT produce an output voltage when the Home’ means that if a fault develops:
engine is: 1. and you are in an ambulance, it is what you have
1. running to do if it breaks down …
2. cranking 2. the engine management system switches to just
3. stopped enough engine cylinders to keep you going
4. over revving 3. the driver will not even notice and the vehicle
will keep going as normal
With the ignition switched on, a Hall effect pulse
4. the engine management system switches in pre-
generator in an ignition distributor will produce an
set values to keep the vehicle driveable
output voltage when the:
1. engine is running A ‘hot running’ engine must be fitted with a:
2. engine is cranking 1. hot spark plug
3. Hall chip is shielded 2. cold spark plug
4. Hall chip is not shielded 3. taper seat spark plug
4. washer seat spark plug
Technician A says a pulse shaper is used to shape
the AC output from a pulse generator to a square Changes in pressure to a MAP sensor are converted
wave pattern. Technician B says a Schmitt trigger is in many cases to a:
used to shape the AC output from a pulse generator 1. variable voltage output
to a square wave pattern. Who is right? 2. variable current output
1. A only 3. steady state reading
2. B only 4. steady waveform reading
3. Both A and B
4. Neither A nor B