IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC FEEDING

Nutrient requirements of the animals vary not only among different species (swine, poultry,
cattle, etc.) but also during different physiological stages. Scientific feeding or feeding as per
requirements of livestock has a direct impact on the growth rate, health status, quality of the
products derived from them besides amelioration of the environment. The scientific feeding
involves providing a balance of nutrients that best meets the animal’s needs for growth,
maintenance, production, reproduction, etc. Therefore, proper animal feeding is crucial to the
profitability of the live- stock enterprise. Some points which necessitate scientific feeding of
livestock are enumerated below:

1. To explore the genetic potential of different animal species e. g.cattle, buffalo, sheep,goats,
etc. in terms of weight gain, milk or wool production by feeding on scientific lines.
2. Nutritional requirements of the animals vary considerably during different phases of life
hence, scientific feeding becomes more important to get desired optimum results.
3. India possess a huge livestock population and there is deficiency of 11% dry fodder, 28%
concentrate and 35% green fodder therefore, scientific feeding helps to feed the animals
with the available limited resources by making nutritionally balanced combinations using
the available feed stuffs.

Scientific feeding involves:

a. An understanding of the different nutrients required by livestock for different

physiological functions such as maintenance, growth, reproduction, milk production, wool
production, etc.
b. An understanding of the nutrient composition of different feed and fodders, and
efficiency of their utilization by the animals
c. Formulating balanced rations by combination of different feed and fodder resources to
supply the nutrients for different body functions of the animals at economical rate.

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 FEEDING EXPERIMENTS

The art of feeding animals was originally developed by trial and experience. A feeding trial is a
record of the results obtained in terms of growth, milk production or any other function from a
given feed. Brief detail of different type of feeding experimentsis given below:

1. Comparative feeding trials:

→It is the simplest form of the feeding trial
→Two or more rations may be compared
Example: The comparison was made between the linseed meal and the fish meal as a
protein supplement for swine. One group of animals was given fish meal as the protein
supplement while the second group was given linseed meal. The data obtained showed
that fish meal is a better protein source than the linseed meal.

Ration 1 Average daily gain (kg) Feed consumed per 100 kg

gain (kg)
200 kg corn,100 kg wheat
midlings 0.5 390
75 kg fish meal
Ration 2
200 kg corn,100 kg wheat
midlings 0.32 440
75 kg linseed meal

Demerit: It does not state why one feed is better than the other
2. Feeding trials with the laboratory animals: These days a good number of nutritional
problems of are being studied with small animals e. g. rat, mice, guinea pig, rabbit,
hamster etc.
Advantages:
a. Much lower cost in the terms of animals, feed and labour
b. Shorter life cycle of the animals therefore, results can be obtained in a short time.

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 c. The influence of the individual variability can be reduced to minimum by the use of the
animals of the similar genetic and nutritional history, by using large number of animals
and by close environmental control.
d. Slaughter for chemical analysis and histological examination is sometimes necessary in
many feeding trials. Due to smaller size and low cost it is comparatively easy in lab
animals as compared to the farm animals.
Disadvantage:
Due to difference between the farm animals and the lab animals in the terms of
physiology and other parametersthe results obtained in the feeding trials of the lab
animals cannot be directly applied to the larger farm animals.
3. The purified diet method:
Purified diets consist of purified source of the various nutrients.
Example: Protein as casein, urea or purified soybean proteins.
Carbohydrates as starch, glucose or sucrose.
Fats as lard or some oil.
Minerals as chemically pure salts.
Vitamins as pure crystalline compounds.
Advantage: Makes it easy to include or withdraw a given nutrient with minimum
disturbance of any other nutrients.
Disadvantages:
i. The ingredients of these diets cannot be considered pure in the absolute sense. For
example, starch cannot be free from the mineral elements.
ii.Some of the constituents like protein may be altered from their natural state during the
process of purification.
iii. All the nutrient requirements of the animal should to known to formulate a completely
purified diet.
iv. The diet should be in suitable physical form and palatable so the feed consumption of
the animals is not affected.
4. Germ free technique: Intestinal organisms complicate the interpretation of data
obtained in feeding trials on dietary requirements of various vitamins. Thus, nutritionists
have special interest in obtaining germ free animals i.e. animals free

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 fromcontamination by bacteria, yeasts, moulds, fungi, protozoa and parasites in general,
that is, free of all other life forms. In this technique newborns are obtained by caesarean
section and reared using specially designed appropriate technique. The animals are given
sterilized diets. success has been reported with rats, rabbit, hamster, mice, chickens,
turkey and monkeys.
The technique has been developed for obtaining specific pathogen-free (SPF) baby pigs
by hysterectomy. these have been used for nutritional experiments.
5. Group feeding versus individual feeding: In feeding experiments generally,the
animals are fed in groups. Record of the feed intake is animportant feature of all feeding
trials. The advantage with group feeding is that it is cheaper in terms of equipments and
labour cost.
But in many experiments, it may introduce complications while interpreting the results
e.g. variability in the individual animal behaviour within the group w.r.t. production, feed
consumption, etc. or if the animal dies during the trial or it has to be eliminated for any
reasons.The performance of the animal can be eliminated but not the feed it has
consumed.This problem is not faced with individual feeding. The individual data is more
useful from statistical point of view.
6. Controlled versus Ad libitum feeding: Controlled feeding is a type of feeding in which
the animals are given feed in a measured quantity where as in ad libitum feeding the
animal are fed free of choice.
ad libitum feeding is most commonly followed procedure in the farm animals’
investigations and gives unbiased results for direct practical application. In growth trials
adlibitumfeeding is to be given so that feed per unit gain can be calculated.Ad libitum
feeding is not favorable in the conditions where controlled conditions are required, for
example the determination of digestibility.
7. Equalized paired feeding or paired feeding: The feed intake is controlled in this
method. In this method of comparing two rations the animals are fed alike in the
preliminary period. Then animals are selected by pairs and kept on experimental ration
A and ration B. the animals are fed same quantity of feed limiting the intake of both to
that of the animal consuming the lesser amount.
The animals of the pair are similar in size, age and previous history.

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 Minimum of 4 pairs of the animals are to be used to carry the statistical analysis.
Disadvantages:
i. Involve complication when used to compare more than three rations.
ii. The faster growing animals is penalized because of the restricted feeding.
iii. By limiting the feed intake, the full effect of the better ration cannot express itself.
8. Slaughter experiments: In feeding trials where it is desired to obtain information
regarding the effect of a particular ration in terms of the composition of tissues formed
or relative value of two mineral supplements in terms of calcium and phosphorus
content of bones, such experiments whichrequire killing the animals and analysis of the
specific tissues or the body as a whole are referred to as slaughter experiments.
Since the increase in body weight as a whole may be due to water, fat, minerals as
well as protein. Also, the growth of animal as a whole would not give definite
information as to bone development. Therefore, such situations necessitate slaughter of
the animals.
Limitations:I. Require much more time and labour. II. Problems are presented in the
selection of representative samples of tissues and their preparation and analysis.

Experimental designs: Experimental design is the process of planning a study to meet specified
objectives. Planning an experiment properly is very important in order to ensure that the right
type of data and sufficient sample size are available to answer the research questions of interest.

Different statistical designs are as under:

CRD (Completely Randomized Designs)

RBD (Randomised Block Designs),
Factorial experiments
Latin square design
Cross over design
When two groups are compared as in most classic designs, they are known as
the experimental group and the control group.

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 DIGESTION AND METABOLISM TRIAL

Chemical composition of feed suggestsonly the amount of nutrients present in the feed. The
nutritive value of the feedstuffs can be established when the nutrients lost in feces, urine, gases
etc. are estimated. Since the major portion of undigestednutrients is excreted in feces, it
necessitates conducting digestibility trial to arrive at the digestibility of the feed or various
nutrients.

Digestibility: Digestibility is that portion of feed or of any nutrient of feed which is not
recovered in the feces. When digestibility is expressed in percentage it is known as digestibility
coefficient.

Amount of feed eaten – Amount voided in feces

Digestibility coefficient =…………………………………………………. X 100
Amount consumed by the animal
The digestibility coefficient determined through digestion trials is apparent since the feces in
addition to undigested feed also contain mucosal debris, unspent enzymes, undigested
microorganisms which are not accounted for in it.

The apparent digestibility of the feed is less than the true digestibility because in true
digestibility metabolic losses are also subtracted from the total faecal excretion. Digestibility
coefficients are estimated for all organic nutrients. For ash or minerals,digestibility is not
estimated, because it does not contribute to energy to the feed, and most of the absorbed
minerals are excreted through the gut.

Example:An animal consumed 9 kg feed dry matter and excreted 4 kg dung (dry matter basis)
and 0.3 kg of endogenous constituents (mucosal debris, unspent enzymes, undigested
microorganisms) in the fecal contents. Calculate true and apparent digestibility of the feed.

Apparent digestibility (%) = 9-4X 100 = 55.6

9
True digestibility(%) =9-(4-0.3)X 100 = 58.9
9
Difference between digestion and metabolism trial:

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In a digestion trial only, the fecal matter is collected and analyzed,whereas in a metabolism trial
both fecal matter and urine are analyzed for losses of nutrients of dietary origin.

Methods to determining digestibility:

1. In vivo methods:
a. Direct Method or Conventional method
b. IndirectMethod
i. Difference Method
ii. Indicators/Markers Method
2. InSacco method/ semi-in vivo methods
a. Nylon bag technique
b. VIVAR technique
3. In vitro methods
a. Using rumen liquor
b. Using enzymes instead of rumen liquor
c. RUSITEC (Rumen Simulation Technique)

Norms adopted in conducting digestion and metabolism trials:

Selection of animals:

 The animals should be healthy and of the same breed, sex, age and body weight.
 Generally, a minimum of four adult animals per treatment are needed.
 Male animals are preferred to females because it is easier to collect feces and urine
separately.

Preliminary Period

During this period the test feed is offered daily to the experimental animals as per the
requirements for an extended period which is twenty-one days for ruminants. This is called
preliminary period.

 The purpose is to make the gastrointestinal tract free of any undigestible feed
material consumed prior to the start of the digestion trial.

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  In monogastric animals such as poultry, digestion and evacuation are usually complete in
24 hours after the feed is ingested.

Collection period

 Animals are transferred to cages or stalls and given 2 –3days adaptation period followed
by collection period of 7-10 days (5-7 days collection period is generally followed).
 Longer the period of collection the more accurate the results.
 Quantitative collection of faeces and urine is done daily.
 Representative samples of feed offered, residue left, faeces voided and urine excreted are
preserved for further analysis.

Direct method of determination of digestibility

The nutrients in the feed, residue and feces aredetermined and digestibility is calculated by the
formula given previously.

Indirect method for determination of digestibility

Difference method

The difference method is followed in two situations:

1. For concentrates, because they do not provide the bulk.

2. The poor-quality non-maintenance type forages like stovers, straw or mature
grasses

Method

If the digestibility of nutrients in ingredients like groundnut cake or other oil cakes and poor-
quality roughage like straws or stovers is to be determined then three digestibility trials in a
sequence are conducted.

 1st digestion trial

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 Feed the animals with a good quality roughage like legume hay e.g. cowpea hay to
determine the digestibility of nutrients in it.

 2nd digestion trial

The same animals are fed the same good quality fodder i.e. cowpea hay given during
first digestion trial along with known quantity of concentrate like groundnut cake, etc.
whose digestibility is to be estimated by difference.

3rd digestion trial

To know the nutritive value of the poor-quality roughages the same animals are fed poor quality
roughages along with the concentrate fed in the second trial and the value for the poor-
quality roughage is calculated by the difference.

INDICATOR METHOD:

 In some situations, the lack of suitable equipment of the particular nature required for
conducting the trial may make it impracticable to measure directly either feed intake or
feces output, or both. For instance, when animals are fed as a group it is impossible to
measure the intake of each individual.

 Digestibility can still be measured, however, if the food contains some substance known
to be completely indigestible (indicator).
 The concentration of this indicator in the feed and in small samples of the feces of each
animal are determined, the ratio between these concentrations gives an estimate of
digestibility.

% indicator in faeces - % indicator in feed

Digestibility Coefficient = ……………………………………………… X 100
% indicator in faeces

Internal (Natural) indicators - lignin, silica and acid insoluble ash

External (Artificial) indicators - Chromic oxide, carmine red dye

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The ideal specification of an indicator/marker:

 It should be totally indigestible and not absorbed in the GI tract.

 It should be inert with no pharmacological action on the digestive tract.
 It must mix properly and remain uniformly distributed in the digesta.
 It should pass through the tract at a uniform rate and should be voided entirely.
 Its estimation in the laboratory should be easy.
 Most likely be a natural constituent of the feed under test.

In sacco method/ semi-in vivo method

In this method the digestibility of the feed is determined by keeping the feed sample in the
bags and immersed in the rumen content of the fistulatedanimals.The bag is made of nylon,
dacron or silk cloth which is indigestible it should be of very fine mesh so that the feed particles
should not pass through it.The bags on removal are washed till the wash water is clear and dried
at 600C for 48 hours. The percent disappearance of dry matter, nitrogen/crude protein, different
fiber fractions etc. are determined.

Limitations: The sample which has to be tested is not subjected to entire digestive process like
mastication, ruination and passage.

In vitro digestibility technique:

This method is used for evaluation of the quality of the fodder especially when a large number of
samples is involved.

It is also used for evaluation of unconventional feed stuffs. The method can be discussed under
two headings:

a. Technique: In this the test feed sample is subjected to the rumen fluid and artificial saliva at
390 C in anaerobic conditions in an artificial rumen. After completion the disappearance of the
organic matter and dry matter is calculated as IVOMD and IVDMD respectively.

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b. VIVAR technique: In this method in-vivo artificial rumen was developed. The VIVAR tube
is made of stainless steel or glass and is fitted with semipermeable membrane from which feed
sample cannot leak out. After the completion of the fermentation process the sample is
checked for DM disappearance.

FACTORS AFFECTING DIFGESTIBILITY OF THE FEED STUFFS

1. Chemical composition of the feed

2. Preparation of feed
a. Particle size of the feed
b. Soaking
c. Processing of grains/feed
3. Nutrient content in the ration/ration composition
4. Animal factor
1. Chemical composition of the feed:

As plant matures its lignin content increases as a result digestibility of the feed material is
reduced. The chemical composition of the forage is affected by number of factors like
soil composition, manuring and fertilization etc.

2. Preparation of feed

Particle size of the feed

 Grinding of the feed samples leads to disruption the seed coat and increase in the surface
area and making it more feasible for the action of the digestive enzymes and juices. But
very fine grinding of the feed can lead to decrease in digestibility due to high rate of
passage.

Soaking

 Soaking of grains and feed in water before feeding generally increases digestibility.

Processing of grains/feed

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  The processes like boiling, steam processing, micronization, pelleting, extrusion cooking,
improvedigestibility of the feed.

3. Nutrient content in the ration/ration composition

 Protein level: There are many feeds which when fed may influence the digestibility of
the other. This effect is called associative effect. Example: when protein or NPN
compounds are added to the low protein diet then the digestibility of the fiber is
increased.
 Carbohydrates: The amount and type of carbohydrates affect digestibility of the
nutrients for example, inruminantsexcessive amount of soluble carbohydrates leads to
lower breakdown of the crude fiber. Also, high level of crude fiber in the ration lowers
the digestibility of the DM and other nutrients.
 Lipids: Addition of oil or fat in the diet increases the digestibility coefficient of ether
extract. Higher levels of fat in the diet generally reduce the digestibility of other nutrients,
particularly of dietary fiber.
 Minerals: Minerals do not have much effect on the digestive performance of the simple
stomach animals but their deficiency may cause severe deficiency syndrome in these
animals. But in the herbivores the deficiency of the minerals leads to disruption of the of
the microbial fermentation which effects the digestibility.

4. Animal factor:
Species of the animals: There is difference in the digestive system of different species.
Like herbivores can digest the feed with higher content of the fiber in it. Simple stomach
animals like pig have the ability to digest high protein and low fiber diets more
efficiently.
Age of the animals: Very young and old animals are generally less efficient in the
digestion of the feed stuffs. The young ruminants due to poor development of the rumen
have less scope for the digestion of the fiber also in the newly born piglets the
digestibility is low due to the less developed enzyme system. In case of the old animals
the ability of the animals to digest the feed is reduced due to wear off teeth and decline of
the health of the animals.

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 Work: Light work increases the digestibility while heavy work reduces the digestibility
of the feed stuffs.
Level of feeding: Higher level of feeding leads to faster passage of the feed leading to
the reduction in the digestibility of the feed.
Individuality: Individual differences have also been noted among the animals of the
same species.

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 FEEDING STANDARDS

Definition: These are the statements of the amount of the nutrients required by the animals.

Feedings standards are the tables, which indicate the quantities of nutrients to be fed to the
various classes of livestock for different physiological functions like growth, maintenance,
lactation, egg production and wool growth.

For feeding the livestock on scientific lines, in the nineteenth century, scientists around different
parts of the world started formulating standards. For the convenience/ understanding, all
standards of various scientists were grouped under particular major headings on the basis of the
principles of the standard. They are:

1. Comparative type 2. Digestible nutrient system 3. Productive value type

a. Hay standard a. Grouven’s feeding a. Kellner feeding standard

standard
b. Scandinavian “feed unit b. Wolff’s feeding standard b. Armsby feeding standard
standard”
c. Wolff’s Lehmann feeding c. Agricultural Research
standard Council standard.
d. Haecker’s feeding
standard
e. Savage feeding standard
f. Morrison standard
g. National Research
Council (NRC) standard
h. Japanese feeding standard
i. Indian standard.

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COMPARATIVE TYPE

a. Hay equivalents:

In 1810 German scientistThaer suggested that different feeds should be compared using meadow
hay as standard (published the "hay equivalent").

Limitation:No information on the chemical value of these feeds and the physiological
requirements of the animals was given.

b. Scandinavian “feed unit” system (Fjord, 1884):

 In this system only one factor, namely, the feed unit was considered.
 The value of one pound of common grain such as corn, barley or wheat, is given as one-
unit value and the value of all other feeds is based upon this.

Limitation: As there are different types of grains grown in different countries therefore the
feed unit should be also different for different countries.

DIGESTIBLE NUTRIENT SYSTEM

a. Grouven feeding standard (Grouven,1859):

Crude protein, carbohydrates andfat in the feed was basis of the standard.

 According to this standard a cow weighing 1,000 lbs. should be fed 28.7 lbs. of dry
matter containing 2.67 lbs. of crude protein 0.6 lb. of crude fat and 14.55 lbs. of crude
carbohydrates.
 Soon it was realized that total nutrient present in a feed did not form an accurate as the
proportion of digestible parts varied with different feeds and hence the digestible nutrient
would be more valuable.So, the Grouven’s feeding standard was abandoned.

Limitation: Not the digestible part but total nutrients in a feed were taken into consideration.

b. Wolff standard: In 1864, Wolff proposed a feeding standard based on digestible protein,
digestible carbohydrates and digestible fat contained in a feeding stuff.

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  His standard for dairy cow weighing 1,000 lbs. was 24.5 lbs. of dry matter containing 2.5
lbs. of digestible carbohydrates and 0.4 lb. of digestible fats.

Limitation:It did not consider the quantity and quality of milk produced also the
maintenance and production requirements were not mentioned separately.

c. Wolff’s Lehmann standard (1896):

He took into account the quantity of milk produced.The requirements of a cow with a
body weight of 1000 lbs. as fixed by this standard for maintenance and maintenance cum
milk production are
Limitation: Did not take into account the quality of milk.
d. Haecker’s feeding standard(1903):
 He considered the quantity as well as the quality of milk produced.

 He took into account the allowance for the percentage of fat in the milk in addition to the
requirement for maintenance, production and total milk yield.
 His standards included digestible crude protein, carbohydrates and fats.

e.Savage feeding standard (1912):

 He expressed his standard in terms of DCP and TDN and further showed that about 2/3
requirement of the dry matter should be met by feeding roughages and the remaining 1/3
from concentrates.
 Fat content of the milk was also considered.

f. Morrison Feeding Standard:

These standards were expressed in terms of Dry Matter (D.M.), Digestible Protein (D.P.)
and Total Digestible Nutrients (T.D.N.).Morrisons mentioned the nutrient requirements
of animals in a range rather than in one figure. In 1956, Morrison again included the
allowances for Calcium, Phosphorus and Carotene besides digestible carbohydrates,
digestible proteins and net energy in terms in the feeding standard.
The average of Morrison standards has been accepted for Indian livestock.

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g. National Research council feeding standard: National Academy of Sciences - National
Research Council (NRC) and US Department of Agriculture (USDA) recommended a
nutrient allowance for dairy cattle which was first published in 1945. Since then they have
been publishing the nutrient requirements for all types of farm animals.
h. Indian feeding standard:

Sen and Ray feeding standard: Sen and Ray have compiled the feeding standards for Zebu
cattle and buffaloes, based on Morrison’s recommendations, where they adopted the average of
maximum and minimum values recommended by Morrison.

Indian council of agricultural research (ICAR) feeding standard: Considering the fact that
nutrient needs of livestock and poultry breeds under tropical environments are different from
those developed in temperate climate, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, realizing the
necessity of setting up suitable feeding standards for the Indian livestock and poultry, assigned
this task to Late Dr. N. D. Kehar.

PRODUCTIVE VALUE TYPE

a. Kellner feeding standard: In 1907 Kellner, a German scientist investigated a feeding

standard based upon “Starch” as the unit of measurement.

 He took into account not only the digestibility of the feeds as calculated from the amount
lost in faeces and urine but also the entire loss from the body including energy expended
in digestion and passing the food inside the body.
 For measuring the amount of energy lost from the body as heat, Kellner devised a
respiration apparatus.
 Here heat is determined indirectly by finding the amount of carbon dioxide gas liberated
or by measuring the amount of oxygen gas used up in oxidation which takes place in the
body.
 This starch equivalent in turn can be converted into energy by a method worked out by
Armsby and Kellner.
 For any feed if the composition is known it may be converted to starch equivalent by
using the following factors:

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 Dig. protein X 0.94 = S..E
Fat from coarse fodder X 2.1 = S.E.
Fat from cereal grains X 2.1 = S.E.
Fat from oil seeds X 2.4 = S.E.
Dig carbohydrates and fiber X 1.0 = S.E.

b. Armsby feeding standard: Armsby standard in U.S.A was based on true protein and net
energy values.

 By means of the respiration calorimeter, Armsby determined the net energy required for
mastication, digestion, assimilation and also the amount of heat and gases given off through the
excretory channels.
 Thus, after considering the various losses of energy such as in urine, faeces, gases and in the
work of digestion, he was able to estimate the amount of net energy available for productive
purposes. Armsby expresses his standard in two factors that is true protein and net energy.
 Armsby standard is not as widely used as are the standards based on digestible nutrients.

c.Agriculture and food research council:

 In United Kingdom a technical committee was set up to develop the standards in 1959, by the
Agricultural Research Council (ARC), which later came to be known as Agricultural and
Food Research Council (AFRC).
 Requirements are set forth in three separate reports dealing with poultry, ruminants and pigs,
each of these reports are extensive summaries of the literatures upon which the requirements
are based.
 The unit of energy requirements has been expressed in terms of Starch equivalent instead of
T.D.N. or ME or NE as in Morrison and in N.R.C. standards.

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 Balanced ration and its characteristics
Ration: It is a twenty-four-hr. allowance of a feed or mixture of feeding stuffs. It carries no
implications that the allowance is adequate in quantity or kind to meet the nutritional needs of
the animal for which it is intended.
Balanced ration: It refers to a feed mixture just sufficient to meet the twenty-four hr.
requirements of a specified animal. The balance generally refers to the proportion of
carbohydrate, protein and fat in the ration.
Characteristics of balanced ration:

1. Acceptability to the animal: The ration should be palatable enough to stimulate intake by the
animal. If it is unpalatable, improve palatability by the addition of salt and molasses. Feed
refused by the animal is wastage and loss to the owner and the animal as well.

2. Digestibility: The ration should have highly digestible feed ingredients so that the nutrients
released into the gastrointestinal tract are well utilized by the animal. Feather meal for example
contains 87% CP but its digestibility is as low as 15-20%. Rations with high fiber contentcannot
be tolerated by poultry and swine.

3. Cost: The requirements of the animal can be met through several combinations of feed
ingredients. However, when the cost of these ingredients is considered, there can be only one
least-cost formulation.

4. Ration should be laxative and fairly bulky: Green succulent fodders have cooling and
slightly laxative action. They boost appetite and keep the animal in good condition. They are
bulky, easily digestible, rich source of carotene, other vitamins and minerals; Leguminous green
fodders are rich in proteins and calcium.

5. Presence of anti-nutritional factors and toxins: The presence of anti-nutritional factors in

the feed can make the required nutrients unavailable to the target animal such as
trypsininhibitors in soybean meal, impair the availability of proteins. Some feed ingredients
may also contain toxic substances, which may be detrimental to the animal if given in excessive
amounts. The inclusion of such feed ingredients should therefore be limited or eliminated while

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formulating feed. Other factors that should be considered in feed formulation are texture,
moisture and the processing the feed.

Also keep in mind:

1. Grains are high in phosphorus, low in calcium. Legume hays are high in calcium, low in
phosphorus. Grass hays are correct in the ratio of calcium to phosphorus, but are too low in both.
2. Most commercial feeds are balanced at calcium to phosphorus ratio of 1:1. Therefore, if you
are feeding pure alfalfa hay, you may have an incorrect mineral ratio and may need to
supplement the diet with more phosphorus (normally brans).

3. If minerals and salt are to be added to the concentrate, liquid molasses should be added to bind
the fine particles to the grains. If molasses is added, it should not exceed 7% to prevent clumping

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