1:i"II

I1· !
~ tput characteristics
I.
fhe variation of collector curre t 1 (
n c output) With colle
voltage Na:l at constant base ctor-emltter
current (IJ is call d zumr

(I) Keep the base current (1 1 e output characteristic . zouA

01 constant (say 1
1 -

(ii) Now change the colle t . s = 0 µA) lW TB IOMA

c or-emitter volt
=

HI
corresponding values of ll age IV eel and note the
co ector current (I ) IB =
0

(tii) Plot the graph betwe V c· I,

en CE and le. t·
VCE -
(ivl A set of such curves ca als ''
base current (say 20 µAn °
be plotted at different fixed values of
• 30 µAetc .)

GOLDEN KEY POINTS

Emitter
• Medium size High doping
Base Smallest size Lowdoping
Collector Largest size Medium doping
Transistor have two P-N J unc t·ion J EB and J es· On the basis o f junction condition transistor work in four regions
. .
•
Emitter-Base Collecto~Base Region of working

Forward biased Reverse biased Active

Reverse biased Forward biased Inverse active

Reverse biased Reverse biased Cut off

Forward biased Forward biased Saturation

• The collector region is made physically larger than the emitter. Because collector has to dis.5ipiate much greater ~ -

• Transistor mostly works in active region in electronic devices to use as an amplifier.

• Transistor i.e . It is a short form of two words "Transfer resistors" . Signal is introduced at low resistance circuit and
o utput is taken at high resistance circujt.
• Base is lightly doped , otherwise the most of the charge carries from the emitter recombine in base region and
none of the emitted carrier reaches at collector.
Transistor is a current operated device i.e . the action of transistor is controlled by the motion of charge carriers .
•
From transistors characteristics,
e •
i :i I
(i) Input resistance r10 = ( ~:iBE) B Va. = constant
(ii) Output resistance r""' = ( CE
C ) ,•• cor,;tan t

(iii) Current gain P= (~c) B Ver "" cons rant

The ratio of change in output current to change in input voltage is known as transconductance .

In CE transistor transconductance (gj = AfVc .

ti,, ,in

. 6.V0 (tile )Re

Voltage gain Av = ti..V = ti..V = gm xRc
,n In

233
E
 Pre-Medical : P1z,sics
w, I r a
APPLICATIONS OF TRANSISTOR
1. Transistor as a switch ( state) only, it acts as a switch . To study this
ff ) r saturation state on
When a h'ilnsistor is used in the cut oH (o state o .
behaviour. we understand base b,ase . d CE t r ansistor circuit.
① if VIn <VBE IB =

Vi-IBRB-VBT =

0 ic
VoV
RB+VBE witc
off
C
8.
8
B input-R .
B .

V -
TcR)
=

Vo OG1 put -> RB .

E
- Vo =

Vx-IcRz Vi BB

⑧
⑪ if V .
n>VBE

-FB)
ut
④

Tac e
•
VinetBY TT4 - Vot
inte Fo
# o so that put junction will
enter

#
. ut sides of this circuit we get
Applying Kirchhoff's voltage rule to the input and outp
input - FB
-
:

V, = Ia Ra + VBE (V, = de input voltage)

output -
Fi
and Vo = Vcc - le Re (Vo = de output voltage)
saturati
Now we can analyse how VO ch anges as v1 increase from zero Cut off
onwards. In case of Silicon transistor, if V, is less than 0.6 V, 18 will
Vo
region
I
Active
region I
swite
be zero. hence le will zero and transistor will be said to be in f(.
I
cut-off state, and VO = Vcc When V, become greater than 1
Saturation
I #region I
0 .6 V, some 16 nows, so some Jc flows (transistor is in active state ,~<----)
1

I
now) and output V0 decreases as 'the term Jc Rc inc't ease . With I
I
increase in VI the IC increase almost linearly and so VO decreases

linearly till its value becomes less than about 1.0 volt. 06V Transfer characteristic

Beyond this, the change becomes non linear and transistor goes into saturation state. With further increase in V
1
the output voltage is found to decrease further forwards zero (however, it may never become zero) .

If v;e draw the V0 ~rsus V1 curve called transfer characteristic (see figure), we see that between cut off state and
active state and also between active state and saturation state there are regions of non-linearity showing that the
transition from cut-off state to active state and from active state to saturation state are not sharply define~.
2. Transistor as an amplifier

The p rocess of increasing the amplitude of input signal without distorting its wave shape and without changing
its frequency i!. known as amplification . ·

A device which increases the amplitude of the input signal is called amplifier.

234
 DMVBE
I
Vi =

IBRBF VBE -

fir
IB4-5,4
Vic-[ktug
Vo= VsE VotaVo
=

V. -kRc- F2H
=

⑤ ② -

Y" Neesigna}
intPUt
B

-c- -

*
B L

e
VintaVn=(IB+IB) RB +NBI**
③-
Vi
verVo ampnfied Ar=
Outj:llt sigrw

=- IBRB
BB
R .

common emitter lifier NPN transistor

To operate the transistor as .. f·

an amphfter it is necessary to fix its operating point somewhere in the middle O its
th
active region. If we fix e value of V88 corresponding to a point in the middle of the linear part of the tran 5fer
curve then the de base curr t I Id • tan
en s wou be constant and corresponding collector current le wtll also be cons I.
The de voltage VCE = Vcc - leRe would also remain constant. The operating values of Vcr. and lg determine che
operating point, of the amplifier.

If a small sinusoidal voltage with amplitude 1.\ is superposed in series with the V supply, then the base current
88
will have sinusoidal varia~ns superimposed on the value of 18• As a consequence the collector current also will
have sinusoidal variations superimposed on the value of le producing in tum corresponding change in the value
ofV0 •

Mathematical Analysis :

From KVL equation ~f base biased CE transistor circuit

Similarily V-=V
o cc -J"R
c •c1

·:!NCC = 0

So voltage gain of CE amplifier

The negative sign represents that output voltage is opposite in phase with the input voltage.
-
P-0wer gain (A) = current gain x volt~e gain = Poe xAy 1

. .~...: I
-
. . . .

235
 Com . !Al.Ir•~
paratfve study of transistor configuration

~ -
3 Common Collector (CC)
1 . Common Base (CB) 2 Co mmon Emitter (CE)
cc -
CB CE

' i
~CE c-•
- .9
....,.._ - E E

,,.
" B~
8 ~7:
;

:~
-

J.,
,_ le ·~ C C
&

- 1
•
E
Very High =750 kQ

'
Input Resistance Low(I00O) High (7500)
Low
Output resistance Very High High
(A, or 13)
(A or y)
~urrent Gain (A or a)
' IE
le le y == - >I
a=,<I f3==1 > l Ia
E B

Vo IERL
Voltage Gain
A
V -
- Vo
-
V; -
IeRL
lER,
Av = J. I
IeRL
== 1 R,
6
A v= V. ==I
I6 R,

R RL
A== a -
L
R, A== f3~ A v== YR
V V R, I

= po A = po A = po
PowerGain AP p P, p P,
P,

A =a2 RL A = {32 RL A =r2 RL

p R, p R, p R,

same phase opposite phase same phase

Phase difference
(between otdput
and input)
Application For High Frequency For Audible frequency For Impedance Matchin~
amplifier amplifier
I
Relation between a, 13 and y
a • /3 /3 • r a,y

IE = IB + 1c IE = IB + IC IE = IB + IC
divide by Ic divide by I6 ·.· y= I + f3

y = 1+
1-a

1 I y=l+/3 1
- = -+l y=-
a (3 1-a
tfeedback.
vin= Vin+BVo

IF in
-
H Vo=

Vo=
vo =

Ao/vin)
Ar/VintBVoS

ArVen +AoB V .

Ao-Vi
Vo(I-AuBS
=

F-no
zen with

Ao-gain
Feedback
without feedback

↳feedback vin= Vin-BV

Yo

u
ArV'im)
=

vo =
Ar (Vin-BVS

Vo (It AoB] =

Ao-Vin

Ho
I
=

Ar= -

It Au
 Ulustndion 17 · and Uector curren t ·I$ -
3 rnA ·
The bac;c current ic; 100 µA co t current. Calculate
(a) Calculate th<.> values
- of p, IEand a. od hange of 0.5 mA in the collec or •.c..
urrent pr uces a c
(b} /\ chanqe of 20 pA in the bac;e c 1 3 x 31
J .., .S..:::: - 3
0 "" 3.1 mA
Solution 3
p _ _lQ_ =- ~ .., o.97 and
C (J..

le 3 x 10- = 30, a =n - 1+30 31

(a) p= lo-"' I 00 x 10..(, + ~c -~ == 25
61c = 0.5 mA p.., = 6la -
O.OZ
T
1x = (b) TB A 618 "' 20 µA = 0.02 mA .
Olustration 18. I ,,, 1 rnA and 18 == 20 µA Find
. od Q . = 4 k.O. R1 1 k.O, C
1n a transistor connected in common emitter m e ' 'O

the voltage gain.

Solution

Voltage gain Av = P (
Ro) (~) (Ro)
= 18 R1 =
(_!20xx1010--~) (i)1 = 200
6

20 1;
ruustration 19.
For given CE biasing circuit, if \.Oltage across collector-emitter is 12 V and current
gain is 100 and base cu rrent is 0.04 mA then determine the value of collector B

resistance Re .
Solution
Vee"" Vee - le xRe
. Vee - Vee _ Vee - VeE = 20-12 3 =·2kn .
Re = le Pl 8 100 x 0.04 x 10-

Illustration 20.
For given transistor circuit, the base current is 10 µA and the collector current is 5.2 mA. Can this transistor circuit
be used as a voltage amplifier. Your answer must be supported with proper calculations. (AIPMT (Mains) 2008)

I
is
=E

--
=

I
6 =

=
1
-
H

,
Solution

-
No, it can't be used as an amplifier
Explaination
V8 e -= 5.5 - I8 R13 = 5.5 - 10 x IO-ii x 500 x 103 = 0.5 v
VcE = 5.5 - lcRc = 5.5 - 5.2 x 10-3 x 1 x 103 = 0.3 V
It can't be uc;ed as an amplifier as both the emitter-base function and colle t f .
fliustration 21. c or unction are forward biac;.

. of 10 and the second hac; a

Solunon. ·: A = A1 x Az = 10 x 20 = 200
voltage
gain of 20. If theinp~t:~~:1~t)o.
Two amplifiers are connected one after the other in series -
1he1 volt.
first amplifier has a voltage g
.
ain
calculate the output signal.

:. Outrut signal =A x input signal = 200 x 0-01"" 2 V

E
 MiLl•~•----~Pr~e-~M
=e~
di~ca.l.:~Ph~y~si=S!
. BEGINNER'S BOX-4
F0r a common emitter amplifier ct .
irrent gain = SO. If the emitter current is 6 6 mA calculate the collector
'
d base current. Also calculate cu . · '
an rrent gain wh . . •f·
. . ' en emitter 1s working as common base amph ier.
Transistor with P= 75 1s connected t0
j. . common-base configuration. What will be the maximum collector current
for an emitter current of 5 mA ?

In npn transistor circuit the coll t

3. ' ec or current is 10 mA. If 95% of the electrons emitted reach the collector,
what is the base current ?

In an NPN transistorl O10 ele t • b

4, c rans enter the emitter in 10-0 sand 2% electrons recombine with holes 10 ase.
then current gain a and p are :

5, For a CE amplifier, current gain is 69. If the emitter current is 7 mA then calculate the base current.and collector
c1.1rrent.
(AJPMT (Mains) 2008)

6. An n-p-n transistor ln a common emitter mode is used as a simple voltage amplifier

with a collector connected to load resistance RLand to the base through a resistance Ra d
Rs· The col\ector-€mitter voltage VcE = 4 V, the base-emitter voltage V E = 0.6 V,
8

Current through collector is 4 mA and the current amplification factor = 100.

Calculate the values of RL and R8 .

7. A common emitter amplifier has a voltage gain of 50, an input impedance of 200 n and an output impedance
of 4000. Calcula~e the power gain of the amplifier.
8. A silicon transistor amplifier ckt. is given here. If = 100 then determine HXHl

(a) Base current 18 8-6kn

C

R lOV
(b) Collector current Jc
(c) VCE
Take the voltage drop between base and emitter as 0.7 V.

ANSWERS

@f,ffl BEGINNER'S BOX-1 !"

1. Value of R should be increased because with the increase 1. (1)
\ in temperature of semiconductor as circuit .resi&tance 2. 15 = 30 mA, IL = 6 mA, 12 = 24 mA,
decreases and current tends to increase. P2 = 0.144 W
\ 2. n = 5 x l0 9m· 3
3. 40 mA. 4. 8671.33 A
3. ne• = 5 x 1022 m- 3 . nh = 4 ·5 x 109 m- 3
i
4. n/ nh = 6/ 5 BEGINNER'S BOX-4
} Mi) BEGINNER'S BOX-2 1. IC= 6.47 mA 1B= 0.13 mA a=0.98
\ 1. (a) 0.2 eV (b) 0.1 eV (cl 0.3 eV 2. 4.93 mA 3 . 0.53 mA
_ 2. 200 n 4. Cl= 0.98 ; p = 49
1 &. 11 = O and I ,.,, 12 = 5mA Y 5. 18 = 0.1 mA ; le= 6.9 mA
J 4. 0.25A 6 . 1 kn: 185 kn 7 . 1250
\ 5. (a) V0 ., 11 .7 V, I = 2.34 mA 8 . (i) 0.5 mA(ii) 50 mA (iii) 5 V
i (b) V0 = 11 .3 V, I= 2.26 mA
241
 O
21 .
261

6 0512 h.

⑧5 -

25k

-
S
 SUMMARY OF LOGIC GATES
Names Symbol Boolean Truth table Electrical Circuit diagram
Expreuion analogue (Practical Realisation)

i !f G2J@ :
OR Y•A+B D,i
I
y
I
1 1 1 D, I

AND Y-=A. B
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

NOf
or
Inverter

NOR ~ A B Y
(OR +N011 i..;~~.:.illlllrl 0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0 4:>t--
( o.

A B Y
A D
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

XOR
(Exd.isive

OR)
~ l y~~~B-
Y=AB+AB
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
·-
XNOR A B Y
(Exd.isive 0 0 1
NOR) 0 1 0
or 1 0 0
1 1 1