CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Charges in motion constitute an electric current.

Electric current is the net amount of charges flowing across the cross section of the conductor in a time t.

DEFINITION
Let ∆Q be the net charge flowing across a cross-section of a conductor during the time interval ∆t [i.e.,
between times t and (t + ∆t)]. Then, the current at time t across the cross-section of the conductor is
defined as the value of the ratio of ∆Q to ∆t in the limit of ∆t tending to zero,
Q .
I(t) = lim
t → 0 t
S.I unit of electric current is ampere(A).
Note: i) I is a fundamental scalar quantity and whose dimensional formula is [M 0L0T1A1]
ii) I is usually the conventional current; a current treated in opposite direction to the flow of
electrons.
iii) In conductors free electrons causes electric current when subjected to an electric field.

ELECTRIC CURRENTS IN CONDUCTORS

If there is no external field applied, the average number of electrons moving in a direction is equal to the
number of electrons moving in opposite direction. Thus there will be no net current.
If we connect the two ends of the conductor to a battery, the battery provides a potential difference
across the ends of the conductor. This produces an electric field inside the conductor from +terminal to –
end of the battery. This field causes electrons to move from – to + end, this is called drift. Thus, electric
current will be there in the conductor only when we connect a battery to the conductor.
Note: The average speed acquired by the free electrons inside the conductor when subjected to the
electric field is called drift velocity, vd, which depends on E.

OHM’S LAW
Current through the conductor is always directly proportional to the potential difference across its two
ends provided temperature and other physical quantities remain constant.
Imagine a conductor through which a current I is flowing and let V be the potential difference between
the ends of the conductor. Then Ohm’s law states that V  I or,
V = R I; where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the conductor. The SI units of
resistance is ohm(Ω).
R depends on dimensions (length and area of cross section) of the conductor and nature of the
conductor.

VARIATION OF R WITH LENGTH AND AREA OF CROSS SECTION

At constant temperature, resistance R of the conductor is
1. Directly proportional to its length l.
2. Inversely proportional to cross sectional area A.
l
R
A
l
R=ρ where ρ is constant of proportionality called resistivity of the material.
A
which depends on the material of the conductor.

CURRENT DENSITY (J) current density is defined as current flowing per unit cross sectional area.
I
J= Unit of J is A/m2 = A-m-2 I = J A.
A
RELATION BETWEEN CURRENT DENSITY ‘j’ AND ELECTRIC FIELD ‘E’
Consider a conductor of length l, area of cross section A and resistance R.
Let V be the p.d across the conductor and I is the current through it. Then
From Ohm’s law, V = IR
But R =  l ; where  is the resistivity of the material.
A
There fore, V = Il But V = El (E is electric field)
A
There fore, El = Il
A
E=j (because j = I/A)

Also, j =  E; here  is called conductivity of the conductor.

1
Note: i )  = ;  is resistivity and  is conductivity.

ii)  is measured in -m,  is measured in -1m-1 or si-m-1
iii) R = 1 ; G is called conductance, measured in -1 or simen.
G

DRIFT OF ELECTRONS AND THE ORIGIN OF RESISTIVITY (Expression for drift velocity )
n
In the absence of applied electric field, average velocity of free electrons v i = 1  v i = 0
N i =1
Consider the situation when an electric field is present. Electrons will be accelerated due to this field by
eE F F
a=− ; F = ma  a = and E =  F = Eq
m m q
where ‘–e’ is the charge and m is the mass of an electron.
Its velocity at any time ‘t’ is given by Vi = vi − eE ti ; ( v = vo +at)
m
Let the average time between successive collisions, called relaxation time , i.e t = 
Then, Vi = vd called the drift velocity,
eE eE
i.e v d = 0 −  = − 
m m
eE
|v d |=  . This is the expression for drift velocity.
m

RELATION BETWEEN J AND E IN TERMS OF RELAXATION TIME

AND FREE ELECTRON DENSITY
Consider a conductor of length x and area of cross section A. The electric field inside the conductor is E.
Δx
If ∆t is the time taken by the free electrons to move through a distance x , then drift velocity vd = .
Δt
If n is the number of free electrons per unit volume,
The total number of free electrons in the given volume, N = nAx.
Since each electron carries a charge –e, the total charge in this volume Q = nAx e.
Q nA x e
There fore, current I = = => I = n A e vd.
t t
But vd = eE  , Hence, I = n A e eE 
m m
 I ne  2
=> J =  ne   E
2
[because, J = I is current density]
= E  m 
A m   A
 2
There fore, J=  E. where  = ne  .
m
Note: J is a vector in the direction of E.

MOBILITY()
It is defined as the magnitude of the drift velocity per unit electric field:
v m2
 = d and whose SI unit is
E V −s
Also, |v d |=  , therefore,  = e .
eE
m m

LIMITATIONS OF OHM’S LAW

1. Deviation of I from V, (see diagram [a])
2. By reversing the sign of V for the same magnitude may not produce the same magnitude of I
(see diagram [b])
3. There may be more than one value of V for the same I (see diagram[c])

[a] [b] [c]

Note: i) The devices which obey Ohm’s law are called ohmic devices.
Ex: a conducting wire, heating coil, resistor, electric bulb, etc.,
ii) The devices which do not obey Ohm’s law are called non-ohmic devices.
Ex: diode, vacuum or gas filled tubes, semiconductor devices, etc.,
iii) Ohm’s law is valid only if the physical dimensions and the temperature of the conductor
is fixed.

TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF RESISTIVITY

The resistivity of a metallic conductor is approximately given by,
T = O + [1+(T-TO)];
where ρT is the resistivity at a temperature T
ρO is the same at a reference temperature TO.
α is called the temperature co-efficient of resistivity.

Note: i)  is measured in K-1.

ii) For metals, α is positive, for semiconductors  is negative.
iii) Nichrome(alloy of nickel, iron and chromium), manganin and constantan have very weak
dependence of resistivity on temperature, thus they are used in wire bound standard resistors.
iv) Rt = Ro [1+(T-TO)]

ELECTRICAL ENERGY, POWER

Consider an electrical conductor AB and the potentials at its ends are V(A) and V(B) such that V(A)>V(B).
So the current will flow from A to B.
The potential energy of a charge Q at A & B,
UA= QV(A) and UB= QV(B)
Then the change in the potential energy when the charge moves from A to B is
Upot = QV(B) - QV(A) = Q[V(B)-V(A)]
 Upot = -QV; here V(B)-V(A)=V.
 Upot = -IVt ; But Q = It
Assuming there is no collision of charges during motion,
K= - Upot
i.e K = -( -IVt) = IVt is the change in kinetic energy.
In actual conductors, the mobile charge carriers collide with ions and atoms and a result the atoms
vibrate and thus the conductor heats up. An amount of energy dissipated as heat in the conductor during
the time interval t is W= IVt
The energy dissipated per unit time is power dissipated
W IVt
i.e P = or P = or P=IV
t t
Using Ohm’s law V=IR, we get
V2
P= I2R = as the power loss or Ohmic loss in the conductor.
R
Note: The power in the above discussion is come from the source of charges, i.e a battery or a cell.

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS IN SERIES

Two resistors are said to be in series if only one of their end points is joined to the next electrical
component.

Consider two resistors R1 and R2 in series.

This is as if the combination had an equivalent resistance Req,
V
Req = = R1 + R2 = Rs
I
Similarly, if we had ‘n’ resistors connected in series, then
Rs = Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ……+Rn

COMBINATION OF RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

Two or more resistors are said to be in parallel if one end of all the resistors is joined together and
similarly the other ends joined together.

Consider the parallel combination of two resistors R1 and R2, I1 and I2 are the currents through R1 and R2.
If the combination was replaced by an equivalent resistance Req,
1 1 1
then, = +
Req R1 R2
Similarly, in general, if there are ’n’ resistors in parallel, then
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ...... +
Req R1 R2 R3 Rn
NOTE:

1. If only two resistors are in parallel then Rp = R1R2/ (R1 +R2)

2. Effective resistance is always less than individual resistance.

3. If n equal resistors are in parallel then Rp = R/n

CELLS, EMF, INTERNAL RESISTANCE:

An electrolytic cell is a device to maintain a steady current in an electric circuit.
A cell has two electrodes, called the positive (P) and the negative (N), they are immersed in an
electrolytic solution to exchange electric charges.
The positive electrode has a potential difference +VP
relative to the electrolyte.
Similarly, the negative electrode has a negative
potential difference – VN- relative to the electrolyte.
When there is no current the potential difference
between P and N is +VP – (–VN ) = VP + VN
This difference is called the electromotive force(emf) of
the cell,
 = VP+ VN [and  >0].
The electrolyte through which a current flows has a
finite resistance r, called the internal resistance.
Consider first the situation when R is infinite so that I= V/R= 0, where Vis the potential difference
between P and N. i.e V= .
Definition of emf: emf ε is the potential difference between the positive and negative electrodes in an
open circuit, i.e., when no current is flowing through the cell.
If R is finite, I is not zero. In that case the potential difference between P and N is
V = VP + VN– I r = ε– I r
i.e V=  - Ir, also, V=IR,
 IR =  - Ir,

I(R+r) =  i.e I = .
R+r

Note: i) When R=0, I=Ishort; i.e Ishort =
r
ii) The situation when R=0 is called Short Circuit
iii) When r = R, I=Imax and power dissipated by the battery to the load is maximum. This is
called maximum power transfer theorem.
I mainRoppsite
iv) I branch =
Rsum

CELLS IN SERIES
Consider two cells in series, 1 and 2 be their emfs and r1, r2 are their respective internal resistances. Let
V(A), V (B), V (C) be the potentials at points A, B and C, then V (A) – V (B) is the potential difference
between the positive and negative terminals of the first cell,
Hence VAB = V(A) – V(B) = 1 –Ir1
Similarly, VBC = V(B) – V(C) = 2 – Ir2
Hence, the potential difference between the terminals A and C of the combination is
VAC = 1 –Ir1 + 2 – Ir2
i.e VAC = (1 + 2) –I(r1+r2) -------(1)
If we replace the combination by a single cell between A and C of emf εeq and internal resistance req, then
VAC = eq -Ireq --------(2)
Comparing (1) and (2), we get eq =1 + 2 and req = r1 + r2
In general, if there are ‘n’ cells in series, eq =1 + 2+….+n and req = r1 + r2+ r3+…+ rn

CELLS IN PARALLEL
Consider two cells in parallel, 1 and 2 be their emfs and
r1, r2 are their respective internal resistances.
Let V (B1) and V (B2) be the potentials at B1 and B2,
respectively. Then, considering the first cell, the potential
difference across its terminals is V(B1) – V(B2).
i.e V= V(B1) – V(B2) = 1 – I1r1
1 − V
 I1 =
r1
Similarly for the second cell (since it is parallel to the first), V= V(B1) – V(B2) = 2 – I2r2
2 − V
 I2 =
r2
1 − V 2 − V  1 2  1 1
But we know I= I1 + I2, hence I = + =  +  − V + 
r1 r2  r1 r2   r1 r2 
 1r1 + 2r2   r1 + r2 
 I=  − V   Ir1r2 = ( 1r1 + 2r2 ) − V (r1 + r2 )
 r1r2   r1r2 
r1r2 (  r +  r ) (r + r )
Dividing by (r1+r2) on both sides, I = 11 2 2 −V 1 2
(r1 + r2 ) (r1 + r2 ) (r1 + r2 )
r1r2 ( r +  r )
I = 11 2 2 −V
(r1 + r2 ) (r1 + r2 )
( 1r1 + 2r2 ) rr
i.e V = −I 1 2 ------(1)
(r1 + r2 ) (r1 + r2 )
If replace the combination by a single cell, between B1 and B2 , of emf εeq and internal resistance req,
V =eq - Ireq ------(2)
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
( 1r1 + 2r2 ) r1r2
eq = ------(3) and req = ------(4)
(r1 + r2 ) (r1 + r2 )
1 1 1
From (4) = +
req r1 r2
eq 1  2
Dividing (3) by (4) = +
req r1 r2
 1 1 1 1 1
In general if there are ‘n’ parallel cells, then = + + + .... +
req r1 r2 r3 rn
eq 1 2 3 
And = + + + .... + n
req r1 r2 r3 rn

KIRCHHOFF’S RULES
a) Junction rule
At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the
sum of currents leaving the junction.

According to ‘Junction rule at O, I3 = I1 + I2

Note: It follows from the law of conservation of charges

b) Loop rule
The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any closed loop
involving resistors and cells in the loop is zero.

According to ‘Loop rule’, in the loop (1),

1 = I1R1 + I3R3 or I1R1 + I3R3 -1 =0
Similarly in the loop (2),
2 = I2R2 + I3R3 or I2R2 + I3R3 - 2 =0

Note: This follows from the law of conservation of energy

WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
The circuit shown above, which is called the Wheatstone bridge.
All the resistors may have currents obeying the rules. However, there is
a special case called balanced bridge, when current through the
galvanometer Ig = 0.
Thus from the diagram, I1 = I3 and I2 = I4.
Apply Kirchoff’s loop rule to closed loop ADBA,
i.e –I1R1 + 0 + I2R2= 0 [because Ig =0]
or I2R2 = I1R1 ----(1)
and for the closed loop CBDC,
i.e I4R4+ 0 – I3R3 = 0 or I2R4+ 0 – I1R3 = 0
or I2R4 = I1R3 ----(2)
Dividing (1) and (2)
I2R2 I1R1 R2 R1
= or = .
I2R4 I1R3 R 4 R3
This equation relating the four resistors is called the balance condition
for the galvanometer to give zero or null deflection.

Note:
Wheatstone’s network in the form of metre bridge is used to find unknown resistances.