BHASKAR INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Bandapalli, Rayachoty, Annamaiah Dist.

R23 Regulations

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS

Dr. A C S Reddy,
M.Tech(Pem), M.Tech (Prodn), MIE, Ph.D(OU)

November 21, 2023

Rayachoty
Contents

1 Introduction to Engineering Graphics 2

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 What is an Engineering Drawing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Why Engineering Drawing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.3 Why Drawing for Engineers? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Instruments & Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Sizes of Drawing sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Arrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2 Drawing Polygons by the Universal Method 7

2.1 Types of lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.1 Guidelines for Dimensioning - A Check List . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 Principles of Dimensioning 11

4 Geometric Construction 16
4.1 Bisecting a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2 Bisecting a given arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.3 Drawing perpendicular to a given line from a given point . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4 Constructing a parallel line through a given point . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.5 Dividing a line into ’n’ equal parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5 Construction of Pentagon 21
5.1 When length of a side is known . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.1.1 Method I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
5.1.2 Method II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.1.3 Method III-Inscribe in a circle method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
ii CONTENTS

6 Conic curves 24
6.0.1 Conic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.1 Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
6.2 ELLIPSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.2.1 Properties of ellipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.2.2 Types of ellipses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.2.3 Examples of ellipses in the real world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.3 Construction of ellipse by different methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.3.1 Focus-Directrix or Eccentricity Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.4 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

7 Construction of ellipse 32
7.0.1 Concentric circle method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.0.2 Ellipse by Rectangle method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.0.3 Ellipse by Oblong method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.0.4 Arcs of circle method. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

8 Parabola 37
8.1 Construction of Parabola by Directrix - Focus Method . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.1.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
8.1.2 Constructing a Parabola (Eccentricity Method) . . . . . . . . . . . 38
8.1.3 Rectangle method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
8.1.4 METHOD OF TANGENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

9 HYPERBOLA 42
9.1 HYPERBOLA THROUGH A POINT OF KNOWN CO-ORDINATES . . 42
9.1.1 DIRECTRIX FOCUS METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
9.2 Drawing tangent and normal to conic curves at a given point . . . . . . . 44

10 Engineering Curves 46
10.1 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
10.2 Application of Engineering curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
10.3 Construction of Cycloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
10.3.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
CONTENTS iii

10.4 Construction of superior trochoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

10.4.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
10.5 Construction of INFERIOR TROCHOID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
10.5.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

11 Construction of Epicycloid and Hypocycloid 51

11.0.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
11.1 Construction of Hypocycloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
11.1.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
11.1.2 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

12 SCALES 55
12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.2 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
12.3 Types of Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
12.4 Types of Graphical Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
12.5 Representative fraction (R.F.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
12.5.1 Plain scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
12.6 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
12.7 PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
12.8 PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
12.9 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
12.10Diagonal scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
12.11Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
12.12Vernier scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
12.12.1 Backward Vernier scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
12.13Question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
12.14Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
12.15Scale of chords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

13 Practice class 69

14 Practice class 71

15 Practice class 72
iv CONTENTS

16 Orthographic Projections 2
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
16.2 Six Principal views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

17 Projection of Points 12
17.1 POINT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
17.2 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

18 Theory of Projections 16
18.1 Projection theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
18.1.1 Plane of Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
18.2 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
18.3 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

19 Projection of points 23
19.1 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

20 Projection of lines 26
20.1 Straight line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
20.2 Projection of a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
20.3 Case 1. Line parallel to a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
20.4 Case 2. Line inclined to a plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
20.5 Projection of a line parallel to both HP and VP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
20.5.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

21 Lines inclined to Principal planes 31

21.1 Line perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

22 Problems 33
22.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

23 Traces of a line 36
23.0.1 Trace of a line perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other 36
23.0.2 Traces of a line inclined to one plane and parallel to the other . . 38
23.0.3 Traces of a line inclined to both the planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
CONTENTS v

24 Projections on Auxiliary Planes 40

24.1 Auxiliary Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
24.1.1 Types of auxiliary planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
24.1.2 Auxiliary Vertical Plane (AVP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
24.1.3 Auxiliary Inclined Plane (AIP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
24.2 Projection of Points on Auxiliary Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
24.2.1 Projection on Auxiliary Vertical Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
24.3 Projection on Auxiliary Inclined Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
24.3.1 Step by step procedure to draw auxiliary views . . . . . . . . . . 47

25 Projection of planes 49
25.1 Plane surface (plane/lamina/plate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
25.1.1 Positioning of a Plane surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
25.1.2 Projections of a Plane surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

26 Practice questions 57

27 Practice Problems 59

28 Practice Problems 60

29 Practice Problems 61

30 Practice Problems 62

31 Practice Problems 64

32 Projections of solids 2
32.1 Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
32.2 Prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
32.2.1 Projections of solids placed in different positions . . . . . . . . . . 4

33 Projection of solids -axis perpendicular to HP 5

33.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
33.2 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
33.3 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
vi CONTENTS

33.4 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

34 Projections of a solid with the axis perpendicular to VP 9

34.1 Cylinder and cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
34.2 Pentagonal prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

35 Practice problems 11

36 practice problems 12

37 practice problems 13

38 Orthographic projection of solids 14

39 Orthographic projections of isometric vies of solids drawn on graph 16

40 Sectional views of solids 2

40.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
40.2 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
40.3 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

41 Problem 5
41.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

42 Problems 8

43 Problem 9

44 Problem 10

45 Problem 11

46 Problem 12

47 Problem 13

48 Problem 14
CONTENTS vii

49 Development of surfaces 15
49.1 Types of development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

50 Development of lateral surfaces of simple solids 19

50.1 Development of cylinder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
50.2 Development of cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
50.3 Development of pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
50.4 Development of prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
50.5 Development of frustum of cone and square pyramid . . . . . . . . . . . 21

51 Development of surfaces of truncated solids 22

51.1 problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
51.2 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
51.3 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

52 Problems 25
52.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
52.2 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

53 Isometric Projection 26
53.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
53.1.1 Isometric Axes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
53.1.2 Isometric Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
53.1.3 Non-isometric Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
53.1.4 Isometric Planes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
53.1.5 Isometric scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
53.1.6 Construction of isometric scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
53.1.7 Isometric Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

54 Problems 30
54.1 Difference between isometric view and isometric projection . . . . . . . 30
54.2 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

55 Box Method 32
viii CONTENTS

56 Problems 33
56.1 Draw the isometric projection for the given orthographic view . . . . . . 33
56.2 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

57 Problems 34

58 Problems 35

59 Problems 36

60 Problems 37

61 review of Unit I 38

62 review of Unit II 39

63 review of Unit III 40

64 review of Unit IV 41

65 review of Unit V 42

66 Mock test 43

67 Projections of regular solids-Auxiliary Views 44

67.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
67.2 Projection Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
67.3 Orthographic Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
67.4 Notations used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

68 Projection of points 50
68.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
68.2 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
68.3 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
68.4 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

69 Projection of Lines 53
69.1 BASICS OF STRAIGHT LINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
CONTENTS ix

69.2 PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

69.3 Projection of Straight Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
69.3.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
69.3.2 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

70 lines constructed in latex 57

70.1 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
 BHASKAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND
SCIENCE

ANGALLU, MADANAPALLI

VISION AND MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

VISION

To be a centre of excellence in empowering the young talent through quality education

and innovative engineering for the well being of society

MISSION

1.Provide quality education with creative methodology and intellectual human capital
2.Provide conducive environment for research and developmental activities
3.Inculcate holistic approach towards nature, society and human ethics with life long
learning attitude
Contents of Course file

Title
Vision & Mission statements of Institute
Vision & Mission statements of Department
Academic Calendar of JNTUA
Academic Calendar of Institute
Academic Calendar of Department
Syllabus
Text books & Reference books/ WEB/ Journals
Topic Beyond Syllabus or Gaps
POs & PSOs
PEOs
Course Objectives, Course Outcomes, CO-PO Mapping
Time Table
Course schedule
Course Plan
Mid Question papers with key
Tutorial Questions with solutions
Assignment Questions
and Sample Assignment copies(highest, & lowest
Guest Lectures/Seminar/ & Field Visits
Schedule for Tutorial / Remedial / Special Classes
List of Weak students as per JNTUA
List of Weak students as per Mid Marks
Course Attainment, observations & action proposed
Course Review
Course Completion Certificate
Course material
Question bank (descriptive, objective)
Mid question papers (PDF)
Mid marks consolidation sheets
Answer script samples
Previous question papers
Co attainment sheet
Individual Personal File
Previous course files given to department
COURSE OBJECTIVES

1. To enable the students with various concepts like dimensioning, conventions and
standards related to Engineering Drawing

2. To impart knowledge on the projection of points, lines and plane surfaces

3. To improve the visualization skills for better understanding of projection of solids

4. To develop the imaginative skills of the students required to understand Section

of solids and Developments of surfaces.

5. To make the students understand the viewing perception of a solid object in

Isometric and Perspective projections.
COURSE OUTCOMES

1. CO1: Understand the principles of engineering drawing, including engineering

curves, scales, orthographic and isometric projections.

2. CO2: Draw and interpret orthographic projections of points, lines, planes and
solids in front, top and side views.

3. CO3: Understand and draw projection of solids in various positions in first

quadrant.

4. CO4: Explain principles behind development of surfaces.

5. CO5: Prepare isometric and perspective sections of simple solids.

 CONTENTS

Course PO 1 PO 2 PO 3 PO 4 PO 5 PO 6 PO 7 PO 8 PO 9 PO 10 PO 11 PO 12
Objec-
tives

1 X X X X

2 X X X X X

3 X X X X X

4 X X X X

5 X X X X X X X

6 X X X X
v
Syllabus

ENGINEERING GRAPHICS(R23)
B.Tech(AI). I Year I Sem. LTPC
1 0 4 3

Course objectives:

• To provide basic concepts in engineering drawing.

• To impart knowledge about standard principles of orthographic projection of

objects.

• To draw sectional views and pictorial views of solids.

Course Outcomes

• At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

• Preparing working drawings to communicate the ideas and information.

• Read, understand and interpret engineering drawings.

UNIT I

Introduction: Lines, Lettering and Dimensioning, Geometrical Constructions and Con-

structing regular polygons by general methods.
Curves: construction of ellipse, parabola and hyperbola by general, Cycloids, Involutes,
Normal and tangent to Curves.
Scales: Plain scales, diagonal scales and vernier scales.
UNIT II

Orthographic Projections: Reference plane, importance of reference lines or Plane,

Projections of a point situated in any one of the four quadrants.
CONTENTS vii

Projections of Straight Lines: Projections of straight lines parallel to both reference

planes, perpendicular to one reference plane and parallel to other reference plane, in-
clined to one reference plane and parallel to the other reference plane. Projections of
Straight Line Inclined to both the reference planes
Projections of Planes: regular planes Perpendicular to both reference planes, parallel to
one reference plane and inclined to the other reference plane; plane inclined to both the
reference planes.
UNIT III

Projections of Solids: Types of solids: Polyhedra and Solids of revolution. Projections of

solids in simple positions: Axis perpendicular to horizontal plane, Axis perpendicular
to vertical plane and Axis parallel to both the reference planes, Projection of Solids with
axis inclined to one reference plane and parallel to another plane.
UNIT IV

Sections of Solids: Perpendicular and inclined section planes, Sectional views and True
shape of section, Sections of solids in simple position only.
Development of Surfaces: Methods of Development: Parallel line development and
radial line development. Development of a cube, prism, cylinder, pyramid and cone.
UNIT V

Conversion of Views: Conversion of isometric views to orthographic views; Conversion

of orthographic views to isometric views.
Computer graphics: Creating 2D&3D drawings of objects including PCB and Transfor-
mations using Auto CAD (Not for end examination).
TEXTBOOKS:

1. N. D. Bhatt, Engineering Drawing, Charotar Publishing House, 2016

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Engineering Drawing, K.L. Narayana and P. Kannaiah, Tata McGraw Hill, 2013.

2. Engineering Drawing, M.B.Shah and B.C. Rana, Pearson Education Inc,2009.

3. Engineering Drawing with an Introduction to AutoCAD, Dhananjay Jolhe, Tata

McGraw Hill, 2017
Course Overview

Overview of Engineering Graphics

Introduction to Engineering Graphics Why do we bother with learning mechanical

drawing? Isn’t everything done with high powered 3D solid modeling software? While
CAD systems have revolutionized the mechanical design process, a large amount
of information is still conveyed using traditional 2D mechanical drawings. These
2D drawings are not generated by hand but rather extracted from 3D solid models.
However all the rules, standards and techniques of traditional mechanical drafting still
apply and that is where this course impacts your engineering career. Students should
be aware that this course is for all intents and purposes a course in communication,
specifically the graphic language. The objective of the course is to teach students to
communicate using graphic techniques. This involves learning to "read" or interpret
the information contained in a 2D mechanical drawing. To accomplish this the student
must learn the principals and standards of mechanical drawing and dimensioning.

Standards

The graphic language is quite similar to the spoken/written language familiar to all.
Specific rules, or standards, have been developed to retain consistency in industry.
Imagine the confusion if each individual decided how to spell words as they were writ-
ten, with no standards. Or if pronunciation of the spoken language was not consistent.
That is why the standards you will learn are so important, even if many seem to be
trivial. Books are written in chapters, that are broken up into paragraphs. Words are
spoken in different tones to communicate meaning. Engineering drawings must also
be presented and arranged in a certain format so the information they contain can be
interpreted. It is true that many companies create their own internal standards, but most
CONTENTS ix

companies rely on resources from outside sources, especially in the current business
environment. Pressure to reduce the work force and cut costs has left many companies
with no choice but to hire outside contractors to complete work which was previously
performed by company employees. Therefore the importance of a standard graphic
language is steadily increasing.

Purpose

To enable engineering and technology students to become competent in producing

professional engineering drawings and graphics using Creo Parametric software.

Objectives/outcomes

Students completing the course should realize the following objectives:

1. Comprehend general projection theory, with an emphasis on the use of ortho-

graphic projection to represent three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional
views

2. Understand the application of industry standards and techniques applied in

engineering graphics

3. Apply auxiliary or sectional views to most practically represent engineered parts

4. Dimension and annotate two-dimensional engineering drawings

5. Employ freehand 3D pictorial sketching to aid in the visualization process and to

efficiently communicate ideas graphically

General Topics

Introduction to Creo Parametric Creating a Simple Object Revolved Protrusions Mirror

copies, Rounds, and Chamfers Modeling Utilities Datum Planes and Sketcher Tools Pat-
terns and Copies, Engineering Drawings Assembly Fundamentals Assembly Operations
Sweeps Blends
x CONTENTS

Target Audience

mechanical engineering and industrial technology freshmen

Required for

All Engineering undergraduates

CONTENTS 1

UNIT I

INTRODUCTION
TO ENGINEERING DRAWING
UNIT : I
Introduction to Engineering Drawing: Principles of Engineering Graphics and their
Significance, Conic Sections including the Rectangular Hyperbola : General method
only. Cycloid, Epicycloid and Hypocycloid Involute. Scales : Plain, Diagonal and
Vernier Scales.
 LECTURE
1
Introduction to Engineering Graphics

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 What is an Engineering Drawing?

1. A drawing that communicates an idea or design.

Examples of Engineering Drawings are

(a) Mechanical Engineering drawings: Detailed drawing of machine parts.

(b) Electrical Engineering drawing: Circuit board layout.

(c) Civil Engineers: Plans for a bridge, Road layout, etc.

1.1.2 Why Engineering Drawing?

1. Almost everything around us has been created by, or is influenced by, engineers

2. Creation of buildings, vehicles, roads, railways, food growing and processing,

books, medical care, recreation, etc. have been created by engineers

3. All of these have either been conceived and created from scratch or have evolved
from existing ideas.

4. Engineering design process will have been followed, in one form or another.
1.1 Introduction 3

5. In essence, designs progress from : some statement of need −→ identification or

specification of problem −→ search for solutions −→ development of solution to
manufacture −→ test −→ use.

6. This sequence is usually iterative. It repeats until a satisfactory solution has

evolved, as indicated in the flow diagram below.

7. Engineering drawing is a formal and precise way of communicating information

about the shape, size, features and precision of physical objects.

8. Drawing is the universal language of engineering.

9. Engineering Drawing is not a subject to study but it is a Graphical Language that

all engineers must know about to Read, Speak and Write it———. Mr. Vasim G.
Machhar

1.1.3 Why Drawing for Engineers?

1. Engineering is the profession in which a knowledge of the mathematical and

natural sciences gained by study, experience and practice is applied with judgment
to develop ways to utilize economically the material and forces of nature for the
benefit of mankind.

2. In a process of product development, two steps are involved

(a) Product specification

(b) Product drawing

3. Although the works of artists (or photography and other method of reproduction)
may provide pictorial representation, they cannot serve as engineering descrip-
tions.

4. A new machine, structure, product must exist in the mind of the engineers before
it can become a reality.

(a) Original concept or idea is usually placed on paper or as an image on a

computer screen and,
4 Introduction to Engineering Graphics

(b) Communicated to others by way of the graphic language in the form of

freehand sketches.

(c) These free hand sketch are followed by other, more exact, sketches as the idea
is developed more fully.

The engineer must understand how to read and write in the graphic language

5. Engineers must be able to create idea sketches, calculate stresses, analyze motions,
size parts, specify materials and production methods, make design layouts and
supervise the preparation of drawings and specifications that will control the
numerous details of product manufacture, assembly and maintenance

1.2 Instruments & Accessories

1. Drawing Board

2. Mini drafter

3. Set-squares (450 ;450 & 600 - 900 )

4. Protractor (1800 , 3600 )

5. Scales

6. Drawing Instruments Box

(a) Lengthening bars.

(b) Large Size Divider.

(c) Large size compass with interchangeable legs.

(d) Small bow compass.

(e) Small bow divider

7. Circle Master

8. Drafting Templates

9. French Curves
1.3 Sizes of Drawing sheet 5

Figure 1.1: Drawing instruments

10. Drawing paper & drawing sheet

11. Drawing pencil (Lead pencil[Mechanical Pencil], Wooden pencil)

12. Sharpner

13. Eraser

14. Drawing pins & clips

15. Sand paper block

16. Drawing paper box

17. Duster or handkerchief

1.3 Sizes of Drawing sheet

The ISO A0 size is defined as having an area of one square meter.
Each smaller sheet size is exactly half the area of the previous size.
An A0 sheet cut in half gives two A1 sheets.
An A1 sheet in half you get two A2 sheets.

1.4 Arrow
3 mm wide and should be 1/3rd as wide as they are long - symbols placed at the end of
dimension lines to show the limits of the dimension. Arrows are uniform in size and
style, regardless of the size of the drawing.
6 Introduction to Engineering Graphics

Table 1.1: Sizes of drawing sheet

Designation Size of sheet Size of frame

2-5 A in mm B in mm C in mm D in mm
A0 841 1189 A4 210
A1 594 841 A5 148
A2 420 594 A6 105
A3 297 420 267 390
A4 210 297 180 267
A5 148 210 - -
A6 105 148 - -

Figure 1.2: Construction of arrow

 LECTURE
2
Drawing Polygons by the Universal Method

Universal method to draw polygons is very popular and very legendary technique to
draw different shapes like triangle, square, pentagon, hexagon, heptagon, octagon etc.

1. First draw a line AB of the dimension equal to the side of a polygon i.e., 50mm.

2. Then draw a perpendicular bisector of the line AB and draw it of sufficient length.

3. Draw a perpendicular line BC from B of the length equal to the line AB.

4. Connect the two points A & C by a straight line. i.e., AC

5. Draw an arc by the centre B and radius equal to AB between the points A & C.

6. Mark the point 4 at the intersection of line ’AC with the perpendicular bisector.

7. Mark the point 6 at the intersection of the arc AC with the perpendicular bisector.

8. Find out the midpoint of between the points 4 & 6 mark it as a point 5.

9. Mark points 7 & 8 at the distance equal to 4-5 or 5-6 in sequence.

10. Draw a triangle ABC by connecting the line AC & BC at point 6.

11. Draw circles by taking the points 4,5,6,7,8 as center points and divide the respective
circles with the compass measurement equal to the distance of the line AB. i.e.,
50mm.
8 Drawing Polygons by the Universal Method

Figure 2.1: Drawing instruments

12. Connect the divided points of respective circles in sequence with straight lines to
get respective polygons. Like Square, Pentagon, Hexagon, Heptagon and Octagon.

13. Give the dimensions by any one method of dimensions and give the name of the
components by leader lines wherever necessary.

2.1 Types of lines

Different types of lines are as shown in Fig. 2.2.

2.1.1 Guidelines for Dimensioning - A Check List

1. All overall dimensions for the object are shown.

2. Dimensions are not duplicated in two views.

3. No dimension is included that is not needed to produce the object.

4. There is no need to calculate, scale, or assume any dimension to define or check

features of the object.
2.1 Types of lines 9
10 Drawing Polygons by the Universal Method

5. Dimensions are related to the view that best shows the features being dimensioned.

6. Multiple rows of dimensions are spaced uniformly, with at least 1/4" between
rows and 3/8" from views.

7. Longer dimensions are placed outside shorter ones so that witness lines do not
cross dimension lines.

8. All strings of dimensions are lined up.

9. Whenever possible, dimensions are not given to hidden lines.

10. Dimension lines do not cross other dimension lines or witness lines.

11. The radius of all arcs and fillets, and the diameters of all circles have been specified.

Figure 2.3: Line conventions in engineering drawing

 LECTURE
3
Principles of Dimensioning

1. Drawings for manufacturing, architecture, construction, and other fields are usu-
ally incomplete without dimensions.

2. Dimensions are defined as numerical values expressed in appropriate units of

measure and indicated on a drawing and in other documents.

3. Dimension numerals are placed along with lines, symbols, and notes to define the
size and geometric or construction characteristics of a feature, part, or construction
process or building component.

4. Dimension numerals in mechanical manufacturing drafting are given in decimal

inches or in metric units of millimeters.

5. Mechanical drafting usually uses unidirectional dimensioning, in which all of

the dimension numerals are placed horizontally and read from the bottom of the
sheet.

6. Architectural, structural, and civil drafting usually use aligned dimensioning, in

which text for horizontal dimensions is placed horizontally and reads from the
bottom of the sheet, text for vertical dimensions is placed vertically and reads
from the right side of the sheet, and dimensions placed at an angle have the text
placed at the same angle.
12 Principles of Dimensioning

7. Electronic drafting projects use either decimal inches or millimeters and use either
unidirectional or aligned dimensioning.

8. Dimensions fall into two types, size dimensions and location dimensions.

(a) Size dimensions are used to provide the measurements for the size of features
and objects.

(b) Location dimensions are used to locate features and objects.

9. Notes are also placed on drawings. Notes are not normally part of the dimensions
but they may contain dimensional information.

10. The two types of notes are general notes and specific notes.

11. General notes supply information that applies to the entire drawing.

12. Specific notes, also known as local notes, apply to specific features on the drawing
and may be connected to the feature with a leader line.

13. In addition, dimensions can be put into three groups relative to the function of a
product:

(a) Functional dimensions,

(b) Non-functional dimensions, and

(c) Auxiliary dimensions.

14. Dimensions are normally expressed in millimeters.

15. Dimensions of less than unity should be preceded by zero, e.g. 0.6 mm.

16. Each dimension should appear only once - it should not be repeated on other
views.

17. Dimensions relative to a particular feature should be placed in one view, which
shows the relevant features most clearly, rather than spread over several views.

18. All dimension, extension, and leader lines should be thin, sharp, dark lines
(0.5mm/2H).
 13

19. Extension lines indicate the points between which the dimension figures apply.
They are drawn perpendicular to the dimension lines, start with a visible gap 1 mm
between them and the object, and terminate 3.2 mm beyond the last arrowhead.

20. Each dimension should be terminated by arrowheads touching the extension

lines and pointing in opposite directions. Arrowheads are drawn freehand with
.7mm/HB lead. The line should be broken only at the approximate center for the
dimension figures.

21. Dimensions shown with dimension lines and arrowheads should be placed to be
read from the bottom of the drawing (unidirectional system).

22. All dimensions should be given in decimal format.

23. When all dimensions on a drawing are given in millimeters, millimeter mark (mm)
are omitted.

24. A dimension line should never coincide with an object line or a center line, nor
should it be an extension of these lines.

25. Crossing of extension lines or dimension lines should be avoided if possible.

Where such crossings are unavoidable, there should be no break in either of the
lines.

26. Dimensions should be at least 10 mm from the object outline, then equally spaced
at least 6 mm apart. A continuous series of dimensions should be aligned rather
than staggered.

27. Standard practice is to place the shortest dimensions nearest to the object and
space adjacent parallel dimension lines further away from the object in order of
their length.

28. Dimensions are preferably placed outside the outlines of the views.

29. When placement outside the views will result in (a) dimensions too far from the
distance they indicate, (b) long and confusing extension lines or leader lines that
cross other lines of the drawing, or (c) any confusion in understanding where the
14 Principles of Dimensioning

Figure 3.1: Marking dimensions of an object

Figure 3.2: Marking dimensions of an object without crossing

dimension applies, they may be placed inside the view and close to the distance
they indicate.

30. Where there are several parallel dimension lines in a group, the dimension figures
should be staggered so that they will not interfere with one another.

31. Lettering (notes) should always be placed horizontal on the page, to be read from
 15

the bottom of the drawing (.7mm HB).

Figure 3.3: Unidirectional dimensioning

32. A circle should be dimensioned by giving its diameter instead of radius. The
dimension indicating a diameter should always be preceded by the symbol ϕ.

Figure 3.4: Dimension of circle by diameter

 LECTURE
4
Geometric Construction

4.1 Bisecting a line

1. Draw a straight line PQ

2. Place the compasses on one end of the line segment.

3. Set the compasses’ width to a approximately two thirds the line length.

Figure 4.1: Bisecting a line

4. Without changing the compasses’ width, draw an arc above and below the line.

5. Again without changing the compasses’ width, place the compasses’ point on the
the other end of the line. Draw an arc above and below the line so that the arcs
4.2 Bisecting a given arc 17

cross the first two.

6. Using a straightedge, draw a line between the points where the arcs intersect.

7. Done. This line is perpendicular to the first line and bisects it i.e cuts exactly at the
midpoint of the line PQ.

4.2 Bisecting a given arc

1. Draw an arc AB

2. Place the compass on one end of the arc A.

3. Set the compasses’ width to a approximately two thirds the the distance AB.

Figure 4.2: Bisecting a curve

4. Without changing the compass width, draw an arc above and below the arc AB.

5. Again without changing the compass width, place the compass point on the the
other end of the arc B.

6. Draw an arc above and below the the arc AB so that the arcs cross the first two.

7. Using a straightedge, draw a line between the points where the arcs intersect.

8. Done. This line EF bisects the arc AB.

18 Geometric Construction

4.3 Drawing perpendicular to a given line from a given

point
Start with a line and point R which is not on that line.

1. Place the compasses on the given external point R.

2. Set the compasses’ width to a approximately 50% more than the distance to the
line. The exact width does not matter.

3. Draw an arc across the line on each side of R, making sure not to adjust the
compasses’ width in between. Label these points P and Q

Figure 4.3: Drawing a perpendicular line from a given point

4. At this point, you can adjust the compasses’ width. Recommended: leave it as is.

From each point P,Q, draw an arc below the line so that the arcs cross.

5. Place a straightedge between R and the point where the arcs intersect. Draw the
perpendicular line from R to the line, or beyond if you wish.

6. Done. This line is perpendicular to the first line and passes through the point R. It
also bisects the segment PQ (divides it into two equal parts)

4.4 Constructing a parallel line through a given point

Start with a line PQ and a point R off the line.
4.5 Dividing a line into ’n’ equal parts 19

1. Draw a transverse line through R and across the line PQ at an angle, forming the
point J where it intersects the line PQ. The exact angle is not important.

2. With the compasses’ width set to about half the distance between R and J, place
the point on J, and draw an arc across both lines.

3. Without adjusting the compasses’ width, move the compasses to R and draw a
similar arc to the one in step 2.

4. Set compasses’ width to the distance where the lower arc crosses the two lines.

Figure 4.4: Drawing a parallel line from a given point

5. Move the compasses to where the upper arc crosses the transverse line and draw
an arc across the upper arc, forming point S.

6. Draw a straight line through points R and S. Done. The line RS is parallel to the
line PQ

http : //www.mathopenref.com/indexpage.html

4.5 Dividing a line into ’n’ equal parts

Start with a line segment AB that we will divide up into 5 (in this case) equal parts.

1. From point A, draw a line segment at an angle to the given line, and about the
same length. The exact length is not important.
20 Geometric Construction

2. Set the compasses on A, and set its width to a bit less than one fifth of the length
of the new line.

3. Step the compasses along the line, marking off 5 arcs. Label the last one C.

Figure 4.5: Dividing a line into equal number of parrts

4. With the compasses’ width set to CB, draw an arc from A just below it.

5. With the compasses’ width set to AC, draw an arc from B crossing the one drawn
in step 4. This intersection is point D.

6. Draw a line from D to B. Geometry construction with compass and straightedge

or ruler or ruler

7. Using the same compasses’ width as used to step along AC, step the compasses
from D along DB making 4 new arcs across the line

8. Draw lines between the corresponding points along AC and DB.

9. Done. The lines divide the given line segment AB in to 5 congruent parts.
 LECTURE
5
Construction of Pentagon

5.1 When length of a side is known

5.1.1 Method I

1. Draw a line AB equal to the given length

2. With center A and radius AB, draw a semicircle PB

3. with a divider, divide the semi-circle into five equal parts and number the division
points as 1,2,3,4,5 starting from P

4. Draw a line joining A with the second division point 2

Inscribe circle method

1. Draw perpendicular bisectors of A2,and AB intersecting each other at O

2. With center O and radius OA, describe a circle

3. With radius AB and starting from B, cut the circle at points C, D,——2.

4. Draw lines BD, CD etc., thus completing the required pentagon

Arc method

1. With center B and radius AB, draw an arc cutting the line A4 produced at C
22 Construction of Pentagon

2. With center C and the same radius, draw an arc cutting the line A3 produced at D

3. Draw lines BC, CD, 2A and complete pentagon

5.1.2 Method II

1. Draw a line AB equal to the side of pentagon

2. At B draw a line BP perpendicular and equal to AB

3. Draw a line joining A with P

4. With center B and radius AB, draw the quadrant AP

5. Draw a perpendicular bisector of AB to intersect the straight line AP in 4 and arc

AP in 6

6. Mark the mi point of line 4-6 is marked as 5

7. 5 as center pentagon of a side equal to AB as shown in Figure.

5.1.3 Method III-Inscribe in a circle method

Diameter dividing method

1. With O as center draw a given circle

2. Draw diameter AB and divide it into 5 equal parts

3. With centers A and B and radius AB, draw arcs intersecting each other at P

4. Draw a line P2 and produce it to meet the circle at C. Then AC is the length of the
side of the pentagon

5. Starting from C, step- off on the circle, divisions CD, DE etc equal to AC

6. Draw lines CD, DE etc thus completing the required pentagon

5.1 When length of a side is known 23

Bisecting radius method

1. With center ’O’ draw the given circle

2. Draw diameters AB and CD perpendicular to each other

3. Bisect AO in a point P

4. With P as center and PC as radius draw an arc cutting OB at Q

5. With P as center and PC as radius draw an arc cutting OB at Q

6. With C as center and CQ as radius draw an arc cutting the circle at E and F

7. With centers E and F and with same radius, draw arcs cutting the circle in G and
H respectively

8. Draw lines CE, EG,GH,HF and FC thus completing the required pentagon.
 LECTURE
6
Conic curves

1. Curves formed by the intersection of a plane with a right circular cone are called
conic curves.

2. Hyperbola, Parabola, ellipse and circle are conic curves

3. Right circular cone is a cone that has a circular base and the axis is inclined at 900
to the base and passes through the centre of the base.

Figure 6.1: Conic sections

6.1 Eccentricity 25

4. Conic sections such as ellipse, parabola and hyperbola are used widely used for
many applications, such as aerodynamics, civil engineering, mechanical engineer-
ing, etc. Figure 6.1. Shows a right cone and the various conic curves that can be
obtained from a cone by sectioning the cone at various conditions.

6.0.1 Conic

Conic is defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane such that the ratio of its
distance from a fixed point (called focus) and a fixed straight line (called directrix) is
always constant as shown in Fig. 6.2.

Figure 6.2: Ellipse

6.1 Eccentricity
The eccentricity of a conic section is a non-negative real number that uniquely charac-
terizes its shape. It is defined as the ratio of the distance from any point on the conic
section to its focus to the distance from that point to its directrix.
The eccentricity of a conic section can be calculated using the following formula:

c
E= (6.1)
a
26 Conic curves

e = c / a where:
e is the eccentricity
c is the distance from the center of the conic section to its focus
a is the distance from the center of the conic section to a vertex

Different values of eccentricity correspond to different types of conic sections:

Circle: e = 0
Ellipse: 0 < e < 1
Parabola: e = 1
Hyperbola: e > 1
The more eccentric a conic section is, the less circular it is. For example, a parabola has
an eccentricity of 1, which means that it is very elongated and stretches out to infinity
in one direction. A hyperbola has an eccentricity greater than 1, which means that it has
two branches that curve away from each other and never meet.
Eccentricity is a useful concept for understanding the shapes of conic sections
and their properties. It is also used in many applications in physics, astronomy, and
engineering.

6.2 ELLIPSE
An ellipse is a closed, oval curve that is defined as the set of all points in a plane such
that the sum of their distances from two fixed points is a constant. The fixed points are
called the foci (singular focus), and the constant distance is called the major axis. The
minor axis is the shortest diameter of the ellipse, and it is perpendicular to the major
axis.
Ellipses are found in many different areas of mathematics, science, and engineering.
For example, the orbits of planets and comets, the shapes of galaxies, and the paths of
light rays in optical systems.

6.2.1 Properties of ellipses

1. An ellipse has two axes of symmetry: the major axis and the minor axis.

2. The major axis is longer than the minor axis.

6.2 ELLIPSE 27

3. The foci are located on the major axis, equidistant from the center of the ellipse.

4. The sum of the distances from any point on the ellipse to the two foci is equal to
the major axis.

6.2.2 Types of ellipses

Ellipses can be classified according to their eccentricity, which is a measure of how

elongated the ellipse is. The eccentricity is defined as the ratio of the distance between
the foci to the major axis.

1. A circle has an eccentricity of 0, and it is the most circular ellipse.

2. An ellipse with an eccentricity between 0 and 1 is called a prolate ellipse. It is

elongated in the direction of its major axis.

3. An ellipse with an eccentricity of 1 is called a parabola. It is an open curve with

one focus.

4. An ellipse with an eccentricity greater than 1 is called a hyperbola. It is also an

open curve, but it has two foci.
28 Conic curves

6.2.3 Examples of ellipses in the real world

1. The shape of an egg The path of a planet around the sun

2. The shape of a human eyeball

3. The elliptical shape of a stadium running track

4. The elliptical shape of a bicycle chainring

5. The elliptical shape of a lens in a pair of eyeglasses

Ellipses are a fascinating and important class of geometric shapes. They have many
applications in the real world, and they can be used to model a wide variety of phenom-
ena.

Figure 6.3:
6.3 Construction of ellipse by different methods 29

6.3 Construction of ellipse by different methods

6.3.1 Focus-Directrix or Eccentricity Method

Given

The distance of focus from the directrix and eccentricity is given

6.4 Problem
Problem :
Draw an ellipse if the distance of focus from the directrix is 70 mm and the eccentricity
is 3/4.
Solution

1. Draw the directrix AB and axis CC’

2. Mark F on CC’ such that CF = 70 mm.

3. Divide CF into 7 equal parts and mark V at the 3 parts and mark V at the fourth
division from C. Now, e = FV/ CV = 3/4.

4. At V, erect a perpendicular VB = VF. Join CB.

5. Through F, draw a line at 45° to meet CB produced at D.

6. Through D, drop a perpendicular DV’ on CC’.

7. Mark O at the midpoint of V- V’.

8. With F as a centre and radius = 1-1’, cut two arcs on the perpendicular through 1
to locate P1 and P1’.

9. Similarly, with F as centre and radii = 2- 2’, 3-3’, etc., cut arcs on the corresponding
perpendiculars to locate P2 and P2’, P3 and P3’, etc.

10. Also, cut similar arcs on the perpendicular through 4 on the perpendicular through
O to locate V1 and V1’.
30 Conic curves

Figure 6.4:
6.4 Problem 31

11. Draw a smooth closed curve passing through V, P1, P/2, P/3, —., V1, —, V’, —,
V1’, — P/3’, P/2’, P1’.

12. Mark F’ on CC’ such that V’ F’ = VF.

 LECTURE
7
Construction of ellipse

7.0.1 Concentric circle method

Given
Major diameter and minor diameter of the ellipse are given
Steps

1. Draw both axes as perpendicular bisectors of each other & name their ends as
shown.

2. Taking their intersecting point as a centre, draw two concentric circles considering
both as respective diameters.

3. Divide both circles in 12 equal parts and name as shown.

4. From all points of outer circle draw vertical lines downwards and upwards re-
spectively.

5. From all points of inner circle draw horizontal lines to intersect those vertical lines.

6. Mark all intersecting points properly as those are the points on ellipse.

7. Join all these points along with the ends of both axes in smooth possible curve.

8. The required ellipse is as shown in Fig. 7.1.

 33

Figure 7.1:
34 Construction of ellipse

7.0.2 Ellipse by Rectangle method

Given
Major diameter and minor diameter of the ellipse are given
Steps

1. Draw a rectangle taking major and minor axes as sides.

2. In this rectangle draw both axes as perpendicular bisectors of each other..

3. For construction, select upper left part of rectangle. Divide vertical small side and
horizontal long side into same number of equal parts.( here divided in four parts)

4. Name those as shown.

Figure 7.2:

5. Now join all vertical points 1,2,3,4, to the upper end of minor axis. And all
horizontal points i.e.1,2,3,4 to the lower end of minor axis.

6. Then extend C-1 line upto D-1 and mark that point.

7. Similarly extend C-2, C-3, C-4 lines up to D-2, D-3, & D-4 lines.

8. Mark all these points properly and join all along with ends A and D in smooth
possible curve.

9. Do similar construction in right side part.along with lower half of the rectangle.
 35

10. Join all points in smooth curve.

11. The required ellipse is produced as shown in Fig. 7.2 .

7.0.3 Ellipse by Oblong method.

Given
Length, width and included angle parallelogram is given
STEPS

1. The steps are similar to the rectangle method

2. Draw parallelogram instead of rectangle.

Figure 7.3:

7.0.4 Arcs of circle method.

Given
Length, width and included angle parallelogram is given
STEPS

1. Draw both axes as usual.Name the ends & intersecting point

2. Taking AO distance I.e.half major axis, from C, mark F1 & F2 On AB . ( focus 1

and 2.)

3. On line F1 - O taking any distance, mark points 1,2,3, & 4

36 Construction of ellipse

4. Taking F1 center, with distance A-1 draw an arc above AB and taking F2

center, with B-1 distance cut this arc. Name the point p1

5. Repeat this step with same centers but taking now A-2 & B-2 distances for drawing
arcs. Name the point p2

6. Similarly get all other P points. With same steps positions of P can be located
below AB.

7. Join all points by smooth curve to get an ellipse as shown in Fig. ??

Given: Length of two diagonals are given

STEPS:

1. Draw rhombus of given dimensions.

2. Mark mid points of all sides & name Those A,B,C,& D

3. Join these points to the ends of smaller diagonals.

4. Mark points 1,2,3,4 as four centers.

5. Taking 1 as center and 1-A radius draw an arc AB.

6. Take 2 as center draw an arc CD.

7. Similarly taking 3 & 4 as centers and 3-D radius draw arcs DA & BC

Figure 7.4:

8. Join all points by smooth curve to get an ellipse as shown in Fig. 7.4
 LECTURE
8
Parabola

8.1 Construction of Parabola by Directrix - Focus Method

8.1.1 Problem

Point F is 50 mm from a vertical straight line AB. Draw locus of point P, moving
in a plane such that it always remains equidistant from point F and line AB.

SOLUTION STEPS:

1. Locate center of line, perpendicular to AB from point F. This will be initial point P
and also the vertex.

2. Mark 5 mm distance to its right side, name those points 1,2,3,4 and from those
draw lines parallel to AB.

3. Mark 5 mm distance to its left of P and name it 1.

4. Take O-1 distance as radius and F as center draw an arc cutting first parallel line
to AB. Name upper point P1 and lower point P2 . (FP1=O1)

5. Similarly repeat this process by taking again 5mm to right and left and locate P3
P4 .
38 Parabola

Figure 8.1:

6. Join all these points in smooth curve so that parabola is produced as shown in Fig.
8.4.

8.1.2 Constructing a Parabola (Eccentricity Method)

Problem
Draw a parabola if the distance of the focus from the directrix is 60 mm.

1. Draw directrix AB and axis CC’ as shown.

2. Mark F on CC’ such that CF = 60 mm. Mark V at the midpoint of CF. Therefore, e
= VF/ VC = 1. 4.

3. At V, erect a perpendicular VB = VF. Join CB.

4. Mark a few points, say, 1, 2, 3, — on VC’ and erect perpendiculars through them
meeting

5. Erect perpendiculars through them meeting CB produced at 1’, 2’, 3’,—

6. With F as a centre and radius = 1-1’, cut two arcs on the perpendicular through 1
to locate P1 and P1’.

7. Similarly, with F as a centre and radii = 2-2’, 3-3’, etc., cut arcs on the corresponding
perpendiculars to locate P2 and P2’, P3 and P3’, etc.

8. Draw a smooth curve passing through V, P1, P2, P3 — P3’, P2’, P1’.
8.1 Construction of Parabola by Directrix - Focus Method 39

Figure 8.2:
40 Parabola

8.1.3 Rectangle method

Problem A BALL THROWN IN AIR ATTAINS 100 M HIEGHT AND COVERS

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE 150 M ON GROUND. Draw the path of the ball
(projectile)-

STEPS:

1. Draw rectangle of above size and divide it in two equal vertical parts

2. Consider left part for construction. Divide height and length in equal number of
parts and name those 1,2,3,4,5& 6

3. Join vertical 1,2,3,4,5 & 6 to the top center of rectangle

4. Similarly draw upward vertical lines from horizontal1,2,3,4,5 And wherever these
lines intersect previously drawn inclined lines in sequence Mark those points and
further join in smooth possible curve.

Figure 8.3:

5. Repeat the construction on right side rectangle also.Join all in sequence. This locus
is Parabola.
8.1 Construction of Parabola by Directrix - Focus Method 41

8.1.4 METHOD OF TANGENTS

Problem
Draw an isosceles triangle of 100 mm long base and 110 mm long altitude.Inscribe
a parabola in it by method of tangents.

Solution Steps:

1. Construct triangle as per the given dimensions.

2. Divide it’s both sides in to same no.of equal parts.

Figure 8.4:

3. Name the parts in ascending and descending manner, as shown.

4. Join 1-1, 2-2,3-3 and so on.

5. Draw the curve as shown i.e.tangent to all these lines.

6. The above all lines being tangents to the curve, it is called method of tangents.
 LECTURE
9
HYPERBOLA

9.1 HYPERBOLA THROUGH A POINT OF KNOWN CO-

ORDINATES

Problem Point P is 40 mm and 30 mm from horizontal and vertical axes respec-

tively.Draw Hyperbola through it.

Solution Steps:

1. Extend horizontal line from P to right side.

2. Extend vertical line from P upward.

3. On horizontal line from P, mark some points taking any distance and name them
after P-1, 2,3,4 etc.

4. Join 1-2-3-4 points to pole O. Let them cut part [P-B] also at 1,2,3,4 points.

5. From horizontal 1,2,3,4 draw vertical lines downwards and

6. From vertical 1,2,3,4 points [from P-B] draw horizontal lines.

7. Line from 1 horizontal and line from 1 vertical will meet at P1 .Similarly mark P2 ,
P3 , P4 points.
9.1 HYPERBOLA THROUGH A POINT OF KNOWN CO-ORDINATES 43

Figure 9.1:

8. Repeat the procedure by marking four points on upward vertical line from P and
joining all those to pole O. Name this points P6 , P7 , P8 etc. and join them by
smooth curve.

9.1.1 DIRECTRIX FOCUS METHOD

Problem
A POINT F IS 50 MM FROM A LINE AB. A POINT P IS MOVING IN A PLANE
SUCH THAT THE RATIO OF IT’S DISTANCES FROM F AND LINE AB RE-
MAINS CONSTANT AND EQUALS TO 3/2 DRAW LOCUS OF POINT P. EC-
CENTRICITY = 3/2

STEPS:

1. Draw a vertical line AB and point F 50 mm from it.

2. Divide 50 mm distance in 5 parts.

3. Name 2nd part from F as V. It is 20mm and 30mm from F and AB line resp.

4. It is first point giving ratio of it’s distances from F and AB 2/3 i.e 20/30

5. Form more points giving same ratio such as 30/45, 40/60, 50/75 etc.

6. Taking 45,60 and 75mm distances from line AB, draw three vertical lines to the
right side of it.
44 HYPERBOLA

Figure 9.2:

7. Now with 30, 40 and 50mm distances in compass cut these lines above and below,
with F as center.

8. Join these points through V in smooth curve. This is required locus of P.

9. The produced curve is hyperbola

9.2 Drawing tangent and normal to conic curves at a given

point
1. JOIN POINT Q TO F1 & F2

2. BISECT ANGLE F1Q F2 THE ANGLE BISECTOR IS NORMAL

3. A PERPENDICULAR LINE DRAWN TO IT IS TANGENT TO THE CURVE.

9.2 Drawing tangent and normal to conic curves at a given point 45

Figure 9.3:
 LECTURE
10
Engineering Curves

10.1 DEFINITIONS

1. Cycloid:

(a) A cycloid is a curve generated by a point on the circumference of the circle as

the circle rolls along a straight line with out slipping.

i. Superior Trochoid :A Superior Trochoid is the path or Locus of a point

which lies on the outside of a circle when it rotates along a straight line
without slipping.

ii. Inferior Trochoid: An Inferior Trochoid is the path or Locus of a point

which lies on the inside of a circle when it rotates along a straight line
without slipping.

(b) The moving circle is called the "Generating circle" and the straight line is
called the "Directing line" or the "Base line".

(c) The point on the Generating circle which generates the curve is called the
"Generating point"

2. Epicycloid

(a) The cycloid is called the epicycloid when the generating circle rolls along
another circle outside(directing circle)
10.2 Application of Engineering curves 47

3. Hypocycloid

(a) The curve traced by a point on a circle which rolls on the inside of a circular
base surface.

4. Involute:

(a) It is a locus of a free end of a string when it is wound round a circular pole

5. SPIRAL:

(a) It is a curve generated by a point which revolves around a fixed point and at
the same time moves towards it.

6. Helix:

(a) It is a curve generated by a point which moves around the surface of a right
circular cylinder/cone and at the same time advances in axial direction at a
speed bearing a constant ratio to the speed of rotation.

10.2 Application of Engineering curves

Cycloidal curves

1. gear tooth profiles

2. Cycloidal pendulum

3. Trajectories

4. Gear profiles

5. Use in violin plate arching

6. Rotary pumps

7. conveyor design

Involutes:

1. Gear manufacturing

2. scroll compressor
48 Engineering Curves

10.3 Construction of Cycloids

10.3.1 Problem

DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE CYCLOID

WHICH ROLLS ON STRAIGHT LINE PATH. Take Circle diameter as 50 mm

Solution Steps:

1. From center C draw a horizontal line equal to D distance.

2. Divide D distance into 8 number of equal parts and name them C1, C2, C3 . . . . . .
etc.

3. Divide the circle also into 8 number of equal parts and in clock wise direction,
after P name 1, 2, 3 up to 8.

4. From all these points on circle draw horizontal lines. (parallel to locus of C)

Figure 10.1:

5. With a fixed distance C-P in compass, C1 as center, mark a point on horizontal

line from 1. Name it P.

6. Repeat this procedure from C2, C3, C4 upto C8 as centers. Mark points P2, P3, P4,
P5 up to P8 on the horizontal lines drawn from 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 respectively.

7. Join all these points by curve. It is Cycloid

10.4 Construction of superior trochoid 49

10.4 Construction of superior trochoid

10.4.1 Problem

DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT , 5 MM AWAY FROM THE PERIPHERY OF A

CIRCLE WHICH ROLLS ON STRAIGHT LINE PATH. Take Circle diameter as 50
mm

Solution Steps:

1. Draw circle of given diameter and draw a horizontal line from it’s center C of
length D and divide it in 8 number of equal parts and name them C1, C2, C3, up
to C8.

2. Draw circle by CP radius, as in this case CP is larger than radius of circle.

Figure 10.2:

3. Now repeat steps as per the previous problem of cycloid, by dividing this new
circle into 8 number of equal parts and drawing lines from all these points parallel
to locus of C and taking CP radius wit different positions of C as centers, cut these
lines and get different positions of P and join

4. This curve is called Superior Trochoid.

50 Engineering Curves

10.5 Construction of INFERIOR TROCHOID

10.5.1 Problem

DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT , 5 MM INSIDE THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE

WHICH ROLLS ON STRAIGHT LINE PATH. Take Circle diameter as 50 mm

Solution Steps:

1. Draw circle of given diameter and draw a horizontal line from it’s center C of
length D and divide it in 8 number of equal parts and name them C1, C2, C3, up
to C8.

2. Draw circle by CP radius, as in this case CP is SHORTER than radius of circle.

Figure 10.3:

3. Now repeat steps as per the previous problem of cycloid, by dividing this new
circle into 8 number of equal parts and drawing lines from all these points parallel
to locus of C and taking CP radius with different positions of C as centers, cut
these lines and get different positions of P and join those in curvature.

4. This curve is called Inferior Trochoid.

 LECTURE
11
Construction of Epicycloid and Hypocycloid

11.0.1 Problem

DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE WHICH

ROLLS ON A CURVED PATH. Take diameter of rolling Circle 50 mm And radius
of directing circle i.e. curved path, 75 mm.

Solution Steps:

1. When smaller circle will roll on larger circle for one revolution it will cover D
distance on arc and it will be decided by included arc angle .

2. Calculate by formula = (r/R) x 3600. 3) Construct angle with radius OC and draw
an arc by taking O as center OC as radius and form sector of angle .

3. Divide this sector into 8 number of equal angular parts. And from C onward name
them C1, C2, C3 up to C8.

4. Divide smaller circle (Generating circle) also in 8 number of equal parts. And next
to P in clockwise direction name those 1, 2, 3, up to 8.

5. With O as center, O-1 as radius draw an arc in the sector. Take O-2, O- 3, O-4, O-5
up to O-8 distances with center O, draw all concentric arcs in sector. Take fixed
distance C-P in compass, C1 center, cut arc of 1 at P1. Repeat procedure and locate
52 Construction of Epicycloid and Hypocycloid

Figure 11.1:

P2, P3, P4, P5 unto P8 (as in cycloid) and join them by smooth curve. This is EPI -
CYCLOID.

11.1 Construction of Hypocycloid

11.1.1 Problem

PROBLEM: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE

WHICH ROLLS FROM THE INSIDE OF A CURVED PATH. Take diameter of
rolling circle 50 mm and radius of directing circle (curved path) 75 mm.

Solution Steps:

1. Smaller circle is rolling here, inside the larger circle. It has to rotate anticlockwise
to move ahead.

2. Same steps should be taken as in case of EPI - CYCLOID. Only change is in

numbering direction of 8 number of equal parts on the smaller circle.

3. From next to P in anticlockwise direction, name 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8.

11.1 Construction of Hypocycloid 53

Figure 11.2:

4. Further all steps are that of epi - cycloid. This is called HYPO - CYCLOID.

11.1.2 Problem

Draw Involute of a circle. String length is equal to the circumference of circle

Solution Steps:

1. Point or end P of string AP is exactly D distance away from A. Means if this string
is wound round the circle, it will completely cover given circle. B will meet A after
winding.

2. Divide D (AP) distance into 8 number of equal parts.

3. Divide circle also into 8 number of equal parts.

4. Name after A, 1, 2, 3, 4, etc. up to 8 on D line AP as well as on circle (in anticlock-

wise direction).

5. To radius C-1, C-2, C-3 up to C-8 draw tangents (from 1,2,3,4,etc to circle).
54 Construction of Epicycloid and Hypocycloid

Figure 11.3:

6. Take distance 1 to P in compass and mark it on tangent from point 1 on circle

(means one division less than distance AP).

7. Name this point P1

8. Take 2-B distance in compass and mark it on the tangent from point 2. Name it
point P2.

9. Similarly take 3 to P, 4 to P, 5 to P up to 7 to P distance in compass and mark on

respective tangents and locate P3, P4, P5 up to P8 (i.e. A) points and join them in
smooth curve it is an INVOLUTE of a given circle.
 LECTURE
12
SCALES

12.1 Introduction
1. There is a wide variation in sizes for engineering objects. Some are very large (eg.
Aero planes, rockets, etc) Some are very small ( wrist watch, MEMs components)

2. There is a need to reduce or enlarge while drawing the objects on paper. Some
objects can be drawn to their actual size.

3. The proportion by which the drawing of an object is enlarged or reduced is called

the scale of the drawing.

12.2 Definition
A scale is defined as the ratio of the linear dimensions of the object as represented in a
drawing to the actual dimensions of the same.

1. Drawings drawn with the same size as the objects are called full sized drawing.

2. It is not convenient, always, to draw drawings of the object to its actual size. e.g.
Buildings,

3. Heavy machines, Bridges, Watches, Electronic devices etc.

4. Hence scales are used to prepare drawing at

56 SCALES

(a) Full size

(b) Reduced size

(c) Enlarged size

12.3 Types of Scale

1. Engineers Scale : The relation between the dimension on the drawing and the
actual dimension of the object is mentioned numerically (like 10 mm = 15 m).

2. Graphical Scale: Scale is drawn on the drawing itself. This takes care of the
shrinkage of the engineer’s scale when the drawing becomes old.

12.4 Types of Graphical Scale

1. Plain Scale

2. Diagonal Scale

3. Vernier Scale

4. Comparative scale

5. Scale of chords

12.5 Representative fraction (R.F.)

Length of object on drawing
R.F =
Actual length of the object
When a 1 cm long line in a drawing represents 1 meter length of the object
1cm
R.F =
1m

Length of scale = RF x Maximum distance to be represented

12.5.1 Plain scale

1. A plain scale is used to indicate the distance in a unit and its next subdivision.
12.5 Representative fraction (R.F.) 57

2. A plain scale consists of a line divided into suitable number of equal units. The
first unit is subdivided into smaller parts.

3. The zero should be placed at the end of the 1st main unit.

4. From the zero mark, the units should be numbered to the right and the sub-
divisions to the left.

5. The units and the subdivisions should be labeled clearly.

6. The R.F. should be mentioned below the scale.

Figure 12.1: Plane scale

12.6 Problem
Construct a plain scale of RF = 1:4, to show centimeters and long enough to
measure up to 5 decimeters.

1. R.F. = ¼

2. Length of the scale = R.F. x ma.

length = ¼ x5 dm = 12.5 cm.

3. Draw a line 12.5 cm long and divide it in to 5 equal divisions, each representing 1
dm.

4. Mark 0 at the end of the first division and 1, 2, 3 and 4 at the end of each subsequent
division to its right.

5. Divide the first division into 10 equal sub-divisions, each representing 1 cm. Mark
cm to the left of 0 as shown in Fig. 12.2
58 SCALES

Figure 12.2: Plane scale

6. Draw the scale as a rectangle of small width (about 3 mm) instead of only a line.

7. Draw the division lines showing decimetres throughout the width of the scale.

8. Draw thick and dark horizontal lines in the middle of all alternate divisions and
sub-divisions.

9. Below the scale, print DECIMETERS on the right hand side, CENTIMERTERS on
the left hand side, and R.F. in the middle.

http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112103019/6 http : //nptel.ac.in/courses/112103019/6

12.7 PROBLEM
Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum distance of 6 m.
Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm.

solution
CONSTRUCTION:-

1. Calculate R.F.= R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100 Length of scale = R.F. max. distance =
1/100 600 cm = 6 cms

2. Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent
larger division unit.

3. Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
12.5 Representative fraction (R.F.) 59

4. Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and
subdivisions on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting
a look of scale.

5. After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.

6. Show the distance 4 m 6 dm on it as shown.

12.8 PROBLEM
In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long. Calculate the R.F. and
construct a plain scale to read kilometers and hectometers, for max. 12 km. Show
a distance of 8.3 km on it.

solution

1. Calculate R.F. R.F.= 45 cm/ 36 km = 45/ 36 . 1000 . 100 = 1/ 80,000 Length of scale
= R.F. max. distance = 1/ 80000 12 km = 15 cm

2. Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will represent
larger division unit.

3. Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.

4. Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and
subdivisions on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting
a look of scale.

5. After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.

60 SCALES

6. Show the distance 8.3 km on it as shown.

12.9 Problem
The distance between two stations is 210 km. A passenger train covers this
distance in 7 hours. Construct a plain scale to measure time up to a single minute.
RF is 1/200,000 Indicate the distance traveled by train in 29 minutes.

solution

1. 210 km in 7 hours. Means speed of the train is 30 km per hour ( 60 minutes)

Length of scale = R.F. max. distance per hour = 1/ 2,00,000 30km = 15 cm

2. 15 cm length will represent 30 km and 1 hour i.e. 60 minutes. Draw a line 15 cm

long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent 5 km and 10 minutes.

3. Sub divide the first part in 10 equal parts,which will represent second unit or
fraction of first unit. Each smaller part will represent distance traveled in one
minute.

4. Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and
subdivisions on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for getting
a proper look of scale.

5. Show km on upper side and time in minutes on lower side of the scale as shown.
After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.

6. Show the distance traveled in 29 minutes, which is 14.5 km, on it as shown.

12.10 Diagonal scales 61

12.10 Diagonal scales

1. We have seen that the plain scales give only two dimensions, such as a unit and
it’s sub unit or it’s fraction.

2. The diagonal scales give us three successive dimensions that is a unit, a sub-unit
and a subdivision of a sub-unit.

3. The principle of construction of a diagonal scale is as follows.

4. At end B of line AB, draw a perpendicular.

5. Step-off ten equal divisions of any length along the perpendicular starting from B
and ending at C.

6. Number the division points 9,8,7,—..1. Join A with C.

Figure 12.3:

7. Through the points 1, 2, 3, etc., draw lines parallel to AB and cutting AC at 1’, 2’,
3’, etc.
62 SCALES

8. Since the triangles are similar; 1’1 = 0.1 AB, 2’2 = 0.2AB, — 9’9 = 0.9AB.

9. Gives divisions of a given short line AB in multiples of 1/10 its length, e.g. 0.1AB,
0.2AB, 0.3AB, etc.

PROBLEM NO. 4 : The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km. In a railway
map it is represented by a line 5 cm long. Find it’s R.F. Draw a diagonal scale to
show single km. And maximum 600 km. Indicate on it following distances. 1)
222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km

solution

1. RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000 Length of scale = 1 / 40, 00, 000 600 105 = 15
cm

2. Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 km.Divide it in six equal parts.( each
will represent 100 km.)

3. Divide first division in ten equal parts. Each will represent 10 km.

4. Draw a line upward from left end and mark 10 parts on it of any distance. Name
those parts 0 to 10 as shown.

5. Join 9th sub-division of horizontal scale with 10th division of the vertical divisions.

6. Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions and complete
diagonal scale.

12.11 Problem
An area of 144 sqcm on a map represents an area of 9 sqkm on the field. Find
the R.F.of the scale for this map and draw a diagonal scale to show kilometers,
hectametres and decameters and to measure upto 5 kilometres. Indicate on the
scale a distance of 3 kilometres, 5 hectametres and 6 decametres or 3.56km.

Given
12.12 Vernier scales 63

1. The area on the map is 144 sqcm and the area on the field is 9 sqkm.

2. Take square root on both sides. Then 12cm=3 km or Scale is 1 cm= 0.25km or
2.5x104 cm; RF=1/(2.5104 )

Length of the scale to read upto 5 km is RF 5 km= 1/(2.5104 ) 5x105 =20cm

3. Construction:

(a) Draw a line AB of 20 cm and construct a rectangle on it, by taking AD 5cm as

shown.

(b) Divide AB into 5 equal parts and number them from second part starting
with 0 to 4 towards right side to indicate kilometers (km).

Figure 12.4:

(c) Divide 0A into 10 equal parts, each part represents a hectometer (hm).

(d) Divide AD into 10 equal parts, each part represents one decametre (dam).

(e) Join diagonals as shown.

(f) To mark 3.56 km, take it as sum of 3.50 km and 0.06 km.

(g) On the plain scale take 3.5 km and on the diagonal at 5 upto 6 parts diagonally
which is equal to 0.06km, giving a total of 3.56 km as shown by MN.

(h) Note: Assume the height of the diagonal scale AD as 5cm for dividing it into
10 equal parts conveniently.

12.12 Vernier scales

1. Similar to Diagonal scale, Vernier scale is used for measuring up to second decimal.
64 SCALES

2. A Vernier scale consists of (i) a main scale and (ii) a vernier.

3. The main scale is a plain scale fully divided into minor divisions.

4. A subdivision on the mail scale is called the main scale division (MSD).

Figure 12.5:

5. The graduations on the vernier are derived from those on the primary scale.

6. “‘A subdivision on the vernier scale is called the vernier scale division (VSD).

7. Least Count (LC) is the minimum length that can be measured precisely by a
given vernier scale.

8. This can be determined by the following expression: LC = MSD - VSD ( if MSD >
VSD)
LC = VSD - MSD ( if VSD > MSD)
The LC is mentioned as a fraction of the MSD.

9. If the MSD of a scale represents 1 mm and LC is 0.1 mm,

LC = 0.1 mm = (1/10) MSD

12.12 Vernier scales 65

(a) Assume MSD > VSD

LC = MSD - VSD
1/10 MSD = MSD - VSD
i.e., VSD = MSD - 1/10 MSD
10 VSD = 9 MSD
i.e., Length of VSD = 9 MSD.

(b) This length must be divided in to 10 equal parts so that LC = 0.1 mm

Assume VSD > MSD
LC = VSD - MSD
1/10 MSD = VSD - MSD
i.e., VSD = 1/10 MSD + MSD
10 VSD = 11 MSD
This length is to be divided in to 20 equal parts so that LC = 0.1 mm

12.12.1 Backward Vernier scale

Figure 12.6:

1. Length A0 represents 10 cm and is divided in to 10 equal parts each representing

1 cm.

2. B0 = 11 (i.e. 10+1) such equal parts = 11 cm.

66 SCALES

3. Divide B0 into 10 equal divisions. Each division of B0 will be equal to 11/10 = 1.1
cm or 11 mm.

4. Difference between 1 part of A0 and one part of B0 = 1.1 cm -1.0 cm = 0.1cm or 1

mm.

12.13 Question
Draw a Vernier scale of R.F. = 1/25 to read up to 4 meters. On it show lengths 2.39
m and 0.91 m

1. Length of Scale = (1/25) x(4 x100) = 16 cm.

2. Draw a 16 cm long line and divide it into 4 equal parts. Each part is 1 meter.
Divide each of these parts in to 10 equal parts to show decimetre (10 cm).

3. Take 11 parts of dm length and divide it in to 10 equal parts. Each of these parts
will show a length of 1.1 dm or 11 cm.

4. To measure 2.39 m, place one leg of the divider at A on 99 cm mark and other leg
at B on 1.4 mark. (0.99 + 1.4 = 2.39).

5. To measure 0.91 m, place the divider at C and D (0.8 +0.11 = 0.91).

Comparative Scales

1. Comparative Scale consists of two scales of the same RF, but graduated to read
different unit,constructed separately or one above the other.

2. Used to compare distances expressed in different systems of unit e.g. kilometres

and miles, centimetres and inches.

3. The two scales may be plain scales or diagonal scales or Vernier scales.

4. 1 Mile = 8 fur. = 1760 yd = 5280 ft

12.12 Vernier scales 67

12.14 Problem
Construct a plain comparative Scales of RF = 1/624000 to read up to 50 kms and
40 miles. On these show the kilometer equivalent to 18 miles

• Miles scale
1
LOS= =8 cm
625000X50X1000X100

• Kilometer scale
1
LOS= =4 in
625000X40X1760X3X12

Figure 12.7:

• Draw a 4 in. line AC and construct a plain scale to represent mile and 8cm line AB
and construct the kilometer scale below the mile scale.

• On the mile scale, determine the distance equal to 18 miles (PQ)

• Mark P’Q’ = PQ on the kilometer scale such that P’ will coincide with the appro-
priate main division.

• Find the length represented by P’Q’.

• P’Q’ = 29 km. (1Mile = 1.60934 km)

68 SCALES

12.15 Scale of chords

1. Scale of chords is used to measure angles when a protractor is not available, by
comparing the angles subtended by chords of an arc at the centre of the arc.

2. Draw a line AO of any suitable length.

3. At O, erect a perpendicular OB such that OB - OA With O as centre, draw an arc

AB Divide the arc in to 9 equal parts by the following method.

4. On arc AB, mark two arcs with centers A and B and radius - AO. By this the arc
AB is divided in to three equal parts.

5. By trial and error method, divide each of these three parts in to three equal
subdivisions.

6. The total length of AB is now divided in to 9 equal parts. Number the divisions as
10, 20, 30, 40 ,etc.

7. Transfer all the divisions on the arc to the line AO by drawing arcs with A as a
centre and radii equal to the chords A-10, 10-20, 20-30, —. AB.

8. Construct the linear degree scale by drawing the rectangles below AC.

9. Mark the divisions in the rectangle with zero below A and number the divisions
subsequently as 10o , 20o , 30o , 40o , —.., 90o
 LECTURE
13
Practice class

1. On a line AB 60 mm long, construct a regular pentagon by two different methods

(diameter dividing method, arc method)

2. : Construct regular hexagon of side 40 mm by any two methods

3. Describe a regular pentagon on a circle diameter of 150 mm.

4. Trace the path of point P such that focus F is 65 mm away from directrix when
eccentricity is i) 2/3 ii) one iii) 3/2

5. The major axis of an ellipse is 200 mm long and the minor axis is 140 mm long.
Find the foci and draw the ellipse by arcs of circles method. Draw tangent to the
ellipse at a point on it 30 mm above the major axis.

6. Construct an ellipse with major diameter and minor diameter is 180 mm and 120
mm respectively by i) oblong method and ii) concentric circles method

7. A point P is 30 mm and 50 mm respectively from two straight lines which are at

right angles to each other. Draw a rectangular hyperbola from P within 15 mm
distance from each line.

8. Two straight lines OA and OB make an angle of 750 between them. P is a point 40
mm from OA and 50 mm from OB. Draw a hyperbola through P, with OA and OB
70 Practice class

as asymptotes, making at least ten points.

9. Two points A and B are 50 mm apart. Draw the curve traced out by a point P
moving in such a way that the difference between its distances from A and B is
always constant and equal to 20 mm.

10. A circle of 50 mm diameter rolls along a straight line without slipping. Draw the
curve traced out by a point P on the circumference, for one complete revolution of
the circle. Name the curve. Draw a tangent to the curve at a point on it 40 mm
from the line.
 LECTURE
14
Practice class

1. A circle of 60 mm diameter rolls on the circumference of another circle of 175 mm

diameter and outside of it. Trace the locus of a point on the circumference of the
rolling circle for one complete revolution. Name the curve. Draw a tangent and
normal to the curve at a point 125 mm from the center of the directing circle.

2. A circle of 115 mm diameter rolls on another circle of 75 mm diameter with internal

contact. Draw the locus of a point on the circumference of the rolling circle for one
complete revolution.

3. (page 144, problem 22) A circle of 50 mm diameter rolls on a horizontal line for a
half revolution and then on a vertical line for another half revolution. Draw the
curve traced out by a point P on the circumference of the circle.

4. (page 144, problem 24) An inelastic string 145 mm long, has its one end attached
to the circumference of a circular disc of 40 mm diameter. Draw the curve traced
out by the other end of the string, when it is completely wound around the disc,
keeping the string always tight. Draw a normal and a tangent on the curve at a
point 80 mm from the center of the circle.
 LECTURE
15
Practice class

1. Construct a scale of 1: 4 to show centimeters and long enough to measure up to 5

decimeters. Mark 3.7 dm on the scale.

2. Draw a scale of 1: 60 to show meters and decimeters and long enough to measure
up to 6 meters. Mark 3.7m on the scale

3. Construct a diagonal scale R.F 1/4000 to show meters and long enough to measure
upto 500mts.

4. The distance between Bombay and Poona is 180km. a passenger train covers this
distance in 6 hrs. Construct a plain scale to measure time up to a single minute.
The R.F of the scale is 1/200000. Find the distance covered by the train in 36
minutes.

5. Draw a vernier scale of R.F 1/25 to read centimeters up to 4 meters and on it show
lengths representing 2.39m and 0.91m.

http : //www.it.griet.ac.in/wp − content/uploads/2014/08/I −U N IT −C U RV ES.pdf

 UNIT II
**********
 LECTURE
16
Orthographic Projections

Figure 16.1:

16.1 Introduction
1. Often, a three dimensional object must be represented with precision and clarity
on a plane surface.

2. Pictorial representations of a three-dimensional object on a plane are adequate

16.1 Introduction 3

Figure 16.2:

only if the object is simple, however a different method of representation must

be used for more complex objects - one that will show the true shapes of their
surfaces.

3. By observing the shadows of objects cast by light sources, it can be seen that an
object can be ’projected’ onto a two-dimensional surface (i.e. a plane of projection)
by projecting points of the object onto the surface and joining them in order.

4. A projection is defined as an image/ drawing of an object made on a plane

5. If straight lines are drawn from various points on the contour of an object to meet
a plane the object is projected on that plane

6. The figure formed by the joining the points at which these lines meet the plane is
called projection of the object.

7. Orthographic projection is a means of representing a three-dimensional object in

two dimensions.

8. It uses multiple views of an object, from points of view rotated about the objects
4 Orthographic Projections

centre through increments of 90 degrees. Equivalently, the views may be consid-

ered to be obtained by rotating the object about its centre through increments of
90 degrees.

9. The views are positioned relative to each other according to either of two schemes:
first-angle or third-angle projection. In each- the appearances of views may be
thought of as being "projected" onto planes that form a transparent "box" around
the object.

Figure 16.3:
 Projection of lines: http : //www.online − convert.com/

(figuras/acsr1.jpg)

1
6 Orthographic Projections

Figure 16.4:

16.2 Six Principal views

16.2 Six Principal views 7

Figure 16.5:

Figure 16.6: Object suspended in glass box, Producing six principal views
8 Orthographic Projections

Figure 16.7: Perspective Projection

Figure 16.8: Parallel Projection

16.2 Six Principal views 9

Figure 16.9: Unfolding the glass box to produce six view drawing

Figure 16.10: Six views of the object

10 Orthographic Projections

Figure 16.11: Principal projection planes and quadrants used to create first and third
angle projection

Figure 16.12: Pictorial comparison between first and third angle projection techniques
16.2 Six Principal views 11

Figure 16.13: Pictorial comparison between first and third angle projection techniques
 LECTURE
17
Projection of Points

http : //nptel.ac.in/courses/112103019/#

17.1 POINT

The position of a point in engineering drawing is defined with respect to its distance
from the three principle planes i.e., with respect to the VP, HP, & PP. The point is
assumed to be in the respective quadrant shown in figure 17.1. The point at which
the line of sight (line of sight is normal to the respective plane of projection) intersects
the three planes are obtained. The horizontal plane and the side planes are rotated so
such that they lie on the plane containing the vertical plane. The direction of rotation
of the horizontal plane is shown in figure 17.2. Conventions used while drawing the
projections of points With respect to the 1st angle projection of point p shown in figure
17.3

Top views are represented by only small letters eg. p . Their front views are
conventionally represented by small letters with dashes eg. p’ Profile or side views are
represented by small letters with double dashes eg. p” Projectors are shown as thin
lines. The line of intersection of HP and VP is denoted as X-Y. The line of intersection of
VP and PP is denoted as X1-Y1
17.1 POINT 13

Figure 17.1: The relative positions of projection planes and the quadrants

Figure 17.2: The direction of rotation of the Horizontal plane.

Figure 17.3: Three planes and the projection of the point P after the planes have been
rotated on to the vertical plane.
14 Projection of Points

17.2 Problem
Draw the projections of a point P which is 40 mm in front of VP, 50 mm above HP, 30
mm in front of left profile plane (PP) solution

Figure 17.4: Projection of the point p on to the three projection planes before the planes
are rotated.

Figure 17.5 shows the planes and the position of the points when the planes are
partially rotated. The arrows indicate the direction of rotation of the planes. The three
views after complete rotation of the planes is shown in figure 17.6.
The procedure of drawing the three views of the point p is shown in figure 17.6.

1. Draw a thin horizontal line, XY, to represent the line of intersection of HP and VP.

2. Draw X1Y1 line to represent the line of intersection of VP and PP.

3. Draw the Top View (p).

4. Draw the projector line

5. Draw the Front View (p’) .

6. To project the right view on the left PP, draw a horizontal projector through p to
intersect the 45 degree line at m. Through m draw a vertical projector to intersect
the horizontal projector drawn through p’ at p”.

7. p” is the right view of point P

17.2 Problem 15

Figure 17.5: Projection of the point p on to the three projection planes before the planes
are rotated.

Figure 17.6: Projection of the point p on to the three projection planes before the planes
are rotated.
 LECTURE
18
Theory of Projections

18.1 Projection theory

In engineering, 3-dimensonal objects and structures are represented graphically on a

2-dimensional media. The act of obtaining the image of an object is termed projection.
The image obtained by projection is known as a view. A simple projection system is
shown in figure 1.

All projection theory are based on two variables:

1. Line of sight

2. Plane of projection.

18.1.1 Plane of Projection

A plane of projection (i.e, an image or picture plane) is an imaginary flat plane upon
which the image created by the line of sight is projected. The image is produced by
connecting the points where the lines of sight pierce the projection plane. In effect, 3-D
object is transformed into a 2-D representation, also called projections. The paper or
computer screen on which a drawing is created is a plane of projection.
18.2 Problem 17

Figure 18.1: Projection of the point p on to the three projection planes before the planes
are rotated.

18.2 Problem

A Point P is 30 mm above HP, 50 mm behind VP and 45 mm in front of left PP. Draw

the top view, front view and side view solution

Figure 18.2: The projection of point P on to the three projection planes.

18 Theory of Projections

Figure 18.3:
18.2 Problem 19

Figure 18.4:
20 Theory of Projections

Figure 18.5:
18.2 Problem 21

Figure 18.6: The projection of point P while rotation and after complete rotation of the
HP and PP

Figure 18.7: The multiview drawing of the point P lying in the second quadrant.
22 Theory of Projections

18.3 Problem
Draw the projections of the point P is in the third quadrant. It is 40 mm behind VP, 50
mm below HP and 30 mm behind the right PP. solution

Figure 18.8: The multiview drawing of the point P lying in the second quadrant.
 LECTURE
19
Projection of points

19.1 Problems
Draw the projection of points, the position of as per data given below:

1. A point P 25 mm above H.P. and 20 mm behind V.P.

2. A point Q 20 mm below H.P. and 25 mm behind V.P.

3. A point R 25 mm below H.P. and 20 mm in front of V.P.

4. A point S 20 mm above H.P. and 25 mm in front of V.P.

5. A point T on H.P. and 25 mm in front of V.P.

6. A point U on H.P. and 25 mm behind V.P.

7. A point V on V.P. and 20 mm above H.P.

8. A point W on V.P. and 20 mm below H.P.

9. A point X on H.P. as well as V.P. both.

solution

• Draw a horizontal line, which is x-y line of some suitable length.

24 Projection of points

• Point P is 25 mm above H.P. and 20 mm behind V.P. So it is in 2nd quadrant and so

on a single vertical line above & from x-y line, mark a point p’ at the distance 25
mm and point p at the distance 20 mm on it. Point p’ is front view & the point p is
top view of the point P.

• Point Q is 20 mm below H.P. and 25 mm behind V.P, so it is in 3rd quadrant. So

draw a vertical line on both sides of the x-y line.

On this vertical line, mark a point q’ 20 mm below x-y line and a point q 25 mm
above x-y line. Point q’ is front view & the point q is top view of the point Q.

• Point R is 25 mm below H.P. and 20 mm in front of V.P. So it is in the 4th quadrant.

Draw a vertical line below & from x-y line. On this line mark a point r’ at the
distance 25 mm and a point r is at the distance 20 mm from x-y line. Point r’ is
front view & the point r is top view of the point R.

• Point S is 20 mm above H.P. and 25 mm in front of V.P. So it is in 1st quadrant.

Draw a vertical line on both sides of the x-y line. On this vertical line, mark a
point s’ at the distance 20 mm above the x-y line & a point s at the distance 25 mm
below the x-y line. Point s’ is front view & the point s is top view of the point S.

• Point T is on H.P. and 25 mm in front of V.P. So it is in 1st quadrant but on

H.P. Draw a vertical line below & from x-y line. Mark a point t’ on the point of
intersection of the x-y line and the previously drawn vertical line & mark a point t
on the vertical line at the distance 25 mm below x-y line. Point t’ is front view &
point t is top view of the point T.
19.1 Problems 25

• Point U is on H.P. and 25 mm behind V.P. So it is 2nd quadrant but on H.P. Draw a
vertical line above & from x-y line. Mark a point u’ on the point of intersection of
the x-y line and the previously drawn vertical line & mark a point u on the vertical
line at the distance 25 mm above x-y line. Point u’ is front view & point u is top
view of the point U.

• Point V is on V.P. and 20 mm above H.P. So it is in 1st quadrant but on V.P. Draw
a vertical line above & from x-y line. Mark a point v on the point of intersection
of the x-y line and the previously drawn vertical line & mark a point v’ on the
vertical line at the distance 20 mm above x-y line. Point v’ is front view & point v
is top view of the point V.

• Point W is on V.P. and 20 mm below H.P. So it is in 4th quadrant but on V.P. Draw
a vertical line below & from x-y line. Mark a point w on the point of intersection
of the x-y line and the previously drawn vertical line & mark a point w’ on the
vertical line at the distance 20 mm below x-y line. Point w’ is front view & point w
is top view of the point W.

• Point X is on H.P. as well as V.P. both. So it is on the x-y line. Mark a point on the
x-y line and give the names x’ & x on this same point. Point x’ is front view &
point x is top view of the point X. Step-11 Give the dimensions by any one method
of dimensions to all the points as shown into the figure.
 LECTURE
20
Projection of lines

20.1 Straight line

A line is a geometric primitive that has length and direction, but no thickness. Straight
line is the Locus of a point, which moves linearly. Straight line is also the shortest
distance between any two given points.
The location of a line in projection quadrants is described by specifying the distances
of its end points from the VP, HP and PP. A line may be:

1. Parallel to both the planes.

2. Parallel to one plane and perpendicular to the other.

3. Parallel to one plane and inclined to the other. Inclined to both the planes.

20.2 Projection of a line

20.3 Case 1. Line parallel to a plane

When a line is parallel to a plane, the projection of the line on to that plane will be its
true length. The projection of line AB lying parallel to the Vertical plane (VP) is shown
in figure 20.1 as a’b’.
20.4 Case 2. Line inclined to a plane 27

Figure 20.1: Projection of line on VP. Line AB is parallel to VP.

20.4 Case 2. Line inclined to a plane

When a line is parallel to one plane and inclined to the other, The projection of the line
on the plane to which it is parallel will show its true length. The projected length on the
plane to which it is inclined will always be shorter than the true length. In figure 20.2,
the line AB is parallel to VP and is inclined to HP. The angle of inclination of AB with
HP is being θ degrees. Projection of line AB on VP is a’b’ and is the true length of AB.
The projection of line AB on HP is indicated as line ab. Length ab is shorter than the
true length AB of the line.

20.5 Projection of a line parallel to both HP and VP

20.5.1 Problem

A line AB having length 80 mm is parallel to both HP and VP. The line is 70 mm above
HP, 60 mm in front of VP. End B is 30 mm in front of right PP. Draw the projections
28 Projection of lines

Figure 20.2: Projection of line AB parallel to VP and inclined to HP.

20.5 Projection of a line parallel to both HP and VP 29

Figure 20.3: Projection of line parallel to both HP and VP.

30 Projection of lines

1. To draw the projection of line AB, assume the line in the first quadrant.

2. The projection points of AB on the vertical plane VP, horizontal plane HP and
Right Profile plane PP is shown in figure.

3. Since the line is parallel to both HP and VP, both the front view a’b’ and the top
view ab are in true lengths.

4. Since the line is perpendicular to the right PP, the left side view of the line will be
a point a”(b”).
item After projection on to the projection planes, the planes are rotated such that
all the three projection planes lie in the same planes.

5. The multi-view drawing of line AB is shown in Figure.

 LECTURE
21
Lines inclined to Principal planes

21.1 Line perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP

A Line AB 25 mm is parallel to the VP and perpendicular to the HP. Point A is 35 mm
above the HP and 20 mm in front of the VP. B is 10 mm above the HP. Draw its projec-
tions. solution procedure

1. Draw the line XY.

2. Draw a line perpendicular to XY using a 2H pencil.

3. Mark b’ 10mm above XY on the perpendicular line.

4. Mark a’ 25mm above b’.

5. a’ b’ is the front view, join a’, b’ using a H pencil.

6. Mark a (b) 20mm below XY; a (b) is the top View.

7. Erase the unwanted Lines.

32 Lines inclined to Principal planes

Figure 21.1:
 LECTURE
22
Problems

22.1 Problem
A straight line AB of true length 100 mm has its end A 20 mm above HP and 30 mm
in front of VP. The top view of the line is 80 mm and front view is 70 mm. Draw the
projections (TV and FV) of the line AB and obtain the true inclinations of the line AB
with HP and VP.
solution

1. Draw XY line and mark points a’ (20 mm above XY line ) and a (30mm below XY
line) as given in the question.

2. Let us assume that the line is parallel to HP and Inclined to VP.

3. Draw a horizontal line from a’ and mark distance equal to 70 mm on it. The end
point is b2’. i.e., a’ b2’ = 70 mm.

4. In this condition, the FV is parallel to XY line. TV can be obtained considering the

following points:

(a) TV of point B will be along the vertical projector drawn from B2’.

(b) TV of line AB will be the true length = 100mm .

(c) The true inclination of the line with VP can also be obtained.
34 Problems

5. Draw a projector downwards from b2’. It is clear that if TL of AB is drawn from a

with the required inclination with the VP, it will give the distance a’ b2’. Therefore,
with radius equal to TL= 100mm and with centre a, cut an arc on the downward
projector from b2’. Let this be ab2. Inclination of ab2 with horizontal will give true
inclination of line AB with VP.

6. Locus of point B is marked as a horizontal line at b2.

7. Let us no assume that the line is parallel to VP and inclined to HP.

8. In this condition, the TV is parallel to XY line. FV can be obtained considering the

following points:

(a) FV of point B will be along the vertical projector drawn from B2’.

(b) FV of line AB will be the true length = 100mm .

(c) The true inclination of the line with HP can also be obtained.

9. Draw a horizontal line from a and mark distance equal to 80 mm on it. The end
point is b1. a b1 = 80 mm.

10. Draw a projector upwards from b1. It is clear that if TL of AB is drawn from a’
with the required inclination with the HP, it will give the distance ab1. Therefore,
with radius equal to TL= 100mm and with centre a’, cut an arc on the upward
projector from b1. Let this be a’b1’. Inclination of a’b1’ with horizontal will give
true inclination of line AB with HP.

11. Locus of point B is marked as a horizontal line at b1’.

Drawing the top view and front view of line AB

(a) The plan of AB (ab) is obtained as follows: With a as centre and radius equal
to ab1, cut an arc on the locus line drawn at b2.

(b) The elevation of AB (a’b’) is obtained as follows: With a’ as centre and radius
equal to a’b2’, cut an arc on the locus line drawn at b1’.

The required inclinations are:

• Angle of inclination with HP = 350

• Angle of inclination with VP = 450

22.1 Problem 35

Figure 22.1:
 LECTURE
23
Traces of a line

1. The trace of a line is defined as a point at which the given line, if produced, meets
or intersects a plane.

2. When a line meets HP, (or if necessary on the extended portion-of HP), the point
at which the line meets or intersects the horizontal plane, is called horizontal trace
(HT)of the line and denoted by the letter H.

3. When a line meets VP (or if necessary on the extended portion of VP), the point at
which the line meets or intersects the vertical plane, is called vertical trace (VT) of
the line and denoted by the letter V.

4. When the line is parallel to both HP and VP, there will be no traces on the said
planes. Therefore the traces of lines are determined in the following positions of
the lines.

23.0.1 Trace of a line perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the

other

• Since the line is perpendicular to one plane and parallel to the other, the trace of
the line is obtained only on the plane to which it is perpendicular, and no trace
of the line is obtained on the other plane to which it is parallel. Figures 2 and 3
illustrates the trace of a line parallel to VP and perpendicular to HP and parallel
to HP and perpendicular to VP respectively.
 37

Figure 23.1: Trace of line parallel to VP and perpendicular to HP

Figure 23.2: Trace of a line perpendicular to the VP and parallel to HP

38 Traces of a line

Figure 23.3: Horizontal trace of line AB

23.0.2 Traces of a line inclined to one plane and parallel to the other

When the line is inclined to one plane and parallel to the other, the trace of the line is
obtained only on the plane to which it is inclined, and no trace is obtained on the plane
to which it is parallel. Figure 4 shows the horizontal trace of line AB which is in lined
HP and parallel to VP

23.0.3 Traces of a line inclined to both the planes

Figure 6 shows the Vertical trace (V) and Horizontal Trace (H) of Line AB inclined at q
to HP and ϕ to VP. The line when extended intersects HP at H, the horizontal trace, but
will never intersect the portion of VP above XY line, i.e. within the portion of the VP
in the 1st quadrant. Therefore VP is extended below HP such that when the line AB is
produced it will intersect in the extended portion of VP at V, the vertical trace. In this
case both horizontal trace (H) and Vertical Trace (V) of the line AB lie below XY line.
 39

Figure 23.4: Vertical trace of line AB

Figure 23.5: Vertical trace and horizontal trace of line AB which is inclined to both
vertical plane and horizontal plane.
 LECTURE
24
Projections on Auxiliary Planes

24.1 Auxiliary Planes

Sometimes none of the three principal orthographic views of an object show the different
edges and faces of an object in their true sizes, since these edges and faces, are not
parallel to any one of the three principal planes of projection. In order to show such
edges and faces in their true sizes, it becomes necessary to set up additional planes of
projection other than the three principal planes of projection in the positions which will
show them in true sizes. If an edge or a face is to be shown in true size, it should be
parallel to the plane of projection. Hence the additional planes are set up so as to be
parallel to the edges and faces which should be shown in true sizes. These additional
planes of projection which are set up to obtain the true sizes are called Auxiliary Planes.
The views projected on these auxiliary planes are called Auxiliary Views.

The auxiliary view method may be applied

1. To find the true length of a line.

2. To project a line which is inclined to both HP and VP as a point.

3. To project a plane surface or a lamina as a line.

24.1 Auxiliary Planes 41

24.1.1 Types of auxiliary planes

Usually the auxiliary planes are set up such that they are parallel to the edge or face
which is to be shown in true size and perpendicular to any one of the three principal
planes of projection. Therefore, the selection of the auxiliary plane as to which of the
principal planes of projection it should be perpendicular, obviously depends on the
shape of the object whose edge or face that is to be shown in true size.

1. If the auxiliary plane selected is perpendicular to HP and inclined to VP, the view
of the object projected on the auxiliary plane is called auxiliary front view and the
auxiliary plane is called auxiliary vertical plane and denoted as AVP.

2. If the auxiliary plane is perpendicular to VP and inclined to HP, the view of the
object projected on the auxiliary plane is called auxiliary top view and the auxiliary
plane is called auxiliary inclined plane and denoted as AIP.

24.1.2 Auxiliary Vertical Plane (AVP)

An AVP is placed in the first quadrant with its surface perpendicular to HP and inclined
at ϕ to VP. The object is assumed to be placed in the space in between HP, VP and AVP.
The AVP intersects HP along the X1Y1 line. The direction of sight to project the auxiliary
front view will be normal to AVP. The position of the auxiliary vertical plane w.r.t HP
and VP is shown in figure 24.1.
After obtaining the top view, front view and auxiliary front view on HP, VP and
AVP, the HP, with the AVP being held perpendicular to it, is rotated so as to be in-plane
with that of VP, and then the AVP is rotated about the X1Y1 line so as to be in plane
with that of already rotated HP.

24.1.3 Auxiliary Inclined Plane (AIP)

AIP is placed in the first quadrant with its surface perpendicular to VP and inclined
at q to HP. The object is to be placed in the space between HP, VP and AIP. The AIP
intersects the VP along the X1Y1 line. The direction of sight to project the auxiliary top
view will be normal to the AIP. The position of the AIP w.r.t HP and VP is shown in
figure 24.2.
42 Projections on Auxiliary Planes

Figure 24.1: The position of the auxiliary vertical plane w.r.t HP and VP

Figure 24.2: The position of the AIP w.r.t HP and VP

24.2 Projection of Points on Auxiliary Planes 43

Figure 24.3: Projection of Point P on VP, HP and AVP

After obtaining the top view, front view and auxiliary top view on HP, VP and AIP,
HP is rotated about the XY line independently (detaching the AIP from HP). The AIP is
then rotated about X1Y1 line independently so as to be in-plane with that of VP.

24.2 Projection of Points on Auxiliary Planes

24.2.1 Projection on Auxiliary Vertical Plane

Point P is situated in the first quadrant at a height m above HP. An auxiliary vertical
plane AVP is set up perpendicular to HP and inclined at ϕ to VP. The point P is projected
on VP, HP and AVP. As shown in figure 24.5, p’ is the projection on VP, p is the projection
on HP and P1’ is the projection on AVP.
Since point is at a height m above HP, both p’ and p1’ are at a height m above the XY
and X1Y1 lines, respectively
HP is rotated by 90 degree to bring it in plane of VP (figure 24.4(a) . Subsequently,
44 Projections on Auxiliary Planes

Figure 24.4: The rotation of (a) HP and (b) AVP to make HP and AVP in plane with VP.

the AVP is rotated about the X1Y1 line (figure 24.4(b), such that it becomes in-plane
with that of both HP and VP.
The orthographic projections (projections of point P on HP, VP and AVP) of point P
can be obtained be the following steps.
Draw the XY line and mark p and p’, the top and front views of the point P. Since AVP
is inclined at ϕ to VP, draw the X1Y1 line inclined at ϕ to the XY line at any convenient
distance from p. Since point P is at a height m above HP, the auxiliary front view p1’ will
also be at a height m above the X1Y1 line. Therefore, mark P1’ by measuring o1p1’=op’
= m on the projector drawn from p perpendicular to the X1Y1 line.

24.3 Projection on Auxiliary Inclined Plane

Point P is situated in first quadrant at a distance n from VP. An auxiliary plane AIP is
set up perpendicular to VP and inclined at θ to HP. The point P is projected on VP, HP
and AIP.
p’ is the projection on VP, p is the projection on HP and P1 is the projection on AIP.
Since the point is at a distance n from VP, both p and p1 are at a distance n above the
XY and X1Y1 lines, respectively HP is now rotated by 90° about XY line to bring it in
plane with VP, as shown in figure 24.77(a). After the HP lies in-plane with VP, the AIP
is rotated about the X1Y1, line, so that it becomes in-plane with that of both HP and VP.
p and p’ lie on a vertical projector perpendicular to the XY line, and p’ and p1 lie on a
24.3 Projection on Auxiliary Inclined Plane 45

Figure 24.5: Projection of Point P on VP, HP and AVP

46 Projections on Auxiliary Planes

Figure 24.6: Orthographic projection of point P by auxiliary projection on AIP.

24.3 Projection on Auxiliary Inclined Plane 47

Figure 24.7: Orthographic projection of point P by auxiliary projection on AIP.

projector perpendicular to the X1Y1 line which itself is inclined at theta to XY line.

1. The orthographic projections (projections of point P on HP, VP and AIP) of point

P can be obtained be the following steps.

2. Draw the XY line and mark p and p’, the top and front views of the point P.

3. Since AIP is inclined at q to HP, draw the X1Y1 line inclined at q to the XY line at
any convenient distance from p’.

4. Since point P is at a distance n infront of VP, the auxiliary top view p1 will also be
at a distance n from the X1Y1 line.

5. Therefore, mark P1 by measuring o1p1=op = n on the projector drawn from p’

perpendicular to the X1Y1 line.

24.3.1 Step by step procedure to draw auxiliary views

48 Projections on Auxiliary Planes

Figure 24.8: Orthographic projection of point P by auxiliary projection on AIP.

S.no Auxiliary front view Auxiliary top view

1 Draw the top and front Draw the top and front
views. views
2 Draw X1Y1 line inclined at Draw X1Y1 line inclined at
f (the inclination of AVP q (the inclination of AIP
with VP) to the XY line. with HP) to XY line.
3 Draw the projectors Draw the projectors
through the top views of through the front views of
the points perpendicular to the points perpendicular to
the X1Y1 line. the X1Y1 line.
4 The auxiliary front view of The auxiliary top view of
a point is obtained by step- a point is obtained by step-
ping off a distance from the ping off a distance from
X1Y1 line equal to the dis- X1Y1 line equal to the dis-
tance of the front view of tance of the top view of the
the given point from the XY given point from the XY
line. line
 LECTURE
25
Projection of planes

25.1 Plane surface (plane/lamina/plate)

A plane is as two dimensional surface having length and breadth with negligible
thickness. They are formed when any three non-collinear points are joined. Planes are
bounded by straight/curved lines and may be either regular or an irregular. Regular
plane surface are in which all the sides are equal. Irregular plane surface are in which
the lengths of the sides are unequal.

25.1.1 Positioning of a Plane surface

A plane surface may be positioned in space with reference to the three principal planes
of projection in any of the following positions:

• Parallel to one of the principal planes and perpendicular to the other two.

• Perpendicular to one of the principal planes and inclined to the other two.

• Inclined to all the three principal planes.

25.1.2 Projections of a Plane surface

A plane surface when held parallel to a plane of projection, it will be perpendicular

to the other two planes of projection. The view of the plane surface projected on the
plane of projection to which it will be perpendicular will be a line, called the line view
50 Projection of planes

Figure 25.1: Projections of a triangular lamina on the projection planes

of a plane surface. When the plane surface is held with its surface parallel to one of the
planes of projection, the view of the plane surface projected on it will be in true shape
because all the sides or the edges of the plane surface will be parallel to the plane of
projection on which the plane surface is projected.
When a plane surface is inclined to any plane of projection, the view of the plane
surface projected on it will be its apparent shape.
A few examples of projections of plane surfaces are illustrated below:

1. Plane surface parallel to one plane and perpendicular to the other two Consider A
triangular lamina placed in the first quadrant with its surface parallel to VP and
perpendicular to both HP and left PP. The lamina and its projections on the three
projection planes are shown in figure 1.

a’b’c’ is the front view, abc the top view and a”b”c” the side view Since the plane
is parallel to VP , the front view a’b’c’ shows the true shape of the lamina. Since
the lamina is perpendicular to both HP and PP, the top view and side views are
seen as lines. After projecting the triangular lamina on VP, HP and PP, both HP
and PP are rotated about XY and X1Y1 lines, as shown in figure 2, till they lie
25.1 Plane surface (plane/lamina/plate) 51

Figure 25.2: Rotation of PP and HP after projection.

in-plane with that of VP

Since the triangular lamina is also perpendicular to left PP, the right view will
be a line parallel to the X1Y1 line. To project the right view, draw a 45° line at
the point of intersection of the XY and X1Y1 lines. Draw the horizontal projector
through the corner a in the top view to cut the 45° line at m. Through m draw a
vertical projector. From the corners c’ and a’ in the front view draw the horizontal
projectors to cut the vertical projector drawn through m at c” and b”. In the right
view the corner A coincides with B and hence is invisible.

2. Plane parallel to HP and perpendicular to both VP and PP

A square lamina (plane surface) is placed in the first quadrant with its surface
parallel to HP and perpendicular to both VP and left PP. Figure 25.4 (a) shows the
52 Projection of planes

Figure 25.3: Orthographic projections of the lamina ABC

25.1 Plane surface (plane/lamina/plate) 53

Figure 25.4: Projections of the lamina with its surface parallel to HO and perpendicular
to both VP and PP.

views of the object when projected on to the three planes. Top view is shown as
abcd, the front view

as a’(d’)b’(c’) and the side view as b"(a")c"(d"). Since the plane is parallel to the
HP, its top view abcd will be in its true shape. Since the plane is perpendicular
to VP and PP, its front and side views will be lines a’(d’)b’(c’) and b"(a")c"(d")
respectively.

After projecting the square lamina on VP, HP and PP, both HP and PP are rotated
about XY and X1Y1 lines , as shown in figure 25.4(b) , till they lie in-plane with
that of VP. The orthographic projections of the plane, shown in figure 25.4(c) can
be obtained be the following steps.

(a) Draw XY and X1Y1 lines and mark HP, VP and left PP.

(b) Draw the square abcd in true shape to represent the top view at any conve-
nient distance below the XY line.

(c) In the front view, the square lamina appears as a line parallel to the XY line.
Obtain the front view as a line a’(d’)b’(c’) by projecting from the top view,
54 Projection of planes

parallel to the XY line at any convenient distance above it. In the front view,
the rear corners D and C coincide with the front corners A and B, hence d’
and c’ are indicated within brackets.

(d) Since the square lamina is also perpendicular to left PP, the right view pro-
jected on it will also be a line perpendicular to X1Y1 line. Project the right
view as explained in the previous case. In right view, the corners A and
D coincide with the corners B and C respectively, hence (a’) and (d’), are
indicated within brackets.

3. Plane parallel to PP and perpendicular to both HP and VP

A pentagon lamina (plane surface) is placed in the first quadrant with its surface
is parallel to left PP and perpendicular to both VP and HP. Figure 25.5 (a) shows
the views of the object when projected on to the three planes. Side view is shown
as a"b"c”d"e", the front view as b’(c’)a’(d’)e’ and the top view as a(b)e(c)d .Since
the plane is parallel to the PP, its side view a"b"c”d"e" will be in its true shape.
Since the plane is perpendicular to VP and HP, its front and side views will be
projected as lines. After projecting the pentagon lamina on VP, HP and PP, both
HP and PP are rotated about XY and X1Y1 lines , as shown in figure 25.5(b), till
they lie in-plane with that of VP.

The orthographic projections of the plane, shown in figure 25.5(c) can be obtained
be the following steps. Draw XY and X1Y1 lines, and mark HP, VP and left PP
.Draw the pentagon a"b"c"d"e" in true shape to represent the side view at any
convenient distance above the XY line and left of X1Y1 line. The top and front
views of the lamina appear as lines perpendicular to XY line.

Obtain the front view b’(c’)a’(d’)e’ as a line by projecting from the right view at
any convenient distance from the X1Y1 line. In the front view, the rear corners D
and C coincide with A and B respectively, hence d’ and c’ are indicated within
brackets. The orthographic projections of the plane, shown in figure 25.5(c) can be
obtained be the following step. Since the pentagon lamina is also perpendicular to
HP, the top view also appears as a line. Project the top view from the right and
front views.

4. Plane surface perpendicular to one plane and inclined to the other two
25.1 Plane surface (plane/lamina/plate) 55

Figure 25.5: Projections of a pentagonal lamina with its surface parallel to PP and
perpendicular to HP and VP.

Plane inclined at phi to VP and perpendicular to HP

Draw the projections of a triangular lamina (plane surface) placed in the first
quadrant with its surface is inclined at f to VP and perpendicular to the HP.

• Since the lamina is inclined to VP, it is also inclined to left PP at (90 - ϕ). The
triangular lamina ABC is projected onto VP, HP and left PP.

• a’b’c’ - is the front view projected on on VP.

a"b"c" - is the right view projected on left PP. Since lamina is inclined to VP
and PP, front and side views are not in true shape.

• Since lamina is perpendicular to HP, its top view is projected as a line acb
Figure 25.6 (c) shows the multiview drawing of the lamina.
56 Projection of planes

Figure 25.6: The projections of the triangular lamina

 LECTURE
26
Practice questions

1. (page 172 problem 1 in N.D.Bhatt). Draw the projections of the following points
on the same ground line, keeping the projectors 25 mm apart.
A. in the HP, and 20 mm behind the VP
B. 40 mm above the HP and 25 mm in front of the VP
C. In the VP and 49 mm above the HP
D. 25mm below the HP and 25mm behind the VP
E. 15 mm above the HP, and 50 mm behind the VP
F. 40 mm below the HP and 25mm in front of the VP
G. In both the HP and VP.

2. (page 173, problem 4 in N.D.Bhatt). A point P is 15 mm above the H.P and 20 mm

in front of the V.P. Another point Q is 25 mm behind the V.P and 40 mm below the
H.P. Draw projections of P and Q keeping the distance between their projectors
equal to 90 mm. Draw straight lines joining (i) their top views and (ii) their front
views.

3. ( page 173, problem 6 in N.D.Bhatt).two points A and B are in the H.P. the point A
is 30 mm in front of the V.P., while B is behind the V.P. the distance between their
projectors is 75mm and the line joining their top views makes an angle of 450 with
XY. Find the distance of the point B from the V.P.

4. (page 173, problem 7) A point P is 20 mm below HP. And lies in the third quadrant.
Its shortest distance from XY is 40 mm. draw its projections.
58 Practice questions

5. (page 173, problem 8) A point A is situated in the first quadrant. Its shortest
distance from the intersection point of H.P., V.P and auxiliary plane is 60 mm and
it is equidistance from the principal planes. Draw the projections of the point and
determine its distance from the principal planes.
 LECTURE
27
Practice Problems

1. (Page 173, prob. 9) A point 30 mm above xy line is the plan-view of two points P
and Q. The elevation of P is 45 mm above the HP. While that of the point Q is 35
mm below the HP. Draw the projections of the points and state their position with
reference to the principal planes and the quadrant in which they lie.

2. A 50 mm long line PQ, is parallel to both HP and VP. The line is 25 mm in front of
the VP and 60 mm above the HP. Draw the projections of the line and determine
the traces.

3. A 60mm long line PQ has its end P at a distance of 20 mm above the HP. The line
is perpendicular to the HP and 40 mm in front of VP. Draw the projections of the
line and determine its traces.

4. A 60mm long line PQ, has its end P at a distance of 20 mm in front of the VP. The
line is perpendicular to VP and 40mm above the HP. Draw projections of a line
and determine its traces.

5. (Page 178, prob. 10.1): A line PQ, 90 mm long, is in the HP and makes an angle of
300 with the VP. its end P is 25mm in front of the VP. Draw its projections.
 LECTURE
28
Practice Problems

1. (Page 178, prob. 10.2): The length of the top view of a line parallel to the VP and
inclined at 450 to the HP is 50 mm. one end of the line is 12mm above the HP and
25mm in front of the VP. Draw the projections of the line and determine its true
length.

2. (Page 179, prob. 3) A 90 mm long line is parallel to and 25 mm in front of the

VP. Its one end is in the HP. While the other is 50 mm above the HP. Draw its
projections and find its inclination with the HP.

3. (Page 179, prob. 4) The top view of a 75 mm long line measures 55 mm. the line is
in the VP., its one end being 25 mm above the HP. Draw its projections.
Q 36: (Page 179, prob. 5) The front view of a line, inclined at 300 to the VP is 65
mm long. Draw projections of the line, when it is parallel to and 40 mm above the
HP., its one end being 30 mm in front of the VP.

4. (Page 179, prob. 6) A vertical line AB, 75 mm long, has its end A in the HP and 25
mm in front of the VP. A line AC, 100 mm long, is in the HP and parallel to the
VP. Draw the projections of the line joining B and C, and determine its inclination
with the HP.

5. (Page 194, prob. 10.8) A line AB, 50 mm long, has its end A in both the HP and the
VP. It is inclined at 300 to the HP and 450 to the VP. Draw its projections.
 LECTURE
29
Practice Problems

1. (page 195, prob10.9) A line PQ 75 mm long, has its end P in the VP and the end
Q in the HP. The line is inclined at 300 to the HP and at 600 to the VP. Draw its
projections

2. (page196, prob10.11) The top view of a 75 mm long line AB measures 65 mm,

while the length of its front view is 50 mm. its one end A is in the HP. And 12 mm
in front of the VP. Draw the projections of AB and determine its inclinations with
the HP and the VP.

3. (page197, prob10.12) A line AB, 65 mm long, has its end A 20 mm above the HP
and 25 mm in front of the VP. The end B is 40mm above the HP and 65 mm in
front of the VP. Draw the projections of AB and show its inclinations with the HP
and the VP.

4. (page198, prob10.14) The line AB, 90 mm long, inclined at 450 to the HP and its
top view makes an angle of 600 with the VP. The end A is in the HP and 12 mm in
front of the VP. Draw its front view and find its true inclination with the VP.
 LECTURE
30
Practice Problems

1. A 70 mm long line PQ, has an end P at 20 mm above the HP and 30 mm in front of

the VP. The line is inclined at 450 to the HP and 300 to the VP. Draw its projections.
(page 9.15 from Basant Agrawal)

2. A straight line PQ has its end P at 20 mm above the HP and 30 mm in front of

the VP and the end Q is 80 mm above the HP and 70 mm in front the VP. If the
projections are 60 mm apart. Draw the projections of the line and determine its
true length and true inclinations with the reference planes. (page:9.18, from Basant
Agrawal)

3. The top view of a 125 mm long line PQ measures 80 mm and its top view measures
100 mm. Its end Q and the mid point M are in the first quadrant. M being 50 mm
from both planes. Draw the projections of the line PQ.

4. Draw the projections of a 100 mm long line AB, when end A touches VP and end
B touches HP. The line is 300 to HP and 500 to VP. Draw the projections of the line
and locate HT and VT

5. A square plane with a 40 mm side has its surface parallel to and 20 mm above
the HP. Draw its projections when a) a side is parallel to VP. b) a side is inclined
at 300 to VP and c) all sides are equally inclined to VP. . (page:10.2, from Basant
Agrawal)
 63

6. A hexagonal plane with a 30 mm side has its surface parallel to and 20 mm in

front of VP. draw its projections, when a) a side is perpendicular to the HP. b) a
side is parallel to the HP. c) a side is inclined at 450 to the HP. . (page:10.3, from
Basant Agrawal)

7. A triangular plane is in the form of isosceles triangle having base with a 30 mm

side and an altitude of 40 mm. It is kept in the first quadrant such that the surface
is perpendicular to both HP and VP. Draw its projections when the base is parallel
to the VP. . (page:10.4, from Basant Agrawal)

8. A pentagonal plane with a 30 mm side has an edge on the H.P. The surface of
the plane is inclined at 450 to the H.P. and perpendicular to the V.P. Draw its
projections. . (page:10.5,prob:10.4 from Basant Agrawal)

9. A hexagonal plate with a 30 mm side and negligible thickness has its surface
perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined at 450 to the V.P. Draw its projections when
one of the sides of the plane is parallel to and 15 mm in front of the V.P.(page:10.6,
from Basant Agrawal)

10. A circular plane with a 60 mm diameter is resting on a point of its circumference

on the V P. The centre is 40 mm above the H P., and the surface is inclined at 450
to the V P., and perpendicular to the H.P. Draw its projections. . (page:10.7, from
Basant Agrawal)

11. A Pentagonal plane with a 30 mm side, rests on the H.P on an edge such that the
surface is inclined at 450 to the H.P. and the edge on which it rests is inclined at
300 to the V.P . Draw its projections. (page:10.15, from Basant Agrawal).

12. A hexagonal plane with a 30 mm side has its corner A in the H.P. The surface of
the plane is inclined at 450 to the H.P. and the diagonal containing the corner A is
inclined at 300 to the V.P. Draw its projections. (page:10.16, from Basant Agrawal).
 LECTURE
31
Practice Problems

1. A semicircular plate with an 80 mm diameter has its straight edge in the V.P. and
inclined at 450 to the HP. Draw the projections of the plate when its surface is
inclined at 300 to the VP. (page:10.17, from Basant Agrawal).

2. A pentagonal plane with a 30 mm side has one of its corners in the VP. And the
surface is inclined at 300 to the V.P. The edge of the plane opposite to that corner is
parallel to the V.P and inclined at 450 to the H.P. Draw its projections. (page:10.18,
from Basant Agrawal).

3. A circular plane with an 80 mm diameter has one of the ends of the diameter in
the H.P., while the other end is in the V.P. The plane is inclined at 300 to the H.P.
and 600 to the V.P. Draw its projections. . (page:10.20, from Basant Agrawal).
 UNIT III

PROJECTION OF REGULAR
SOLIDS-AUXILIARY VIEWS
 LECTURE
32
Projections of solids

32.1 Solid

A solid is a 3-D object having length, breadth and thickness and bounded by surfaces
which may be either plane or curved, or combination of the two. Solids are classified
under two main headings

• Polyhedron

• Solids of revolution

A regular polyhedron is solid bounded only by plane surfaces (faces). Its faces
are formed by regular polygons of same size and all dihedral angles are equal to one
another. when faces of a polyhedron are not formed by equal identical faces, they may
be classified into prisms and pyramids.
Five regular polyhedral are shown in figure 32.1

32.2 Prism

Prisms are polyhedron formed by two equal parallel regular polygon, end faces con-
nected by side faces which are either rectangles or parallelograms. Different types of
prisms are shown in figure 32.2.
32.2 Prism 3

Figure 32.1: Pictorial comparison between first and third angle projection techniques

Figure 32.2: Various types of prisms generally encountered in engineering applications

4 Projections of solids

32.2.1 Projections of solids placed in different positions

The solids may be placed on HP in various positions

1. The way the axis of the solid is held with respect to HP or VP or both -

(a) Perpendicular to HP or VP

(b) Parallel to either HP or VP and inclined to the other

(c) Inclined to both HP and VP

2. The portion of the solid on which it lies on HP, except when it is freely suspended
position. It can lie on HP on its base edge or a corner, or a lateral face, or apex.
 LECTURE
33
Projection of solids -axis perpendicular to HP

33.1 Problem
Draw the projections of cylinder when it is lying on HP such that its axis is perpendicu-
lar to HP and parallel to VP. solution

1. A solid when placed on HP with its axis perpendicular to it, then it will have its
base on HP.

2. This is the simplest position in which a solid can be placed.

3. When the solid is placed with the base on HP position, in the top view, the base
will be projected in its true shape.

4. Hence, when the base of the solid is on HP, the top view is drawn first and then
the front view and the side views are projected from it as shown in figure 33.1.

33.2 Problem
Draw the projections of a cone when its base is on HP and axis is perpendicular to HP
and parallel to VP. solution
6 Projection of solids -axis perpendicular to HP

Figure 33.1: Front view and top view of a cylinder

Figure 33.2: Front view and top view of a cone

33.3 Problem 7

33.3 Problem
Draw the orthographic projections of a triangular prism whose base is on HP while
considering for different positions
solution

Figure 33.3: Projections of a triangular prism resting on its base on HP with different
positions.

33.4 Problem
Draw the orthographic projections of a triangular Pyramid whose base is on HP while
considering for different positions
solution
8 Projection of solids -axis perpendicular to HP

Figure 33.4: Projections of a triangular Pyramid resting on its base on HP with different
positions.
 LECTURE
34
Projections of a solid with the axis perpendicu-
lar to VP

34.1 Cylinder and cone

When a solid is placed with its axis perpendicular to VP, the base of the solid will
always be perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP. Hence in the front view, base will be
projected in true shape. Therefore, when the axis of the solid is perpendicular to VP, the
front view is drawn first and then the top and side views are drawn from it. When a
cylinder rests on HP with its axis perpendicular to VP, one of its generators will be on
HP.
Figure 34.113 shows the Front view and Top view of a cylinder and cone resting on
HP with their axes perpendicular to VP. In this case one of the points on the circumfer-
ence of the base will be on XY.

34.2 Pentagonal prism

The projections of a pentagonal prism for possible positions when its axis is perpendic-
ular to VP
10 Projections of a solid with the axis perpendicular to VP

Figure 34.1: The Front view and Top view of a cylinder and cone

Figure 34.2: Projections of a pentagonal prism resting on HP and axis perpendicular to

VP with different positions.
 LECTURE
35
Practice problems

1. (Page 249, prob. 13.1) Draw the projections of a triangular prism, base 40 mm side
and axis 50 mm long, resting on one of its bases on the H.P with a vertical face
perpendicular to the V.P.

2. (Page 250, prob. 13.2) Draw the projections of a pentagonal pyramid, base 30 mm
edge and axis 50mm long, having its base on the H.P. and an edge of the base
parallel to the V.P. also draw its side view.

3. (Page 251, prob. 13.4) A cube of 50 mm long edges is resting on the H.P with its
vertical faces equally inclined to the V.P. Draw its projections.
 LECTURE
36
practice problems

1. (Page 251, prob. 13.5) Draw the projections of a hexagonal pyramid, base 30 mm
side and axis 60 mm long, having its base on the H.P. and one of the edges of the
base inclined at 600 to the H.P.

2. (Page 252, prob. 13.7) A hexagonal prism has one of its rectangular faces parallel
to the H.P. Its axis is perpendicular to the V.P and 35 mm above the ground. Draw
its projections when the nearer end is 20 mm in front of the V.P. side of base 25
mm long: axis 50 mm long.

3. (Page 253, prob. 13.9) A triangular prism, base 40 mm side and height 65 mm is
resting on the H.P. on one of its rectangular faces with the axis parallel to the V.P.
Draw its projections

4. (Page 255, prob. 13.10) A pentagonal prism, base 25mm side and axis 50 mm long,
resting on one of its rectangular faces on the H.P., with the axis inclined at 450 to
the V.P. Draw its projections by a) alteration of position method and b) alteration
of auxiliary plane method.
 LECTURE
37
practice problems

1. (Page 255, prob. 13.11) A cylinder 75 mm diameter and 100 mm long, lying on the
ground with its axis inclined at 300 to the V.P and parallel to the ground.. Draw its
projections by a) alteration of position method and b) alteration of auxiliary plane
method.

2. (Page 260, prob. 13.18) A square prism, base 40mm side and height 65 mm, has its
axis inclined at 450 to the H.P. and has an edge of its base, on the H.P and inclined
at 300 to the V.P. Draw its projections.
 LECTURE
38
Orthographic projection of solids

Figure 38.1: Orthographic projection of solid

 15

Figure 38.2: Orthographic projection of solid

 LECTURE
39
Orthographic projections of isometric vies of
solids drawn on graph

Figure 39.1: Isometric views of solids

 UNIT IV

SECTIONAL VIEWS OF SOLIDS

Development of surfaces
 LECTURE
40
Sectional views of solids

40.1 Introduction

40.2 Problem
A pentagonal pyramid of side of base 20mm and the height of axis 50 mm is resting on
base such that its one of side remains perpendicular to HP and axis remains parallel to
VP. It is cut by a cutting plane which is inclined at an angle of 450 with HP and 25mm
on axis from base. Draw front view and sectional top view.

40.3 Problem
A hexagonal prism 30 mm side of base and 70 mm height is resting on HP on one of its
base edges with its axis inclined 400 to HP. Draw the projections when the axis further
makes 300 to VP
40.3 Problem 3

Figure 40.1: Projections of a pentagonal prism resting on HP and axis perpendicular to

VP with different positions.
4 Sectional views of solids

Figure 40.2:
 LECTURE
41
Problem

41.1 Problem
A hexagonal pyramid of side of base 40 mm and height of axis 110 mm is resting on one
of its inclined vertical surface on H.P. such that its axis remains parallel to the V.P. It is
cut by a cutting plane which is inclined at an angle 450 with H.P. and bisecting the axis
of the pyramid. Draw front view, sectional top view. procedure

• Step-1 Draw a horizontal x-y line of some suitable length.

• Step-2 Draw a hexagon of length of side 36 mm such that two sides of the hexagon
should be perpendicular to x-y line. And find out the center of the hexagon and
connect all the corner of the hexagon to the center of the hexagon by straight lines
as shown in the figure. And give the notation on it. It is top view of the hexagon
in 1st stage.

• Step-3 From the center of the hexagon, draw a vertical center line of length equal
to 100 mm from the x-y line and from all the corners of the hexagon in the top
view, draw straight vertical projectors up to x-y line and then converge all the
projectors at the end of the vertical center line

i.e., point o’.

And give the notations on it. It is front view in the 1st stage.
6 Problem

Figure 41.1:
41.1 Problem 7

• Step-4 Now mark a point a’ at some suitable distance on the x-y line and with
this point as centre draw two arcs of length equal to a’-o’ and a’-d’ respectively as
shown in the figure. Now connects the point a’-o’-d’ with straight lines.

And also transfer all other points on this view from the front view of the 1st stage
respectively. And give the notations on it. It is front view of the 2nd stage.

• Step-5 Draw down straight projectors from the front view of the 2nd stage and
horizontal straight projectors from the top view of the 1st stage such that these all
the projectors will intersect with each other at respective points, as shown in the
figure. And connect these points of intersections with straight lines and give the
notations on it.

• Step-6 Now draw a cutting plane line passing at the distance 50 mm from either
end of the front view of the 2nd stage on the center axis and inclined at the angle
450 with x-y line, as shown in the figure. And give the cutting points

i.e., p’, q’ etc. as shown in the figure in the 2nd stage front view.

• Step-7 Form these cutting points i.e., p’, q’ etc. draw vertical downward projectors
such that these will intersect in the top view of the 2nd stage at respective lines
as shown in the figure. And connects these points of cutting with straight lines
and draw hatching lines within it. And give the other notations in this view. It is
Section Top View of the 2nd stage.

• Step-8 Give the dimensions by any one method of dimensions and give the
notations as shown into the figure.
 LECTURE
42
Problems

1. A triangular prism, having a base with a 50 mm side and an 80 mm long axis, is

lying on one of its rectangular faces in the H.P. with its axis perpendicular to the
H.P. It is cut by a section plane parallel to and 20 mm above the H.P. Draw its front
view and sectional top view. (Page 12.4 , prob. 12.1 Basant .Agrawal)

2. A cone with a 50mm base diameter and a 70 mm altitude, lies on one of its
generators in the H.P. such that its axis is parallel to the V.P. The cone is cut by
a horizontal section plane whose V.T trisects the axis. Draw its sectional plane
and elevation. (Page 12.25 , prob. 12.23 Basant .Agrawal Section of solid by an
Auxiliary Inclined Plane

3. A square prism having a base with a 40 mm side and a 60 mm long axis, rests on
its base on the H.P. such that one of the vertical faces makes an angle of 300 with
the V.P. A section plane perpendicular to the V.P inclined at 450 to the H.P. and
passing through the axis at a point 20 mm from its top end, cuts the prism. Draw
its front view, sectional top view and the shape of section. (Page 12.5 , prob. 12.2
Basant .Agrawal)
 LECTURE
43
Problem

1. A cone with a 50 mm base diameter and a 70 mm long axis, is resting on its base
on the H.P. It is cut by an A.I.P making 450 with the H.P. and passing through a
point on the axis, 20 mm above the base. Draw its sectional top view and obtain
true shape of the section. (Page 12.25 , prob. 12.24 Basant .Agrawal)

2. A square prism, having a base with a 40 mm side and a 60 mm long axis, rests on
its base on the H.P. such that one of its rectangular faces makes an angle of 300
with the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined at
600 with the V.P. passing through the prism such that the face which makes 600
with the V.P is bisected. Draw its sectional front view, top view and true shape of
section. (Page 12.7 , prob. 12.4 Basant .Agrawal)
 LECTURE
44
Problem

1. A pentagonal pyramid, having a base with a 40 mm side and a 70 mm long axis,

is resting on the H.P. on an edge of its base such that the axis is inclined at 450 to
the H.P and parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane such that H.T and V.T
of the section plane are perpendicular to the xy line and passes through the edge
on which the pyramid is resting. Draw the fron view, top view and sectional side
view. (Page 12.24 , prob. 12.22 Basant .Agrawal)

2. A square prism, having a base with a 40mm side and a 60 mm long axis, rests
on its base on the H.P. such that one of its rectangular faces makes an angle of
300 with the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to the H.P. and the
V.P., passing through on of the vertical edges. Draw its front view, top view and
sectional side view. (Page 12.8 , prob. 12.5 Basant .Agrawal)
 LECTURE
45
Problem

1. Draw the development of a square prism, with a 40 mm base and a 60 mm axis,

resting on its base in the H.P. with a rectangular face parallel to V.P. (Page 12.2 ,
prob. 13.1 Basant .Agrawal)

2. A pentagonal prism, having a base with a 30 mm side and a 70 mm long axis,

is resting on its base on H.P. such that one of the rectangular faces is parallel to
the V.P. It is cut by an auxiliary inclined plane (A.I.P) whose V.T is inclined 450
with the reference line and passes through the mid-point of the axis. Draw the
development of the lateral surface of the truncated prism. (Page 13.3 , prob. 13.2
Basant .Agrawal)

3. A cylinder, with a 50 mm base diameter and a 70 mm long al. A sction plane

inclined at 450 to H.P. cuts the cylinder such that the passes through the top of one
of the generators and cuts all the remaining generators. Draw the development of
its lateral surface. (Page 13.5 , prob. 13.4 Basant .Agrawal)
 LECTURE
46
Problem

1. A cone with a 50 mm base diameter and a 70 mm long axis, rests on its base on
the H.P. Draw the development of its lateral surface when it is cut by an auxiliary
inclined plane bisecting the axis and inclined at 450 to the H.P. (Page 13.7 , prob.
13.7 Basant .Agrawal)

2. Draw the development of lateral surface of a hexagonal pyramid with a 30 mm

base side and a 60 mm long axis, which is resting on its base in the H.P. such that
an edge of the base is perpendicular to V.P., when a horizontal section plane cuts
the pyramid at a height of 25 mm from the base. (Page 13.10, prob. 13.10 Basant
.Agrawal)

3. An oblique cylinder with a 50 mm diameter and a 70 mm long axis, has the axis
inclined at 600 to the base and parallel to the V.P. and is resting on its base on
H.P. Draw the development of its lateral surface. .(Page 13.17, prob. 13.17 Basant
.Agrawal)

4. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the cylinder cut by different planes.
(page,353,prob16.1)
 LECTURE
47
Problem

1. A vertical square prism, base 50 mm side, is completely penetrated by a horizontal

square prism, base 35 mm side, so that their axes intersect. The axis of the
horizontal prism is parallel to the V.P., while the faces of the two prisms are
equally inclined to the V.P. Draw the projections of the solids, showing lines of
intersection. (Assume suitable lengths for the prisms)

2. (page,354,prob16.2) A vertical square prism, base 50 mm side is completely pene-

trated by a horizontal square prism, base 35 mm side so that their axes are 6 mm
apart. The axis of the horizontal prism is parallel to the V.P., while the faces of
both prisms are equally inclined to the V.P. Draw the projections of the prisms
showing lines of intersection.

3. (Page 14.7, prob. 14.6 Basant .Agrawal) A cylinder with a 70 mm base diameter
is resting on its base on the H.P. It is penetrated by another cylinder of 60 mm
base diameter, such that their axes intersect each other at right angles. Draw the
projections of the combination and show the curves of intersection.

4. (Page 363, prob. 16.8) A vertical cylinder of 75mm diameter is penetrated by

another cylinder of 50mm diameter, the axis of which is parallel to both the H.P
and the V.P. The two axes are 9 mm apart. Draw the projections showing curves
of intersection
 LECTURE
48
Problem

1. A cylinder having base with a 70 mm diameter is resting on its base in the H.P.
It is penetrated by a square prism of base with a 30 mm side, the axis of which
is parallel to both the principal planes and faces equally inclined to the H.P. The
axes of the cylinder and prism are 10 mm apart. Draw the projections of the
combination and show the curves of intersection.

2. A cone with an 80mm base diameter and a 100 mm axis, is resting on its base on
the H.P. It is completely penetrated by a cylinder with a 40 mm base diameter. The
axes of the solids intersect each other at right angles, 30 mm above the base of the
cone. Draw the projections of the combination and show curves of intersection.
 LECTURE
49
Development of surfaces

A development is the unfold / unrolled flat / plane figure of a 3-D object. It is also
called a pattern where the plane may show the true size of each area of the object. When
the pattern is cut, it can be rolled or folded back into the original object as shown in
figure 49.1

49.1 Types of development

There are three major types of development followed by industries. Examples are
shown in figure 49.2.

1. Parallel line development: In this parallel lines are used to construct the expanded
pattern of each three-dimensional shape. The method divides the surface into a
series of parallel lines to determine the shape of a pattern.

2. Radial line development: In this, lines radiating from a central point to construct
the expanded pattern of each three-dimensional shape is used. These shapes each
form part of a cone and lines radiating from the vertex of the cone generate the
expanded pattern of the curved surface as shown in the following explorations.

3. Triangulation method: This is generally used for polyhedron, single curved sur-
faces, and warped surfaces.
16 Development of surfaces

Figure 49.1:
49.1 Types of development 17

4. Approximate development: In this, the shapes obtained are only approximate.

After joining, the part is stretched or distorted to obtain the final shape

Figure 49.2:

A true development is one in which no stretching or distortion of the surfaces occurs

and every surface of the development is the same size and shape as the corresponding
surface on the 3-D object. e.g. polyhedrons and single curved surfaces. As illustrated in
figure 49.3, polyhedrons are composed entirely of plane surfaces that can be flattened
true size onto a plane in a connected sequence, where as single curved surfaces are
composed of consecutive pairs of straight-line elements in the same plane which is
obtained for a cone.
An approximate development is one in which stretching or distortion occurs in the
process of creating the development. The resulting flat surfaces are not the same size
and shape as the corresponding surfaces on the 3-D object. Wrapped surfaces do not
produce true developments, because pairs of consecutive straight-line elements do not
form a plane.
18 Development of surfaces

Figure 49.3:
 LECTURE
50
Development of lateral surfaces of simple solids

50.1 Development of cylinder

The development of cylinder is as shown in figure 50.1

Figure 50.1: Development of cylinder

50.2 Development of cone

Development of cone is as shown in figure 50.2

50.3 Development of pyramid

Development of pyramid is as shown in figure 50.3

20 Development of lateral surfaces of simple solids

Figure 50.2:

Figure 50.3:
50.4 Development of prism 21

50.4 Development of prism

Figure 50.4:

Development of prism is as shown in figure 50.4

50.5 Development of frustum of cone and square pyramid

Figure 50.5: Development of frustum of cone and square pyramid

 LECTURE
51
Development of surfaces of truncated solids

51.1 problem

A hexagonal prism, edge of base 20 mm and axis 50 mm long, rests with its base on H.P
such that one of its rectangular faces is parallel to V.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular
to V.P, inclined at 450 to H.P and passing through the right corner of the top face of the
prism. Draw the sectional top view and develop the lateral surface of the truncated
prism.

Figure 51.1:
51.2 Problem 23

51.2 Problem
Problem: A cone of base 50 mm diameter and height 65 mm rests with its base on H.P.
A section plane perpendicular to V.P and inclined at 30o to H.P bisects the axis of the
cone. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the truncated cone.

Figure 51.2:

51.3 Problem
A pentagonal pyramid, side of base 30 mm and height 60 mm, stands with its base on
H.P and an edge of the base is parallel to V.P. It is cut by a plane perpendicular to V.P,
inclined at 40o to H.P and passing through a point on the axis, 32 m above the base.
Draw the sectional top view and develop the lateral surface of the truncated pyramid.
24 Development of surfaces of truncated solids

Figure 51.3:
 LECTURE
52
Problems

52.1 Problem
A pentagonal prism, 30 mm base side & 50 mm axis is standing on Hp on it’s base with
one side of the base perpendicular to VP. It is cut by a section plane inclined at 45º to
the HP, through mid point of axis. Draw Fv, sec.Tv & sec. Side view. Also draw true
shape of section and Development of surface of remaining solid.

52.2 Problem
A cone 40mm diameter and 50 mm axis is resting on one generator on Hp( lying on Hp)
which is // to Vp.. Draw it’s projections.It is cut by a horizontal section plane through
it’s base center. Draw sectional TV, development of the surface of the remaining part of
cone.
 LECTURE
53
Isometric Projection

53.1 Introduction
When a solid is resting in its simple position, the front or top view, taken separately,
gives an incomplete idea of the form of the object. When the solid is tilted from its
simple position such that its axis is inclined to both H.P and V.P, the front view or the
top view or sometimes both, give an idea of the pictorial form of the object, i.e., all the
surfaces are visualized in a single orthographic view. "Iso" means equal and "metric
projection" means a projection to a reduced measure. An isometric projection is one
type of pictorial projection in which the three dimensions of a solid are not only shown
in one view, but also their dimension can be scaled from this drawing.

1. Isometric is a mathematical method of constructing a realistic 3 dimensional object

2. The mathematics involved mean that all lengths when drawn at 30 degrees can
be drawn using their true length (in other words lines aren’t shortened as with
oblique drawings)

3. An isometric drawing shows two sides of the object and the top or bottom of the
object. All vertical lines are drawn vertically, but all horizontal lines are drawn at
30 degrees to the horizontal.

It is seen that all the edges and faces of the rectangular prism are equally inclined to the
plane of all the edges and faces of the cube are equally inclined to the plane of projection.
53.1 Introduction 27

Figure 53.1:

Hence the rectangular faces are seen as similar and equal rhombuses. The three lines
AB, AD and AE are meeting at A as shown in figure 50.1. These edges are mutually
perpendicular to each other in the solid. Since all these edges are equally inclined to H.P,
they are making and angle of 120o with each other in the plane of projection; also they
are equally foreshortened. This leads us to the problem of selecting an isometric scale.

53.1.1 Isometric Axes

The lines AB, AD and AE meeting at a point A and making an angle of 120o with each
other are termed "isometric axes"

53.1.2 Isometric Lines

The lines parallel to the isometric axes are termed isometric lines. The lines CD, CB etc
are examples of isometric lines.
28 Isometric Projection

53.1.3 Non-isometric Lines

The lines which are not parallel to isometric axes are termed non-isometric lines. The
BD is an example.

53.1.4 Isometric Planes

The planes representing the faces of the rectangular prism as well as other planes
parallel to these planes are termed isometric planes.

53.1.5 Isometric scale

Isometric projection is drawn using isometric scale, which converts true lengths into
isometric lengths (foreshortened)

53.1.6 Construction of isometric scale

Draw a horizontal line AB. From A draw a line AC at 45o to represent actual or true
length and another line AD at 30o to AB to measure isometric length. On AC mark the
point 0, 1, 2 etc to represent actual lengths. From these points draw verticals to meet
AD at 0 , 1 , 2 etc. The length A1 represents the isometric scale length of A1 and so on.

53.1.7 Isometric Length

AB 1
=cos450 = √ (53.1)
AC 2
√
AB 0 3
= cos30 = (53.2)
AD 2
AB AD 1 2
X = √ X√ (53.3)
AC AB 2 3
√
2
AD = √ = 0.81AC (53.4)
3
53.1 Introduction 29

Figure 53.2:

Figure 53.3:
 LECTURE
54
Problems

54.1 Difference between isometric view and isometric pro-

jection

Figure 54.1:

Isometric View Isometric Projection

Drawn to actual scale Drawn to isometric scale
When lines are drawn par- When lines are drawn parallel to isometric
allel to isometric axes, the axes, the lengths are foreshortened to 0.81
true lengths are laid off. time the actual lengths
54.2 Problem 31

54.2 Problem
Draw the isometric projection of a rectangular prism of base 50 mm x 10 mm and height
75 mm, when it rests with its base on H.P and one its of rectangular faces is parallel to
V.P

Figure 54.2:
 LECTURE
55
Box Method

The isometric projection of solids like cube, square and rectangular prisms are drawn di-
rectly when their edges are parallel to the three isometric axes. The isometric projection
of all other types of prisms and cylinders are drawn by enclosing them in a rectangular
box. This method is called Box method.
 LECTURE
56
Problems

56.1 Draw the isometric projection for the given ortho-

graphic view

Figure 56.1:

56.2 Problem
 LECTURE
57
Problems

1. Draw the isometric views of a square plane of 40 mm side whose i) front view is
shown in fig ii) top view is shown in fig. (Page 15.6,prob 15.1Basant .Agrawal)

2. Draw the isometric view of a triangle whose front view is shown in fig(Page 15.6,
prob. 15.2 Basant .Agrawal)

3. Draw the isometric view of a quadrilateral whose top view is shown in fig (Page
15.7, prob. 15.3 Basant .Agrawal)

4. Draw the isometric view of a hexagon with 40 mm sides such that its surface is
parallel to the HP and a side parallel to VP. (Page 15.7, prob. 15.4 Basant .Agrawal)
 LECTURE
58
Problems

1. Draw an isometric view of a circle with a 60 mm diameter on all the three principle
planes using coordinate method.(Page 15.8, prob. 15.6 Basant .Agrawal)

2. Draw an isometric view of a circle with a 60 mm diameter on all the three principle
planes using four center method.(Page 15.9, prob. 15.7 Basant .Agrawal)

3. Draw an isometric view of a square prism having a base with a 40 mm side and
a 60 mm long axis, resting on the HP. a) on its base with axis perpendicular to
the HP b) on its rectangular faces with axis perpendicular to the VP and c) on
its rectangular face with axis parallel to the VP. (Page 15.10, prob. 15.9 Basant
.Agrawal)
 LECTURE
59
Problems

1. Draw an isometric view of a hexagonal prism having a base with a 30 mm side

and a 70 mm long axis resting on its base on the HP with an edge of the base
parallel to the VP using box method and offset method. (Page 15.11, prob. 15.10
Basant .Agrawal)

2. Draw an isometric view of a pentagonal prism having a base with a 40 mm side

and a 70 mm long axis resting on its base on the HP with an edge of the base
parallel to the VP.(Page 15.12, prob. 15.11 Basant .Agrawal)

3. Draw an isometric view of a cylinder, with a 50mm base diameter and a 70 mm

long axis (a) when the base is on the H.P, and (b) when one of the generators is on
the H.P.(Page 15.12, prob. 15.12 Basant .Agrawal)
 LECTURE
60
Problems

1. Draw an isometric view of the frustrum of a hexagonal pyramid having 35 mm

base side, 20 mm top side and 80 mm long axis, resting on its base on the HP with
an edge of the base parallel to the VP. .(Page 15.14, prob. 15.15 Basant .Agrawal)

2. Draw an isometric view of the frustum of a cone with a 60 mm base diameter , 40

mm top diameter and 70 mm long axis, resting on its base on the H.P.
Problem 99 to 134.
 LECTURE
61
review of Unit I
 LECTURE
62
review of Unit II
 LECTURE
63
review of Unit III
 LECTURE
64
review of Unit IV
 LECTURE
65
review of Unit V
 LECTURE
66
Mock test
 LECTURE
67
Projections of regular solids-Auxiliary Views

67.1 Objectives
1. Explain orthographic and multiview projection.

2. Identifying the six principal views. Apply standard line practices to multiviews
drawings.

3. Create multiviews drawing. Identifying normal, inclined and oblique planes.

4. Representation of geometric entities and features in multiview drawings.

5. Apply visualization by solids and surfaces to multiviews.

6. Create auxiliary views.

67.2 Projection Theory

1. Projection theory comprises the principles used to represent graphically 3-D
objects and structures on 2-D media.

2. Projection methods are developed along two lines:

(a) Perspective.

(b) Parallel.
67.3 Orthographic Projection 45

3. All projection theory is based on two variables:

(a) line of sight (LOS) : A line of sight is an imaginary ray of light between an
observer’s eye and the object.

(b) plane of projection: Is an imaginary flat plane upon which the image created
by the lines of sight is projected.

4. In perspective projection, all lines of sight start at a single point and the object is
positioned at a finite distance and viewed from a single point.

Figure 67.1: Perspective Projection

5. In parallel projection, all lines of sight are parallel, the object is positioned at
infinity and viewed from multiple points on an imaginary line parallel to the
object. The 3-D object is transformed into a 2-D representation or a plane of
projection that is an imaginary flat plane upon which the image created by the
lines of sight is projected.

67.3 Orthographic Projection

1. The three dimensional sketch of an object to be manufactured doesn’t always
give a clear idea about the exact construction. The production engineer needs full
46 Projections of regular solids-Auxiliary Views

Figure 67.2: Parallel Projection

constructional details that can be better explained in the orthographic projections.

2. Orthogonal means perpendicular and in orthographic projections the object is

observed with the viewers eye sight at 900 to the face of the object.

3. Orthographic projection techniques can be used to produce both pictorial and

multiview. drawings.

67.4 Notations used

67.4 Notations used 47

Figure 67.3: Orthographic projection

48 Projections of regular solids-Auxiliary Views

Figure 67.4: Planes of projection

67.4 Notations used 49

Figure 67.5: Orthographic projection

 LECTURE
68
Projection of points

68.1 Problem
A point "A" is placed in the first quadrant. It is at at a distance of ’h’ from the HP
and at a distance d mm from VP. Draw its front and top views using first angle
projection.

solution

Figure 68.1:
 51

68.2 Problem
A point "B" is placed in the second quadrant. It is at a height h mm above HP
and at a distance d mm behind VP. Draw its front and top views using first angle
projection.

solution

Figure 68.2:

68.3 Problem
A point "C" is placed in the third quadrant. The point is at a height h mm below
HP and at a distance d mm behind VP. Draw its front and top views using first
angle projection.

solution
52 Projection of points

Figure 68.3:

68.4 Problem
A point "D" is placed in the fourth. The point is at a height h mm below HP and
at a distance d mm in front of VP. Draw its front and top views using first angle
projection.

solution

Figure 68.4:
 LECTURE
69
Projection of Lines

69.1 BASICS OF STRAIGHT LINE

1. A straight line is the shortest route to join any two given points. It is a one-
dimensional object having only length (L).

2. The projections of a straight line are obtained by joining the top and front views
of the respective end points of the line. The actual length of the straight line is
known as true length (TL).

69.2 PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINE

A straight line is placed with reference to the planes of projections in the following
positions.

1. Line perpendicular to HP and parallel to VP

2. Line perpendicular to VP and parallel to HP

3. Line parallel to both HP and VP

4. Line inclined to HP and parallel to VP

5. Line inclined to VP and parallel to HP

6. Line inclined to both HP and VP

54 Projection of Lines

69.3 Projection of Straight Lines

69.3.1 Problem

A line AB is 80 mm long. It is perpendicular to profile plane. The point A is 40 mm

above H.P. and 30 mm in front of V.P. Draw the projections.
solution

1. Draw a horizontal line, which is x-y line of some suitable length.

2. Mark a point a’ at the distance 40 mm above the x-y line. And draw a horizontal
line from the point a’. This is locus of the point a’. Then from the point a’ draw a
line of the length equal to its true length, which is 80 mm parallel to the x-y line.
The end point of this line is marked as b’. This is elevation line in front view.

Figure 69.1:

3. Mark a point a at the distance 30 mm below the x-y line. And draw a horizontal
line from the point a. This is locus of the point a. Then from the point a draw a
line of the length equal to its true length, which is 80 mm parallel to the x-y line.
The end point of this line is marked as b. This is plan line in top view.

4. As line is perpendicular to profile plane its projection on profile plane will be a

point or point view. This is marked as a1 b1 in figure above. This shows projection
of profile plane of the given line AB.
69.3 Projection of Straight Lines 55

5. As line is perpendicular to one plane it will be parallel to both other plane. As

theory says if one line is making an angle of 90 degree with one of three principal
planes then it will make zero degree with other two planes."

6. Give the dimensions by any one method of dimensions and give the notations as
shown into the figure. And make a list of the True Length & Angles made by the
line AB as shown into the figure.

69.3.2 Problem

A line AB, 60 mm long, is inclined at an angle of 450 to HP. and 300 to VP. One of its end
point A is in HP as well as VP. Determine its apparent inclinations.
solution

1. Draw a horizontal line, which is x-y line of some suitable length.

2. Mark a point a’ & a on a common point on the x-y line.

3. Draw a line a’b’1 from the point a’, above & at an angle 45o , which is represented
by the letter θ, with the x-y line as shown into the figure.

4. Draw a line ab2 from the point a, below & at an angle of 30o , which is represented
by the letter ϕ, with the x-y line. Step-5 From the end points of these previously
drawn lines (i.e. b’1 & b2 ) draw horizontal lines which are parallel with the line
x-y.

5. From the point b’1 draw a vertical line up to the x-y line in downward direction
and perpendicular to the line x-y. Now make an arc with the point a’ as center and
radius equal to the distance of the point of intersection of the previously drawn
vertical line with the x-y line, which will cut the horizontal line passing through
the point b2. And give the name of that point b.

6. Now draw a line between the points a & b, which is the plan of the line AB. Find
its inclination with the x-y line, which is represented by the letter β.

7. From the point b2 draw a vertical line up to the x-y line in upward direction and
perpendicular to the line x-y. Now make an arc with the point a as center and
56 Projection of Lines

Figure 69.2:

radius equal to the distance of the point of intersection of the previously drawn
vertical line with the x-y line, which will cut the horizontal line passing through
the point b’1. And give the name of that point b’. Step-9 Now draw a line between
the points a’ & b’, which is the elevation of the line AB. Find its inclination with
the x-y line, which is represented by the letter α. Step-10 Give the dimensions by
any one method of dimensions and give the notations as shown into the figure.
And make a list of the True Length & Angles made by the line AB as shown into
the figure.

http : //www.eglive.in/wp − content/uploads/2013/09/Chap0 1.pdf

 LECTURE
70
lines constructed in latex

B(b)

view
o nt
Fr mm
5 0
B=
A(a) A

X Y

a’ b’

Front view
58 lines constructed in latex

Figure 70.1:

70.1 Problem
Development of Surfaces of Solids - One cuboid of side of 40 mm x 60 mm x 40 mm is
resting on its longer side on H.P. & one of the longer surfaces of the cuboid is parallel to
V.P. It is cut by a cutting plane which is perpendicular to V.P. and inclined to H.P. such
that it passes diagonally from one corner of the top to the opposite corner of the bottom.
Develop the lateral surface of the cuboid.

Procedure:

1. Draw a horizontal x-y line of some suitable length.

2. Draw a rectangle of side of 60 mm x 40 mm below the x-y line at some suitable

distance from it, such that two shorter sides of the rectangle should be perpendic-
ular with the x-y line as shown in the figure. Give notations on it. It is top view of
the cuboid.

3. From the center of the rectangle in the top view, draw a vertical center line of
length 40 mm from the x-y line as shown in the figure. And from the all notations
of the rectangle draw vertical projectors of length 40 mm from the x-y line as
shown in the figure. It is a rectangular shape. And Give the notations on it. It is
front view of the cuboid.

4. Draw a diagonal form one corner of the top to the opposite corner of the bottom
of the rectangle as shown in the front view.
70.1 Problem 59

5. Draw a line from the top of the rectangle in the front view exactly parallel with
the x-y line, and make a vertical line between the x-y line and the line drawn from
the top of the rectangle at some suitable distance from the line d’-c’, as shown in
the figure. And give the notations A on it as per the figure given above. From the
point A, divide the x-y line in the 4 divisions in such a way that the distance of
first part should be of 60 mm and then 40 mm, 60 mm and 40 mm respectively.

6. Then give the notations on it in capital letters like, A, B, C etc. as shown in the
figure, connects these all the points with light straight lines, these are the vertical
edges of the cuboid. It is a rectangle. And it is the development of the vertical
surface of the cuboid.

7. Now transfer the distances of the cutting portion of the front view in the develop-
ment of the cuboid at appropriate places, which can be known by the notations of
the vertical edges, as shown in the prism. Then connects these points in sequence
by medium dark straight lines as shown in the figure.

8. This is the development of the vertical surface of the cuboid.

9. Give the dimensions by any one method of dimensions and give the notations as
shown into the figure.
60 lines constructed in latex

LIST OF PRACTICE QUESTIONS

70.1 Problem 61

1. On a line AB 60 mm long, construct a regular pentagon by two different methods

(diameter dividing method, arc method)

2. : Construct regular hexagon of side 40 mm by any two methods

3. Describe a regular pentagon on a circle diameter of 150 mm.

4. Trace the path of point P such that focus F is 65 mm away from directrix when
eccentricity is i) 2/3 ii) one iii) 3/2

5. The major axis of an ellipse is 200 mm long and the minor axis is 140 mm long.
Find the foci and draw the ellipse by arcs of circles method. Draw tangent to the
ellipse at a point on it 30 mm above the major axis.

6. Construct an ellipse with major diameter and minor diameter is 180 mm and 120
mm respectively by i) oblong method and ii) concentric circles method

7. A point P is 30 mm and 50 mm respectively from two straight lines which are at

right angles to each other. Draw a rectangular hyperbola from P within 15 mm
distance from each line.

8. Two straight lines OA and OB make an angle of 750 between them. P is a point 40
mm from OA and 50 mm from OB. Draw a hyperbola through P, with OA and OB
as asymptotes, making at least ten points.

9. Two points A and B are 50 mm apart. Draw the curve traced out by a point P
moving in such a way that the difference between its distances from A and B is
always constant and equal to 20 mm.

10. A circle of 50 mm diameter rolls along a straight line without slipping. Draw the
curve traced out by a point P on the circumference, for one complete revolution of
the circle. Name the curve. Draw a tangent to the curve at a point on it 40 mm
from the line.
62 lines constructed in latex

11. A circle of 60 mm diameter rolls on the circumference of another circle of 175 mm

diameter and outside of it. Trace the locus of a point on the circumference of the
rolling circle for one complete revolution. Name the curve. Draw a tangent and
normal to the curve at a point 125 mm from the center of the directing circle.

12. A circle of 115 mm diameter rolls on another circle of 75 mm diameter with internal
contact. Draw the locus of a point on the circumference of the rolling circle for one
complete revolution.

13. (page 144, problem 22) A circle of 50 mm diameter rolls on a horizontal line for a
half revolution and then on a vertical line for another half revolution. Draw the
curve traced out by a point P on the circumference of the circle.

14. (page 144, problem 24) An inelastic string 145 mm long, has its one end attached
to the circumference of a circular disc of 40 mm diameter. Draw the curve traced
out by the other end of the string, when it is completely wound around the disc,
keeping the string always tight. Draw a normal and a tangent on the curve at a
point 80 mm from the center of the circle.

15. Construct a scale of 1: 4 to show centimeters and long enough to measure up to 5

decimeters. Mark 3.7 dm on the scale.

16. Draw a scale of 1: 60 to show meters and decimeters and long enough to measure
up to 6 meters. Mark 3.7m on the scale

17. Construct a diagonal scale R.F 1/4000 to show meters and long enough to measure
upto 500mts.

18. The distance between Bombay and Poona is 180km. a passenger train covers this
distance in 6 hrs. Construct a plain scale to measure time up to a single minute.
The R.F of the scale is 1/200000. Find the distance covered by the train in 36
minutes.

19. Draw a vernier scale of R.F 1/25 to read centimeters up to 4 meters and on it show
lengths representing 2.39m and 0.91m.

20. (page 172 problem 1 in N.D.Bhatt). Draw the projections of the following points
on the same ground line, keeping the projectors 25 mm apart.
70.1 Problem 63

A. in the HP, and 20 mm behind the VP

B. 40 mm above the HP and 25 mm in front of the VP
C. In the VP and 49 mm above the HP
D. 25mm below the HP and 25mm behind the VP
E. 15 mm above the HP, and 50 mm behind the VP
F. 40 mm below the HP and 25mm in front of the VP
G. In both the HP and VP.

21. (page 173, problem 4 in N.D.Bhatt). A point P is 15 mm above the H.P and 20 mm
in front of the V.P. Another point Q is 25 mm behind the V.P and 40 mm below the
H.P. Draw projections of P and Q keeping the distance between their projectors
equal to 90 mm. Draw straight lines joining (i) their top views and (ii) their front
views.

22. ( page 173, problem 6 in N.D.Bhatt).two points A and B are in the H.P. the point A
is 30 mm in front of the V.P., while B is behind the V.P. the distance between their
projectors is 75mm and the line joining their top views makes an angle of 450 with
XY. Find the distance of the point B from the V.P.

23. (page 173, problem 7) A point P is 20 mm below HP. And lies in the third quadrant.
Its shortest distance from XY is 40 mm. draw its projections.

24. (page 173, problem 8) A point A is situated in the first quadrant. Its shortest
distance from the intersection point of H.P., V.P and auxiliary plane is 60 mm and
it is equidistance from the principal planes. Draw the projections of the point and
determine its distance from the principal planes.

25. (Page 173, prob. 9) A point 30 mm above xy line is the plan-view of two points P
and Q. The elevation of P is 45 mm above the HP. While that of the point Q is 35
mm below the HP. Draw the projections of the points and state their position with
reference to the principal planes and the quadrant in which they lie.
LINES

26. A 50 mm long line PQ, is parallel to both HP and VP. The line is 25 mm in front of
the VP and 60 mm above the HP. Draw the projections of the line and determine
the traces.
64 lines constructed in latex

27. A 60mm long line PQ has its end P at a distance of 20 mm above the HP. The line
is perpendicular to the HP and 40 mm in front of VP. Draw the projections of the
line and determine its traces.

28. A 60mm long line PQ, has its end P at a distance of 20 mm in front of the VP. The
line is perpendicular to VP and 40mm above the HP. Draw projections of a line
and determine its traces.

29. (Page 178, prob. 10.1): A line PQ, 90 mm long, is in the HP and makes an angle of
300 with the VP. its end P is 25mm in front of the VP. Draw its projections.

30. (Page 178, prob. 10.2): The length of the top view of a line parallel to the VP and
inclined at 450 to the HP is 50 mm. one end of the line is 12mm above the HP and
25mm in front of the VP. Draw the projections of the line and determine its true
length.

31. (Page 179, prob. 3) A 90 mm long line is parallel to and 25 mm in front of the
VP. Its one end is in the HP. While the other is 50 mm above the HP. Draw its
projections and find its inclination with the HP.

32. (Page 179, prob. 4) The top view of a 75 mm long line measures 55 mm. the line is
in the VP., its one end being 25 mm above the HP. Draw its projections.
Q 36: (Page 179, prob. 5) The front view of a line, inclined at 300 to the VP is 65
mm long. Draw projections of the line, when it is parallel to and 40 mm above the
HP., its one end being 30 mm in front of the VP.

33. (Page 179, prob. 6) A vertical line AB, 75 mm long, has its end A in the HP and 25
mm in front of the VP. A line AC, 100 mm long, is in the HP and parallel to the
VP. Draw the projections of the line joining B and C, and determine its inclination
with the HP.

34. (Page 194, prob. 10.8) A line AB, 50 mm long, has its end A in both the HP and the
VP. It is inclined at 300 to the HP and 450 to the VP. Draw its projections.

35. (page 195, prob10.9) A line PQ 75 mm long, has its end P in the VP and the end
Q in the HP. The line is inclined at 300 to the HP and at 600 to the VP. Draw its
projections
70.1 Problem 65

36. (page196, prob10.11) The top view of a 75 mm long line AB measures 65 mm,
while the length of its front view is 50 mm. its one end A is in the HP. And 12 mm
in front of the VP. Draw the projections of AB and determine its inclinations with
the HP and the VP.

37. (page197, prob10.12) A line AB, 65 mm long, has its end A 20 mm above the HP
and 25 mm in front of the VP. The end B is 40mm above the HP and 65 mm in
front of the VP. Draw the projections of AB and show its inclinations with the HP
and the VP.

38. (page198, prob10.14) The line AB, 90 mm long, inclined at 450 to the HP and its
top view makes an angle of 600 with the VP. The end A is in the HP and 12 mm in
front of the VP. Draw its front view and find its true inclination with the VP.

39. A 70 mm long line PQ, has an end P at 20 mm above the HP and 30 mm in front of
the VP. The line is inclined at 450 to the HP and 300 to the VP. Draw its projections.
(page 9.15 from Basant Agrawal)

40. A straight line PQ has its end P at 20 mm above the HP and 30 mm in front of
the VP and the end Q is 80 mm above the HP and 70 mm in front the VP. If the
projections are 60 mm apart. Draw the projections of the line and determine its
true length and true inclinations with the reference planes. (page:9.18, from Basant
Agrawal)

41. The top view of a 125 mm long line PQ measures 80 mm and its front view
measures 100 mm. Its end Q and the mid point M are in the first quadrant. M
being 50 mm from both planes. Draw the projections of the line PQ.

42. Draw the projections of a 100 mm long line AB, when end A touches VP and end
B touches HP. The line is 300 to HP and 500 to VP. Draw the projections of the line
and locate HT and VT

43. A square plane with a 40 mm side has its surface parallel to and 20 mm above
the HP. Draw its projections when a) a side is parallel to VP. b) a side is inclined
at 300 to VP and c) all sides are equally inclined to VP. . (page:10.2, from Basant
Agrawal)
66 lines constructed in latex

44. A hexagonal plane with a 30 mm side has its surface parallel to and 20 mm in
front of VP. draw its projections, when a) a side is perpendicular to the HP. b) a
side is parallel to the HP. c) a side is inclined at 450 to the HP. . (page:10.3, from
Basant Agrawal)

45. A triangular plane is in the form of isosceles triangle having base with a 30 mm
side and an altitude of 40 mm. It is kept in the first quadrant such that the surface
is perpendicular to both HP and VP. Draw its projections when the base is parallel
to the VP. . (page:10.4, from Basant Agrawal)

46. A pentagonal plane with a 30 mm side has an edge on the H.P. The surface of
the plane is inclined at 450 to the H.P. and perpendicular to the V.P. Draw its
projections. . (page:10.5,prob:10.4 from Basant Agrawal)

47. A hexagonal plate with a 30 mm side and negligible thickness has its surface
perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined at 450 to the V.P. Draw its projections when
one of the sides of the plane is parallel to and 15 mm in front of the V.P.(page:10.6,
from Basant Agrawal)

48. A circular plane with a 60 mm diameter is resting on a point of its circumference

on the V P. The centre is 40 mm above the H P., and the surface is inclined at 450
to the V P., and perpendicular to the H.P. Draw its projections. . (page:10.7, from
Basant Agrawal)

49. A Pentagonal plane with a 30 mm side, rests on the H.P on an edge such that the
surface is inclined at 450 to the H.P. and the edge on which it rests is inclined at
300 to the V.P . Draw its projections. (page:10.15, from Basant Agrawal).

50. A hexagonal plane with a 30 mm side has its corner A in the H.P. The surface of
the plane is inclined at 450 to the H.P. and the diagonal containing the corner A is
inclined at 300 to the V.P. Draw its projections. (page:10.16, from Basant Agrawal).

51. A semicircular plate with an 80 mm diameter has its straight edge in the V.P. and
inclined at 450 to the HP. Draw the projections of the plate when its surface is
inclined at 300 to the VP. (page:10.17, from Basant Agrawal).
70.1 Problem 67

52. A pentagonal plane with a 30 mm side has one of its corners in the VP. And the
surface is inclined at 300 to the V.P. The edge of the plane opposite to that corner is
parallel to the V.P and inclined at 450 to the H.P. Draw its projections. (page:10.18,
from Basant Agrawal).

53. A circular plane with an 80 mm diameter has one of the ends of the diameter in
the H.P., while the other end is in the V.P. The plane is inclined at 300 to the H.P.
and 600 to the V.P. Draw its projections. . (page:10.20, from Basant Agrawal).

54. (Page 249, prob. 13.1) Draw the projections of a triangular prism, base 40 mm side
and axis 50 mm long, resting on one of its bases on the H.P with a vertical face
perpendicular to the V.P.

55. (Page 250, prob. 13.2) Draw the projections of a pentagonal pyramid, base 30 mm
edge and axis 50mm long, having its base on the H.P. and an edge of the base
parallel to the V.P. also draw its side view.

56. (Page 251, prob. 13.4) A cube of 50 mm long edges is resting on the H.P with its
vertical faces equally inclined to the V.P. Draw its projections.

57. (Page 251, prob. 13.5) Draw the projections of a hexagonal pyramid, base 30 mm
side and axis 60 mm long, having its base on the H.P. and one of the edges of the
base inclined at 600 to the H.P.

58. (Page 252, prob. 13.7) A hexagonal prism has one of its rectangular faces parallel
to the H.P. Its axis is perpendicular to the V.P and 35 mm above the ground. Draw
its projections when the nearer end is 20 mm in front of the V.P. side of base 25
mm long: axis 50 mm long.

59. (Page 253, prob. 13.9) A triangular prism, base 40 mm side and height 65 mm is
resting on the H.P. on one of its rectangular faces with the axis parallel to the V.P.
Draw its projections

60. (Page 255, prob. 13.10) A pentagonal prism, base 25mm side and axis 50 mm long,
resting on one of its rectangular faces on the H.P., with the axis inclined at 450 to
68 lines constructed in latex

the V.P. Draw its projections by a) alteration of position method and b) alteration
of auxiliary plane method.

61. (Page 255, prob. 13.11) A cylinder 75 mm diameter and 100 mm long, lying on the
ground with its axis inclined at 300 to the V.P and parallel to the ground.. Draw its
projections by a) alteration of position method and b) alteration of auxiliary plane
method.

62. (Page 260, prob. 13.18) A square prism, base 40mm side and height 65 mm, has its
axis inclined at 450 to the H.P. and has an edge of its base, on the H.P and inclined
at 300 to the V.P. Draw its projections.
UNIT IV: Sections of solids and Development of surfaces

63. A triangular prism, having a base with a 50 mm side and an 80 mm long axis, is
lying on one of its rectangular faces in the H.P. with its axis perpendicular to the
H.P. It is cut by a section plane parallel to and 20 mm above the H.P. Draw its front
view and sectional top view. (Page 12.4 , prob. 12.1 Basant .Agrawal)

64. A cone with a 50mm base diameter and a 70 mm altitude, lies on one of its
generators in the H.P. such that its axis is parallel to the V.P. The cone is cut by
a horizontal section plane whose V.T trisects the axis. Draw its sectional plane
and elevation. (Page 12.25 , prob. 12.23 Basant .Agrawal Section of solid by an
Auxiliary Inclined Plane

65. A square prism having a base with a 40 mm side and a 60 mm long axis, rests on
its base on the H.P. such that one of the vertical faces makes an angle of 300 with
the V.P. A section plane perpendicular to the V.P inclined at 450 to the H.P. and
passing through the axis at a point 20 mm from its top end, cuts the prism. Draw
its front view, sectional top view and the shape of section. (Page 12.5 , prob. 12.2
Basant .Agrawal)

66. A cone with a 50 mm base diameter and a 70 mm long axis, is resting on its base
on the H.P. It is cut by an A.I.P making 450 with the H.P. and passing through a
point on the axis, 20 mm above the base. Draw its sectional top view and obtain
true shape of the section. (Page 12.25 , prob. 12.24 Basant .Agrawal)
70.1 Problem 69

67. A square prism, having a base with a 40 mm side and a 60 mm long axis, rests on
its base on the H.P. such that one of its rectangular faces makes an angle of 300
with the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to the H.P. and inclined at
600 with the V.P. passing through the prism such that the face which makes 600
with the V.P is bisected. Draw its sectional front view, top view and true shape of
section. (Page 12.7 , prob. 12.4 Basant .Agrawal)

68. A pentagonal pyramid, having a base with a 40 mm side and a 70 mm long axis,
is resting on the H.P. on an edge of its base such that the axis is inclined at 450 to
the H.P and parallel to the V.P. It is cut by a section plane such that H.T and V.T
of the section plane are perpendicular to the xy line and passes through the edge
on which the pyramid is resting. Draw the fron view, top view and sectional side
view. (Page 12.24 , prob. 12.22 Basant .Agrawal)

69. A square prism, having a base with a 40mm side and a 60 mm long axis, rests
on its base on the H.P. such that one of its rectangular faces makes an angle of
300 with the V.P. It is cut by a section plane perpendicular to the H.P. and the
V.P., passing through on of the vertical edges. Draw its front view, top view and
sectional side view. (Page 12.8 , prob. 12.5 Basant .Agrawal)

70. Draw the development of a square prism, with a 40 mm base and a 60 mm axis,
resting on its base in the H.P. with a rectangular face parallel to V.P. (Page 12.2 ,
prob. 13.1 Basant .Agrawal)

71. A pentagonal prism, having a base with a 30 mm side and a 70 mm long axis,
is resting on its base on H.P. such that one of the rectangular faces is parallel to
the V.P. It is cut by an auxiliary inclined plane (A.I.P) whose V.T is inclined 450
with the reference line and passes through the mid-point of the axis. Draw the
development of the lateral surface of the truncated prism. (Page 13.3 , prob. 13.2
Basant .Agrawal)

72. A cylinder, with a 50 mm base diameter and a 70 mm long al. A sction plane
inclined at 450 to H.P. cuts the cylinder such that the passes through the top of one
of the generators and cuts all the remaining generators. Draw the development of
its lateral surface. (Page 13.5 , prob. 13.4 Basant .Agrawal)
70 lines constructed in latex

73. A cone with a 50 mm base diameter and a 70 mm long axis, rests on its base on
the H.P. Draw the development of its lateral surface when it is cut by an auxiliary
inclined plane bisecting the axis and inclined at 450 to the H.P. (Page 13.7 , prob.
13.7 Basant .Agrawal)

74. Draw the development of lateral surface of a hexagonal pyramid with a 30 mm

base side and a 60 mm long axis, which is resting on its base in the H.P. such that
an edge of the base is perpendicular to V.P., when a horizontal section plane cuts
the pyramid at a height of 25 mm from the base. (Page 13.10, prob. 13.10 Basant
.Agrawal)

75. An oblique cylinder with a 50 mm diameter and a 70 mm long axis, has the axis
inclined at 600 to the base and parallel to the V.P. and is resting on its base on
H.P. Draw the development of its lateral surface. .(Page 13.17, prob. 13.17 Basant
.Agrawal)

76. Draw the development of the lateral surface of the cylinder cut by different planes.
(page,353,prob16.1) A vertical square prism, base 50 mm side, is completely
penetrated by a horizontal square prism, base 35 mm side, so that their axes
intersect. The axis of the horizontal prism is parallel to the V.P., while the faces of
the two prisms are equally inclined to the V.P. Draw the projections of the solids,
showing lines of intersection. (Assume suitable lengths for the prisms)

77. (page,354,prob16.2) A vertical square prism, base 50 mm side is completely pene-

trated by a horizontal square prism, base 35 mm side so that their axes are 6 mm
apart. The axis of the horizontal prism is parallel to the V.P., while the faces of
both prisms are equally inclined to the V.P. Draw the projections of the prisms
showing lines of intersection.

78. A cylinder with a 70 mm base diameter is resting on its base on the H.P. It is
penetrated by another cylinder of 60 mm base diameter, such that their axes
intersect each other at right angles. Draw the projections of the combination and
show the curves of intersection. (Page 14.7, prob. 14.6 Basant .Agrawal)

79. (Page 363, prob. 16.8) A vertical cylinder of 75mm diameter is penetrated by
another cylinder of 50mm diameter, the axis of which is parallel to both the H.P
70.1 Problem 71

and the V.P. The two axes are 9 mm apart. Draw the projections showing curves
of intersection

80. A cylinder having base with a 70 mm diameter is resting on its base in the H.P.
It is penetrated by a square prism of base with a 30 mm side, the axis of which
is parallel to both the principal planes and faces equally inclined to the H.P. The
axes of the cylinder and prism are 10 mm apart. Draw the projections of the
combination and show the curves of intersection.

81. A cone with an 80mm base diameter and a 100 mm axis, is resting on its base on
the H.P. It is completely penetrated by a cylinder with a 40 mm base diameter. The
axes of the solids intersect each other at right angles, 30 mm above the base of the
cone. Draw the projections of the combination and show curves of intersection.

82. Draw the isometric views of a square plane of 40 mm side whose i) front view is
shown in fig ii) top view is shown in fig. (Page 15.6,prob 15.1Basant .Agrawal)

83. Draw the isometric view of a triangle whose front view is shown in fig(Page 15.6,
prob. 15.2 Basant .Agrawal)

84. Draw the isometric view of a quadrilateral whose top view is shown in fig (Page
15.7, prob. 15.3 Basant .Agrawal)

85. Draw the isometric view of a hexagon with 40 mm sides such that its surface is
parallel to the HP and a side parallel to VP. (Page 15.7, prob. 15.4 Basant .Agrawal)

86. Draw an isometric view of a circle with a 60 mm diameter on all the three principle
planes using coordinate method.(Page 15.8, prob. 15.6 Basant .Agrawal)

87. Draw an isometric view of a circle with a 60 mm diameter on all the three principle
planes using four center method.(Page 15.9, prob. 15.7 Basant .Agrawal)

88. Draw an isometric view of a square prism having a base with a 40 mm side and
a 60 mm long axis, resting on the HP. a) on its base with axis perpendicular to
the HP b) on its rectangular faces with axis perpendicular to the VP and c) on
its rectangular face with axis parallel to the VP. (Page 15.10, prob. 15.9 Basant
.Agrawal)
72 lines constructed in latex

89. Draw an isometric view of a hexagonal prism having a base with a 30 mm side
and a 70 mm long axis resting on its base on the HP with an edge of the base
parallel to the VP using box method and offset method. (Page 15.11, prob. 15.10
Basant .Agrawal)

90. Draw an isometric view of a pentagonal prism having a base with a 40 mm side
and a 70 mm long axis resting on its base on the HP with an edge of the base
parallel to the VP.(Page 15.12, prob. 15.11 Basant .Agrawal)

91. Draw an isometric view of a cylinder, with a 50mm base diameter and a 70 mm
long axis (a) when the base is on the H.P, and (b) when one of the generators is on
the H.P.(Page 15.12, prob. 15.12 Basant .Agrawal)

92. Draw an isometric view of the frustrum of a hexagonal pyramid having 35 mm

base side, 20 mm top side and 80 mm long axis, resting on its base on the HP with
an edge of the base parallel to the VP. .(Page 15.14, prob. 15.15 Basant .Agrawal)

93. Draw an isometric view of the frustum of a cone with a 60 mm base diameter , 40
mm top diameter and 70 mm long axis, resting on its base on the H.P.
Problem 99 to 134.
70.1 Problem 73

Figure 99 Figure 100 Figure 101

Figure 102 Figure 103 Figure 104

Figure 105 Figure 106 Figure 107

Figure 108 Figure 109 Figure 110