CIS 1103

DISCRETE STRUCTURES 1

FORMAL LOGIC
PART 1
 LOGIC

 It is the science of reasoning.

 It helps us to understand and reason about

different mathematical statements.

 With rules of logic, we would be able to think

about mathematical statements and finally,
we would be able to prove or disprove those
mathematical statements precisely.
 PURPOSE OF LOGIC

 To construct valid arguments (or proofs).

 Once a mathematical statement is proven that it

is True, it is called a Theorem.

 A Theorem is the basis of whole mathematics.

 LOGIC: IMPORTANT NOTES
 The rules of mathematical logic specify methods of
reasoning mathematical statements.
 Greek philosopher, Aristotle, was the pioneer of logical
reasoning.
 Logical reasoning provides the theoretical base for many
areas of mathematics and consequently computer science.
 It has many practical applications in computer science like
design of computing machines, artificial intelligence,
definition of data structures for programming languages, and
others.
 PROPOSITION

 It is a declarative sentence (a sentence that

declares a fact or states an argument) that
is either true or false, but not both.

 It is a collection of declarative statements

that has either a truth value “true” or a
truth value “false” but cannot be both.
 PROPOSITION: EXAMPLE 1

Given:
1. Man is Mortal.
2. 12 + 9 = 3 – 2
3. Humans are just bananas with legs.
4. |{ }| = 0.
5. Cebu City is the capital of the Philippines.

Task:
Determine if each of the given statements is a proposition or not.
 PROPOSITION: EXAMPLE 2

Given:
1. A is less than 2.
2. What time is it?
3. x + 1 = 2.
4. Send us your Application Letter before 9AM.
5. Read this carefully.
6. I request you to please allow me to be absent later.

Task:
Determine if each of the given statements is a proposition or not.
 PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

 It is the area of logic that deals with propositions.

 It is the area of logic that studies ways of joining and/or
modifying propositions to form more complicated propositions.
 It also studies the logical relationships and properties derived
from the combined/altered propositions.
 It is concerned with the statements to which the truth values,
“true (1)” and “false (0)”, can be assigned.
 It is also called as sentential or statement logic.
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC: IMPORTANT NOTES

 The purpose is to analyze the statements (propositions)

either individually or in a composite manner.
 It can be represented using the propositional variables
and logical connectives.
 The logical connectives connect the propositional
variables.
 PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC: EXAMPLE
Given:
Consider the following statements:
Statement 1:
James is good in playing football.
Statement 2:
James is good in playing football and he is going to represent his college at
National level.

Asked:
a) Identify the number of proposition(s) in Statement 1.
b) Determine the proposition(s) in Statement 2.
c) Identify the logical connective used in Statement 2.
 SIMPLE AND COMPOUND STATEMENTS

 Simple (or Primitive) Statement:

 A statement represented by a single statement variable
(without any connective).

 Compound Statement:
 A statement represented by some combination of statement
variables and connectives.

 Note:
 Statement variables are also called propositional variables.
 PROPOSITIONAL VARIABLES

 Variables that are used to represent propositions.

 These are commonly denoted by capital letters (such as A, B,

C, P, Q, and others).

 Small letters (such as a, b, c, p, q, and others) can also be used

to denote variables that are used for general propositions (used
for general proofs).
 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES: NEGATION (¬)

 The negation of a proposition A (written as ¬A) is

False when A is True and is True when A is False.

Truth Table
A ¬A

True False
False True
 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES: AND (∧)
 The AND operation of two propositions A and B (written as A ∧ B)
is True if BOTH propositional variable A or B is True.

Truth Table
A B A∧B
True True True
True False False
False True False
False False False
 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES: OR (∨)
 The OR operation of two propositions A and B (written as A ∨ B) is
True if at least any of the propositional variable A or B is True.

Truth Table
A B A∨B

True True True

True False True
False True True
False False False
LOGICAL CONNECTIVES: IMPLICATION/IF-THEN (→)

 An implication A→B is the proposition “if A, then B”.

 It is False if A is True and B is False. The rest cases are True.
Truth Table
A B A→B

True True True

True False False
False True True
False False True
 LOGICAL CONNECTIVES: IF and ONLY IF (⇔)
 A⇔B is bi-conditional logical connective proposition which is True
when A and B are the same, i.e. both are false or both are true.

Truth Table
A B A⇔B

True True True

True False False
False True False
False False True
 LOGICAL OPERATORS: NEGATION [NOT (¬)]

 Let p be a proposition. The negation of p, denoted by ¬p,

simply states that

“It is not the case that p”

 If p is True then ¬p is False.

 If p is False then ¬p is True.
LOGICAL OPERATORS: NEGATION [NOT (¬)]

Truth Table
p ¬p

T F
F T
 NEGATION: EXAMPLE

Given:
Let p be a proposition which states that
John and Jane lived together for many
years.

Task:
Find the negation of p or ¬p.
LOGICAL OPERATORS: CONJUNCTION [AND (∧)]
 A conjunction is a compound statement formed by joining two
statements with the connector AND.

 The conjunction “p and q" is symbolized by p Λ q.

 Let p and q be two propositions.

The conjunction of p and q, denoted by p Λ q, is the proposition
“p and q”.

 The conjunction p Λ q is True when both p and q are True and is

False otherwise.
LOGICAL OPERATORS: CONJUNCTION [AND (∧)]

Truth Table
p q p∧q

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
 CONJUNCTION: EXAMPLE

Given:
p is the proposition 12 is divisible by 3
q is the proposition 3 is a prime number

Task:
a) Find the conjunction of the two propositions.
b) Determine the truth value of the conjunction.
 LOGICAL OPERATORS: DISJUNCTION [OR (∨)]
 A disjunction is a compound statement formed by joining two statements
with the connector OR.
 The disjunction “p or q" is symbolized by p ν q.

 Let p and q be propositions.

The disjunction of p and q, denoted by p ν q, is the proposition “p or q”.
The disjunction p ν q is False when both p and q are false and is True
otherwise.

 It is also called as an Inclusive OR.

LOGICAL OPERATORS: DISJUNCTION [OR (∨)]

Truth Table
p q pνq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
 DISJUNCTION: EXAMPLE

Given:

Let p be a proposition 20 – 4 = 10
Let q be a proposition 8 is an even number

Task:
a) Determine the disjunction of the given propositions.
b) Find the truth value of the disjunction.
LOGICAL OPERATORS: EXCLUSIVE OR [XOR (⊕)]

 Let p and q be propositions.

 The Exclusive OR of p and q, denoted by p ⊕ q, is

the proposition that is True when exactly one of p
and q is true and is False otherwise.

 It simply means that exactly one of p and q will be

True but both cannot be True.
LOGICAL OPERATORS: EXCLUSIVE OR [XOR (⊕)]

Truth Table
p q p⊕q
T T F
T F T
F T T
F F F
 EXCLUSIVE OR: EXAMPLE

Given:
Consider the following statement:
When you buy a car from XYZ company, you get $2500 cash
back or accessories worth $2500.

Task:
a) Find the propositions of the given statement and denote them
with p and q respectively.
b) Determine if the statement is Inclusive disjunction or
Exclusive disjunction.
 LOGICAL OPERATORS: IMPLICATION (→)
 Let p and q be propositions.
The conditional statement p → q, is the proposition “if p, then q.”

 The conditional statement is False when p is true and q is false,

and True otherwise.

 In the conditional statement p → q, p is called the hypothesis

(or antecedent or premise) and q is called the conclusion (or
consequence).

 A conditional statement is also called an implication.

 LOGICAL OPERATORS: IMPLICATION (→)

Truth Table
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

 Remember:
 If p is False, then it does not matter what will be the truth value of q, p → q is always True.
IMPLICATION/CONDITIONAL STATEMENT: EXAMPLE

Given:
Consider the following statement:
“If you try hard for your exam, then you will succeed.”

Tasks:
a) Determine if the given statement is a conditional statement or implication.
Support your answer.
b) Determine the p and q propositions of the given statement.
c) Determine the four possible cases that can be formulated from the given
statement and give the corresponding truth values for each case.