FLUI

D POWER SYSTEMS AND

FUNDAMENTALS

Whati
sfl
uidpower
?

Fluid poweri s ener gyt ransmi t

ted and cont
roll
ed bymeans ofa
pressurizedf l
uid,eitherli
quidorgas.Thet ermflui
dpowerappl i
est o
bot hhydrauli
csandpneumat ics.Hydr
auli
csusespr essurizedli
quid,
for
exampl e,oil
orwat er
; pneumat i
csusescompr essedai rorotherneutr
al
gases. Fl ui
d power can be ef f
ecti
vely combi ned wi th other
technologies t hrough t he use of sensor s, t ransducers and
mi cropr
ocessors.

Howf l
uidpowerworks
Pascal
's Law expr
esses t
he centr
alconceptoffl
uid power
:
"
Pressureexert
edbyaconf i
nedflui
dactsundi
mini
shedequall
y
i
nalldi
recti
ons.

Ani nputfor
ceof10pounds( 44.8N)ona1- square-
inch( 45cm2)pi
6. stondev
elopsa
pressureof
10poundspersquar einch( psi)(68.
95kN/m2or68.95KPa)t hr
oughoutthe
container
.Thispressurewillall
ow a10-squar
e-i
nchpistontosuppor
ta100-
pound( 444.
8N)wei ght
.Thef orces
areproporti
onal
tot hepist
onar eas.
Theadv
ant
agesoff
lui
dpower

Fl
uidpowersy stemspr ov
idemanybenef i
tst ouser sincludi
ng:
 Mul ti
plicati
onandv ariat
ionoff or ce-Linearorr otaryf or
cecanbe
mul t
ipl
iedf rom a
f
ractionofanouncet oseveral hundr edt onsofout put.
 Easy ,accur atecontrol-
Youcanst ar t
,st op,accelerate,deceler
ate,
reverseorposi t
ion
l
argef orceswi t
hgreataccur acy.Anal og( i
nfi
nit
elyv ari
able)anddigit
al
(
on/ off)cont rolarepossi ble.Instant l
yr eversiblemot ion-wit
hinless
t
hanhal farev ol
uti
on-canbeachi eved.
 Mu l
ti-f
unct i
oncont rol-
Asingl ehy drauli
cpumporai rcompr essorcan
providepower
and controlf ornumer ousmachi nesormachi ne

f
unct
ionswhencombi
ned FLUI
DPOWER

SYSTEMSANDFUNDAMENTALS

Whati
sfl
uidpower
?

Fl
uid poweris energyt ransmi t
ted and cont
roll
ed bymeans ofa
pressuri
zedfl
uid,ei
therli
quidorgas.Thet ermflui
dpowerappl i
est o
bothhydr
auli
csandpneumat ics.Hydr
auli
csusespr essur
izedli
quid,
for
example,oi
lorwater
; pneumat i
csusescompr essedairorotherneutr
al
gases. Fl
uid power can be eff
ect
ivel
y combi
ned wi th ot
her
technol
ogi
es through the use of sensor
s, t
ransducers and
micropr
ocessor
s.

Howf l
uidpowerworks
Pascal
's Law expr
esses t
he centr
alconceptoffl
uid power
:
"
Pressureexert
edbyaconf i
nedflui
dactsundi
mini
shedequall
y
i
nalldi
recti
ons.
"
Theadv
ant
agesoff
lui
dpower

Fl
uidpowersy stemspr ov
idemanybenef i
tst ouser sincludi
ng:
 Mul ti
plicati
onandv ariat
ionoff or ce-Linearorr otaryf or
cecanbe
mul ti
pliedf rom a
fractionofanouncet oseveralhundr edt onsofout put.
 Easy ,accur atecontrol-
Youcanst ar t
,st op,accelerate,deceler
ate,
reverseorposi t
ion
l
ar gef orceswi t
hgreataccuracy.Anal og( i
nfi
nit
elyv ari
able)anddigit
al
(on/ off)cont rolarepossi bl
e.Instant l
yr eversiblemot ion-wit
hinless
thanhal far ev ol
uti
on-canbeachi eved.
 Mu l
ti-f
unct i
oncont rol-
Asinglehy drauli
cpumporai rcompr essorcan
prov i
depower
andcont rolfornumer ousmachi nesormachi nefunct i
onswhen
combi nedwi thflui
dpowermani f
oldsandv al
ves.

 Hi
 ghhor
sepower
,low wei
ghtr
ati
o-Pneumat
iccomponent
sar
ecompactand
l
ight wei ght.Youcanhol daf ivehor sepowerhy drauli
cmot ori nt hepalm ofy our
hand.
L ow speedt orque-Unlikeel ectri
cmot ors,airorhy drauli
cmot orscanpr oduce
l
ar geamount soft orque( twisti
ngf orce)whi l
eoper atingatl ow speeds.Some
hy draul i
candai r
mot orscanev enmai ntaintorqueatz erospeedwi thoutov erheat i
ng.
 Con st antforceort or que- Thisisauni quef l
uidpowerat tri
but e.
 Sa fetyi nhaz ardousenv ir
onment s-Fluidpowercanbeusedi nmi nes,chemi cal
plant s,nearex pl
osivesandi npai ntappl i
cationsbecausei ti sinherentl
yspar k-
freeandcant oleratehight emper atur es.
 E stablishedst andar dsandengi neer ing-Thefluidpoweri ndust r
yhasest abl
ished
design
andper formancest andar dsf orhy dr auli
candpneumat i
cpr oduc tst hr
ough
NFPA,t he Nat i
onalFl uid PowerAssoci ati
on and I SO,t he I nternat
ional
Or gani zati
onf orStandar diz
ation.
Fl
uidpowerappl
i
cat
ions

 Mo
 bi
l
e:Her
efl
ui
dpoweri
susedt
otr
anspor
t,ex
cav
ateandl
i
ftmat
eri
al
saswel
l
ascont rolorpowermobi l
eequipment.Endusei ndustr
iesincludeconstruc
tion,
agriculture,mari
neandt hemi l
it
ary.Applicat
ionsi ncl
udebackhoes,gr aders,
tractors,t r
uckbrakesandsuspensi ons,spreadersandhi ghwaymai ntenance
vehicles.
I
 ndust r
ial:Herefl
uidpowerisusedt opr ov
idepowert ransmissionandmot i
on
cont r
olf ort hemachinesofindustr
y.Endusei ndustri
esr angefrom plasti
cs
wor kingt opaperpr oducti
on.Appli
cationsincludemet al
workingequipment ,
 control
l
ers, automat ed manipulat
or s, materi
al handli
ng and assembl y
equipment.
 Ae
 r
ospace:Fluid poweri s used forbot h commer ci
aland mil
itar
yai r
craf
t,
spacecraf
tandr el
atedsuppor tequipment.Applicati
onsincl
udelandinggear,
brakes,f
li
ghtcontrol
s, mot
orcontrol
sandcar goloadingequi
pment.

Fl
uidpowerpr oducts
Fl
uidpowerpr oduc t
sar es oldasi ndivi
dualcomponent sorassy stemsf ortheorigi
nal
equipmentmanuf acturi
ng, maintenance, repairandreplacementmar kets.
Atypical fl
ui dpowersy stem includesthef ollowingcomponent s:
 Hy dr auli
cpumporai rcompr essor ,whichconv ertsmechani calpowert oflui
d
power .
 Cy l
inderormot or,whichconv ertsf l
uidpowert olinearorr otarymechanicalpower.
 Va lves, whichcont rolthedi r
ecti
on, pressureandr ateoff l
ow.
 F il
ter s,regulatorsandl ubricator
s, whichcondi t
ionthefluid.
 Ma nifolds,hose,t ube,fit
t i
ngs,coupl ings,etc.
,whi chconductt hef l
ui
d
bet weencomponent s.
 Se ali
ngdev ices,whichhel pcont ainthef l
uid.
 Ac cumul at
or sandr eservoirs,whichst oretheflui
d.
I nstrument ssuchaspr essur eswi tches,gauges,f l
ow met ers,sensorsand
transducer s,whi char eusedt ohel pmoni tort heper formanceofaf lui
d
powersy stem.
BASICSOFHYDRAULI CS
"
Whati
shy
draul
i
cs?
"

Hy
draul
i
csi
sthet
ransmi
ssi
onandcont
roloff
orcesandmot
ionst
hrought
hemedi
um
off
lui
ds.Shor
tandsi
mpl
e.
Hy
draul
i
csy
stemsandequi
pmenthav
ewi
de-
spr
eadappl
i
cat
iont
hroughouti
ndust
ry.

Forex
ampl
e:
-machi
net
ool
manuf
act
uri
ng
-pr
essmanuf
act
uri
ng
-pl
antconst
ruc
tion
-v
ehi
cl
emanuf
act
uri
ng
-ai
rcr
aftmanuf
act
uri
ng
-shi
pbui
l
ding
-i
nj
ect
ionmol
dingmachi
nes
Hy
draul
i
ctoEl
ect
ri
cal
Anal
ogy
Hy
draul
i
csandel
ect
ri
csar
eanal
ogous,
becauset
heybot
hdealwi
thf
low,
pressur
eand
l
oad.Thecomponent
sineacht
ypeofci
rcui
tper
for
m si
mil
arf
unct
ionsandt
her
efor
e
canber
elat
ed,
afewex
ampl
esar
eli
stedbel
ow:
Var
iousf
ormsofener
gyar
econv
ert
edt
oacc
ompl
i
shmechani
calmov
ementi
nthe
i
nj
ect
ionmol
ding machi
ne.El
ect
ri
calener
gy i
s conv
ert
ed t
o mechani
calener
gy,
whi
ch i
ntur
nisconv
ert
edt
ohy
draul
i
cener
gyt
ooper
ateandcont
rolt
hemov
ing
component
soft
hemachi
ne.Thehy
draul
i
cener
gyi
sconv
ert
edt
omechani
calener
gy
t
oachi
evet
hef
inaldesi
redr
esul
t,whi
chmaybe"
mol
dcl
ampi
ngpr
essur
e"or"
mat
eri
al
i
nject
ion"
.The f
igur
e abov
e summar
izes t
he ener
gyconv
ersi
ons f
oran i
nj
ect
ion
mol
dingmachi
ne.Cl
i
ckont
het
humbnai
lforal
argerv
iew.

Pascal'
sLaw
Pascal'
sLawst at
esthatapressureacti
ngonaconfinedfl
uidistr
ansmittedequally
andundi mini
shedinalldi
rect
ions.I
nthefigur
ebel
ow,a10poundf orceactingona1
squareinchareageneratesapressureof10poundspersquarei
nch( psi
)throughout
thecontaineracti
ngequall
yonallsurf
aces.

Thi
spr
inci
plei
simpor
tantt
oremember
,thatt
hepr
essur
einanypor
ti
onofanhy
draul
i
c
sy
stem i
sequalt
hroughoutt
hatsy
stem.Thi
sst
atementi
sval
i
dwi
tht
heomi
ssi
onof
t
hef
orceofgr
avi
ty,whi
chwoul
dhav
etobeadded,accor
dingt
othef
lui
dlev
el.Duet
o
t
hepr
essur
est
hathy
draul
i
csy
stemsoper
ateat
,thi
ssmal
l
er
amountneednotbeconsi
der
ede.
g.a32f
ootheadofwat
erappr
oxi
mat
elyequal
s14.
5
psi
.(a10met
erheadofwat
erappr
oxi
mat
elyequal
s1bar
.)
AreaandFor ce
Ast heclamppistoni
smovedf
orwarddur
ingthecl
ampclosef
unct
ion,t
hepr
essur
e
developedactsupont
hecl
ampi
ngpist
onwhichhasacer
tai
nsiz
eorarea.

Abasi cfor
mulainhydrauli
csst atest
hatpressuremult
ipli
edbyar
eatowhicht
hat
pressurei
sappl
iedequalsforce.i.
e.pr
essurexarea=force
pxA=F
Thef or
mulacanbemani pulatedtocalcul
ateanyoneoft hethr
eev
ari
abl
esp,AorF,
i
fanyoft heot
hertwovariablesareknown.

Asfoll
ows:
pxA=F
F/p=A
F/A=p
Pressur
e
Hydraul
ic pressur
ei s gener
ated when a f
lowi
ng f
lui
d meet
sresi
stance whi
ch i
s
general
l
yrelatedtotheloadthati
sbeingmoved.
Af orcei sappl i
edv iat helev ert oproducesy st em pr essur e( p=F/ AorF=pxA) .
Ifmor ef orceisappl ied,thesy st
em pr essur erisesunt ilthel oadmov es,i fthel oad
remai nsconst antt hepr essur ewi llincreasenof urther .Thel oadcant hereforebe
mov edift henecessar ypr essur eisgener ated.Thespeedatwhi cht hel oadmov eswi ll
bedependentupont hev olumeoff l
uidwhi chi sf edt ot hel oadcy l
inder .Forex ampl e,
ast hemol di sopeni ngorcl osing, thepr essur egener at edi nt hesy stem r epresent sthe
resistanceoft het oggl el ev ert omov ement .Addi ngt ot hatr esistancewoul dbet he
wei ght(i.
e.mass)oft hemol dandt oggl eleverandal sot hef rictionbet weent het oggle
l
ev erbushi ngsandt het i
ebar s.Whent het womol dhal vest ouchandt het ogglebegi ns
tos trai
ght enout , t
hei ncreasi ngpr essur e
represent st hatwhi chi srequi redtos t
retcht het i
ebar si nt hegener ationofapar t
icular
clampf orce.Simi l
arlywheni njectingmat eri
ali nt
ot hemol dt hepr essur egener atedi n
thei njectionsy stem r epresent st her esi
stanceoft hei njectionr am t omov ement .
Addi ngt ot hatr esistancewoul dbet hemassoft hei nj ectionr am andscr ew,t he
fri
ct i
onbet weenal lmov i
ngcomponent sandt her esist anceoft hepl asticmel tasi tis
forcedqui cklyintot hemol dcav ity
.

PressureCont rol
Inordertosafeguar dthesy stem, pressurer el
iefvalvesar einstal
led.Thevalvesser veto
l
imittheamountofpr essuret hatcandev elopi nthehy drauli
csy st
em sincet hev ari
ous
hydraul
iccomponent sar eexpensi veandt heyar esubj ecttopr essureli
mitationsbefore
fai
lureoccurs.Onechar acter
ist i
coff l
ui
df lowt hatisimpor t
anttonot eherei sthatflow
occursalway si nthepat hofl eastresistance.Pr essur ewoul dcont i
nuet or i
sei nthe
cir
cuitconsist
entwi tht heloadbei ngmov ed.Thepr essur ereli
efv al
veisal wayssett o
all
owf l
owt otravel t
hrought her eli
efvalve
wellbeforepressur erisesabov esafelevelsandcausesdamaget othesy stem andi t
s
component s.Inot herwor ds,thepat hofleastr esistancei sempl oyedheret osafeguard
thesystem aftertheot hermov ementshav et akenplace.
Pressur
eOv er
ride
Anex tr
emelyimpor t
antc oncepttounderstandaboutpr essurereli
efv al
v esist hei
r
pressur
eov er
ri
dechar acteri
sti
cs.Pressureov err
ideisthedi f
ferencebet weent he
pressur
eatwhicht hereliefvalvej
uststart
st ocrackopenandt hepr essureatt heful
l
openposit
ion.Fordirectact i
ngpressurerel
iefvalvest
hispressurediffer
ent i
alcanbe
ashighas30%andpr opor ti
onalpr
essurereli
efvalvesr
angef r
om
10%-20%.
PressureI
ntensifi
cat
ion
Anotherimportantconcepttokeepinmi
ndisthatofpressur
eintensi
fi
cati
on.
Thislawofhydrauli
csisoft
enfor
gott
enwhent
roubl
eshooti
nghydr
auli
ccircui
ts.

Forex ample,iftwopi st
onsofdi f
ferentsi
zear econnectedbyar od,thepr
essur
e
existi
ngont hesmallerar
eawil
lal
way sbegreater.Thi
spri
ncipl
ealsoappli
estot
hecap
sideandt herodsideofanormaldoubleacti
ngpiston.
IfP1=1, 000psiandA1=10squar einches,
thenF1=10, 000poundsof
force.I
fF1=10, 000poundsofforceandifA2=5squar einches,t
henP2
=2, 000psi.
SpeedinHydr
aul
i
cs
Thespeedofahy
draul
i
ccomponentcanbecal
cul
atedbasedont
hef
ormul
abel
ow:

Forex ampl
e,giventhecondi
ti
onsbelow t
heinj
ect
ionpi
ston,t
her
efor
ethescrew,wi
l
l
mov eat
3.85inchespersecond.However
,thi
sspeedwil
lnotbepossi
blei
fthepr
essur
e
reli
efval
veopens.

Hy dr
odynami cs
Aswel l
asunder standingtheconceptofspeedinhy drauli
cs,
iti
salsoi
mpor tantt
ohav e
somei nsightintoflow characteri
sti
cs.Forexampl e,thedrawingbelow showst hat
whenoi li
sf l
owingt hr
oughdi f
ferentdi
ameterpipesanequalv olumefl
owsi nanequal
unitofti
me.I ft
hatistrueandi ftheshadedquantit
yQ1equal stheshadedquantityQ2,
thenvelocit
yV2mustbegr eat
erthanv el
oci
tyV1.
Asthediamet erofthepipedecr eases,t
hef l
ow ratewi
lli
ncr
ease.Speci
fi
call
y,ifthe
pi
pediamet erdecr
easesbyonehal finthedirect
ionofoi
lfl
ow,thecrosssect i
onal
ar
eawilldecreasebyfourtimes,andv i
sav er
sa.Oilfl
owvel
oci
tythr
oughdiff
erentpipe
si
zescanbecal cul
atedusingthef or
mula:

Thesamegal
l
onspermi
nut
ewi
l
lhav
etot
rav
el4t
imesf
ast
ert
hrought
hesmal
l
er

pi
pe.Anot
heri
mpor
tantc
oncepti
nhy
drody
nami
csi
show f
lui
dsf
low basedon

cert
aincri
tical
flow
speedsorast heresul
tofmeet
ingr
est
ri
cti
onst
ofl
owsuchasbendsi
nthepi
pe
orsystem components.
One goali nthe initialdesi
gn ofhydr
auli
c powert ransmissi
on systems isto
encouragelaminarf l
ow asmuchaspossi blesinceani ncr
easei nturbul
encewill
i
ncreaseflowresistanceandhy dr
aul
i
clossesaswell.Thediagram bel
owi l
lust
rat
es
theconceptofturbulentfl
ow.

Alt
hought urbulentflowiswast efuli
nmosthy draul
icappli
cati
ons,i
tisdesirabl
eto
havet ur
bulencei ntheoi lfl
ow asi tt
ravel
sthroughtheheatex changerforcooli
ng
purposes.Ifturbulenceexistsast heoilfl
owst hr
ought heheatexchanger,moreof
theoilmoleculescomei ntocontactwiththeheatexchangercool
ingtubesandmor e
eff
ici
entcool i
ngist heresult
.

DirectionalControl
Oneoft hemai nadvantagesofhy drauli
cbasedsy stemsi sthattheoilflowdirecti
oni s
easilycont r
oll
ed.Thedrawingbel
owshowsapi stonbei ngextended,heldstat
ionaryand
thenr etract
ed,simplybychangingt heposi t
ionofadi r
ecti
onalvalv
e.Ev ent
hought he
drawingi ssimpleinnature,i
tstilldemonst ratest hepr i
nci
pl ei
nvolvedi ndirecti
onal
control.Inaddi t
iontosimpledirectionalcont r
olv alves,weal soempl oypropor ti
onal
dir
ect i
onalcont r
olval
vesonsomemachi nestoc ont r
olthecl ampopeni ngandcl osing
function.
 Rey
nol
d’snumber

TheRey
nol
dsNumberi
sanondi
mensi
onal
par
amet
erdef
inedbyt
her
ati
oof

dy
nami
cpr
essur
e(ρu2)andshear
ingst
ress(
μu/L)andcanbeex
pressedas

ρu2)/(
Re=( μu/L)

=ρuL/μ

=uL/ν (
1)

wher
e

Re=Rey
nol
dsNumber(
non-
dimensi
onal
)
ρ=densi
ty( m3,
kg/ lbm/
ft3
)
u=v
eloci
ty(
m/s,
ft/
s)
μ=dy
nami
cvi
scosi
ty( m2,l
Ns/ bm/
sft
)L=
char
act
eri
sti
clengt
h(m,
ft)

ν=ki
nemat
icv
iscosi
t m2/
y( s,f
t2
/s)
Dar
cy’
sEquat
ion

Thefri
cti
onalheadlosscanbecalculat
edusingamat hemati
cal
rel
ati
onshi
pthati
s
known asDarcy’sequat
ionf
orheadloss.Theequat
iontakestwodi
sti
nctfor
ms.The
fi
rstf
orm
ofDar
cy’
sequat
iondet
ermi
nest
hel
ossesi
nthesy
stem associ
atedwi
tht
hel
engt
hoft
hepi
pe.
(3-
14)
2
Hf=f Lv
D 2g
wher
e:f =f
ri
cti
onf
act
or(
uni
tl
ess)L

= l
engt
hofpi
pe(
ft)

D = di
amet
erofpi
pe(
ft)

v = f
lui
dvel
oci
ty(
ft/
sec)

g = gr
avi
tat
ional
accel
erat
ion(
ftsec2)
/

Example:Darcy’
sHeadLossEquat ionApi pe100feetlongand20inchesindi
ametercont
ains
waterat200°Fflowingatamassf l
owr at
eof700l bm/ sec.Thewaterhasadensit
yof60
3
lbm/ft andav iscosit 978x10-7l
yof1. bf
-sec/f
t2
.Therel
ati
veroughnessof
the pi
pe i s 0.
00008.Calculat
et he head loss fort
he withflui
d power
manifoldsandv alves.
BASI
CSOFHYDRAULI
CS
"
Whati
shy
draul
i
cs?
"

Hy
draul
i
csi
sthet
ransmi
ssi
onandcont
roloff
orcesandmot
ionst
hrought
hemedi
um
off
lui
ds.Shor
tandsi
mpl
e.
Hy
draul
i
csy
stemsandequi
pmenthav
ewi
de-
spr
eadappl
i
cat
iont
hroughouti
ndust
ry.

Forex
ampl
e:
-machi
net
ool
manuf
act
uri
ng
-pr
essmanuf
act
uri
ng
-pl
antconst
ruc
tion
-v
ehi
cl
emanuf
act
uri
ng
-ai
rcr
aftmanuf
act
uri
ng
-shi
pbui
l
ding
-i
nj
ect
ionmol
dingmachi
nes

Hy
draul
i
ctoEl
ect
ri
cal
Anal
ogy
Hy
draul
i
csandel
ect
ri
csar
eanal
ogous,
becauset
heybot
hdealwi
thf
low,
pressur
eand
l
oad.Thecomponent
sineacht
ypeofci
rcui
tper
for
m si
mil
arf
unct
ionsandt
her
efor
e
canber
elat
ed,
afewex
ampl
esar
eli
stedbel
ow:
Var
iousf
ormsofener
gyar
econv
ert
edt
oacc
ompl
i
shmechani
calmov
ementi
nthe
i
nj
ect
ionmol
ding machi
ne.El
ect
ri
calener
gyi
sconv
ert
ed t
o mechani
calener
gy,
whi
ch i
ntur
nisconv
ert
edt
ohy
draul
i
cener
gyt
ooper
ateandcont
rolt
hemov
ing
component
soft
hemachi
ne.Thehy
draul
i
cener
gyi
sconv
ert
edt
omechani
calener
gy
t
o achi
evet
hef
inaldesi
red r
esul
t,whi
ch maybe"
mol
d cl
ampi
ng pr
essur
e"or
"
mat
eri
ali
nject
ion"
.Thef
igur
eabov
esummar
izest
heener
gyconv
ersi
onsf
oran
i
nj
ect
ionmol
dingmachi
ne.Cl
i
ckont
het
humbnai
lforal
argerv
iew.

Pascal'
sLaw
Pascal'
sLawst at
esthatapressureacti
ngonaconfinedfl
uidistr
ansmittedequally
andundi mini
shedinalldi
rect
ions.I
nthefigur
ebel
ow,a10poundf orceactingona1
squareinchareageneratesapressureof10poundspersquarei
nch( psi
)throughout
thecontaineracti
ngequall
yonallsurf
aces.

Thi
spr
inci
plei
simpor
tantt
oremember
,thatt
hepr
essur
einanypor
ti
onofanhy
draul
i
c
sy
stem i
sequalt
hroughoutt
hatsy
stem.Thi
sst
atementi
sval
i
dwi
tht
heomi
ssi
onof
t
hef
orceofgr
avi
ty,whi
chwoul
dhav
etobeadded,accor
dingt
othef
lui
dlev
el.Duet
o
t
hepr
essur
est
hathy
draul
i
csy
stemsoper
ateat
,thi
ssmal
l
er
amountneednotbeconsi
der
ede.
g.a32f
ootheadofwat
erappr
oxi
mat
elyequal
s14.
5
psi
.(a10met
erheadofwat
erappr
oxi
mat
elyequal
s1bar
.)
AreaandFor ce
Ast heclamppistoni
smovedf
orwarddur
ingthecl
ampclosef
unct
ion,t
hepr
essur
e
developedactsupont
hecl
ampi
ngpist
onwhichhasacer
tai
nsiz
eorarea.

Abasi cfor
mulainhydrauli
csst atest
hatpressuremult
ipli
edbyar
eatowhicht
hat
pressurei
sappl
iedequalsforce.i.
e.pr
essurexarea=force
pxA=F
Thef or
mulacanbemani pulatedtocalcul
ateanyoneoft hethr
eev
ari
abl
esp,AorF,
i
fanyoft heot
hertwovariablesareknown.

Asfoll
ows:
pxA=F
F/p=A
F/A=p
Pressur
e
Hydraul
ic pressur
ei s gener
ated when a f
lowi
ng f
lui
d meet
sresi
stance whi
ch i
s
general
l
yrelatedtotheloadthati
sbeingmoved.
Af orcei sappl i
edv iat helev ert oproducesy st em pr essur e( p=F/ AorF=pxA) .
Ifmor ef orceisappl ied,thesy st
em pr essur erisesunt ilthel oadmov es,i fthel oad
remai nsconst antt hepr essur ewi llincreasenof urther .Thel oadcant hereforebe
mov edift henecessar ypr essur eisgener ated.Thespeedatwhi cht hel oadmov eswi ll
bedependentupont hev olumeoff l
uidwhi chi sf edt ot hel oadcy l
inder .Forex ampl e,
ast hemol di sopeni ngorcl osing, thepr essur egener at edi nt hesy stem r epresent sthe
resistanceoft het oggl el ev ert omov ement .Addi ngt ot hatr esistancewoul dbet he
wei ght(i.
e.mass)oft hemol dandt oggl eleverandal sot hef rictionbet weent het oggle
l
ev erbushi ngsandt het i
ebar s.Whent het womol dhal vest ouchandt het ogglebegi ns
tos trai
ght enout , t
hei ncreasi ngpr essur e
represent st hatwhi chi srequi redtos t
retcht het i
ebar si nt hegener ationofapar t
icular
clampf orce.Simi l
arlywheni njectingmat eri
ali nt
ot hemol dt hepr essur egener atedi n
thei njectionsy stem r epresent st her esi
stanceoft hei njectionr am t omov ement .
Addi ngt ot hatr esistancewoul dbet hemassoft hei nj ectionr am andscr ew,t he
fri
ct i
onbet weenal lmov i
ngcomponent sandt her esist anceoft hepl asticmel tasi tis
forcedqui cklyintot hemol dcav ity
.

PressureCont rol
Inordertosafeguar dthesy stem, pressurer el
iefvalvesar einstal
led.Thevalvesser veto
l
imittheamountofpr essuret hatcandev elopi nthehy drauli
csy st
em sincet hev ari
ous
hydraul
iccomponent sar eexpensi veandt heyar esubj ecttopr essureli
mitationsbefore
fai
lureoccurs.Onechar acter
ist i
coff l
ui
df lowt hatisimpor t
anttonot eherei sthatflow
occursalway si nthepat hofl eastresistance.Pr essur ewoul dcont i
nuet or i
sei nthe
cir
cuitconsist
entwi tht heloadbei ngmov ed.Thepr essur ereli
efv al
veisal wayssett o
all
owf l
owt otravel t
hrought her eli
efvalve
wellbeforepressur erisesabov esafelevelsandcausesdamaget othesy stem andi t
s
component s.Inot herwor ds,thepat hofleastr esistancei sempl oyedheret osafeguard
thesystem aftertheot hermov ementshav et akenplace.
Pressur
eOv er
ride
Anex tr
emelyimpor t
antc oncepttounderstandaboutpr essurereli
efv al
v esist hei
r
pressur
eov er
ri
dechar acteri
sti
cs.Pressureov err
ideisthedi f
ferencebet weent he
pressur
eatwhicht hereliefvalvej
uststart
st ocrackopenandt hepr essureatt heful
l
openposit
ion.Fordirectact i
ngpressurerel
iefvalvest
hispressurediffer
ent i
alcanbe
ashighas30%andpr opor ti
onalpr
essurereli
efvalvesr
angef r
om
10%-20%.
PressureI
ntensifi
cat
ion
Anotherimportantconcepttokeepinmi
ndisthatofpressur
eintensi
fi
cati
on.
Thislawofhydrauli
csisoft
enfor
gott
enwhent
roubl
eshooti
nghydr
auli
ccircui
ts.

Forex ample,iftwopi st
onsofdi f
ferentsi
zear econnectedbyar od,thepr
essur
e
existi
ngont hesmallerar
eawil
lal
way sbegreater.Thi
spri
ncipl
ealsoappli
estot
hecap
sideandt herodsideofanormaldoubleacti
ngpiston.
IfP1=1, 000psiandA1=10squar einches,
thenF1=10, 000poundsof
force.I
fF1=10, 000poundsofforceandifA2=5squar einches,t
henP2
=2, 000psi.
SpeedinHydr
aul
i
cs
Thespeedofahy
draul
i
ccomponentcanbecal
cul
atedbasedont
hef
ormul
abel
ow:

Forex ampl
e,giventhecondi
ti
onsbelow t
heinj
ect
ionpi
ston,t
her
efor
ethescrew,wi
l
l
mov eat
3.85inchespersecond.However
,thi
sspeedwil
lnotbepossi
blei
fthepr
essur
e
reli
efval
veopens.

Hy dr
odynami cs
Aswel l
asunder standingtheconceptofspeedinhy drauli
cs,
iti
salsoi
mpor tantt
ohav e
somei nsightintoflow characteri
sti
cs.Forexampl e,thedrawingbelow showst hat
whenoi li
sf l
owingt hr
oughdi f
ferentdi
ameterpipesanequalv olumefl
owsi nanequal
unitofti
me.I ft
hatistrueandi ftheshadedquantit
yQ1equal stheshadedquantityQ2,
thenvelocit
yV2mustbegr eat
erthanv el
oci
tyV1.
Asthediamet erofthepipedecr eases,t
hef l
ow ratewi
lli
ncr
ease.Speci
fi
call
y,ifthe
pi
pediamet erdecr
easesbyonehal finthedirect
ionofoi
lfl
ow,thecrosssect i
onal
ar
eawilldecreasebyfourtimes,andv i
sav er
sa.Oilfl
owvel
oci
tythr
oughdiff
erentpipe
si
zescanbecal cul
atedusingthef or
mula:

Thesamegal
l
onspermi
nut
ewi
l
lhav
etot
rav
el4t
imesf
ast
ert
hrought
hesmal
l
er

pi
pe.Anot
heri
mpor
tantc
oncepti
nhy
drody
nami
csi
show f
lui
dsf
low basedon

cert
aincri
tical
flow
speedsorast heresul
tofmeet
ingr
est
ri
cti
onst
ofl
owsuchasbendsi
nthepi
pe
orsystem components.
One goali nthe initialdesi
gn ofhydr
auli
c powert ransmissi
on systems isto
encouragelaminarf l
ow asmuchaspossi blesinceani ncr
easei nturbul
encewill
i
ncreaseflowresistanceandhy dr
aul
i
clossesaswell.Thediagram bel
owi l
lust
rat
es
theconceptofturbulentfl
ow.

Alt
hought urbulentflowiswast efuli
nmosthy draul
icappli
cati
ons,i
tisdesirabl
eto
havet ur
bulencei ntheoi lfl
ow asi tt
ravel
sthroughtheheatex changerforcooli
ng
purposes.Ifturbulenceexistsast heoilfl
owst hr
ought heheatexchanger,moreof
theoilmoleculescomei ntocontactwiththeheatexchangercool
ingtubesandmor e
eff
ici
entcool i
ngist heresult
.

DirectionalControl
Oneoft hemai nadvantagesofhy drauli
cbasedsy stemsi sthattheoilflowdirecti
oni s
easilycont r
oll
ed.Thedrawingbel
owshowsapi stonbei ngextended,heldstat
ionaryand
thenr etract
ed,simplybychangingt heposi t
ionofadi r
ecti
onalvalv
e.Ev ent
hought he
drawingi ssimpleinnature,i
tstilldemonst ratest hepr i
nci
pl ei
nvolvedi ndirecti
onal
control.Inaddi t
iontosimpledirectionalcont r
olv alves,weal soempl oypropor ti
onal
dir
ect i
onalcont r
olval
vesonsomemachi nestoc ont r
olthecl ampopeni ngandcl osing
function.
 Rey
nol
d’snumber

TheRey
nol
dsNumberi
sanondi
mensi
onal
par
amet
erdef
inedbyt
her
ati
oof

dy
nami
cpr
essur
e(ρu2)andshear
ingst
ress(
μu/L)andcanbeex
pressedas

ρu2)/(
Re=( μu/L)

=ρuL/μ

=uL/ν (
1)

wher
e

Re=Rey
nol
dsNumber(
non-
dimensi
onal
)
ρ=densi
ty( m3,
kg/ lbm/
ft3
)
u=v
eloci
ty(
m/s,
ft/
s)
μ=dy
nami
cvi
scosi
ty( m2,l
Ns/ bm/
sft
)L=
char
act
eri
sti
clengt
h(m,
ft)

ν=ki
nemat
icv
iscosi
t m2/
y( s,f
t2
/s)
Dar
cy’
sEquat
ion

Thefri
cti
onalheadlosscanbecalculat
edusingamat hemati
cal
rel
ati
onshi
pthati
s
known asDarcy’sequat
ionf
orheadloss.Theequat
iontakestwodi
sti
nctfor
ms.The
fi
rstf
orm
 ofDarcy
’sequat
iondet
ermi
nest
hel
ossesi
nthesy
stem associ
atedwi
tht
hel
engt
hof
thepi
pe.
(3-
14)
2
Hf=f Lv
D 2g
wher
e:f = f
ri
cti
onf
act
or

(
uni
tl
ess)L = l
engt
hof

pi
pe(
ft)

D = di
amet
erofpi
pe(
ft)

v = f
lui
dvel
oci
ty(
ft/
sec)

g = gr
avi
tat
ional
accel
erat
ion(
ftsec2)
/

Exampl e:Darcy’
sHeadLossEquat ionApi pe100f eetlongand20i nchesindi
ameter
contains
waterat200° Fflowingatamassf lowr at
eof700l bm/ sec. Thewat erhasadensi
ty
of60
3
l
bm/ft andav i
scosi
tyof1.978x10-7lbf
-sec/f
t2
.Therelati
veroughnessofthepi
peis
0.
00008.Cal cul
atetheheadlossf
ort he