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ME8

ME 8591 - APPLIED HYDRAULICS AND PNEUMATICS

Page | 1UNIT I FLUID POWER PRINCIPLES AND HYDRAULIC PUMPS

Introduction to Fluid power- Advantages and Applications- Fluid power systems – Types of fluids-
Properties of fluids – Basics of Hydraulics – Pascal’s Law- Principles of flow – Friction loss- Work,
Power and Torque. Problems Sources of Hydraulic power: Pumping Theory – Pump Classification-
Construction, Working, Design, Advantages, Disadvantages, Performance, Selection criterion of Linear,
Rotary- Fixed and Variable displacement pumps-Problems
UNIT II HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS AND VALVES
Hydraulic Actuators: Cylinders– Types and construction, Application, Hydraulic cushioning - Hydraulic
motors Control Components: Direction control, Flow control and Pressure control valves-Types,
Construction and Operation- Servo and Proportional valves - Applications – Types of actuation.
Accessories: Reservoirs, Pressure Switches- Applications- Fluid Power ANSI Symbols - Problems
UNIT III HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
Accumulators, Intensifiers, Industrial hydraulic circuits- Regenerative, Pump Unloading, Double-pump,
Pressure Intensifier, Air-over oil, Sequence, Reciprocation, Synchronization, Fail-safe, Speed control,
Hydrostatic transmission, Electro hydraulic circuits, Mechanical Hydraulic servo systems.
UNIT IV PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Properties of air– Perfect Gas Laws - Compressors- Filter, Regulator, Lubricator, Muffler, Air control
Valves, Quick Exhaust valves, Pneumatic actuators, Design of pneumatic circuit cascade method-
Electro pneumatic circuits, Introduction to Fluidics, Pneumatic logic circuits.
UNIT V TROUBLE SHOOTING AND APPLICATIONS
Installation, Selection, Maintenance, Trouble Shooting and Remedies in Hydraulic and Pneumatic
systems. Design of hydraulic circuits for Drilling, Planning, Shaping, Surface grinding, Press and Forklift
applications. Design of Pneumatic circuits for a Pick and Place application and tool handling in a CNC
machine. - Low cost Automation – Hydraulic and Pneumatic power packs- case studies.

TEXT BOOK:
1. Anthony Esposito, “Fluid Power with Applications”, Prentice Hall, 2009.

REFERENCES:
1.Shanmugasundaram.K, “Hydraulic and Pneumatic Controls”, Chand & Co, 2006.
2.Majumdar, S.R., “Oil Hydraulics Systems- Principles and Maintenance”, Mc Graw Hill, 2001
3.Majumdar, S.R., “Pneumatic Systems – Principles and Maintenance”, Mc Graw Hill, 2007.
4.Dudelyt, A Pease and John J Pippenger, “Basic Fluid Power”, Prentice Hall, 1987.
5.Srinivasan.R, “Hydraulic and Pneumatic Controls”, Vijay Nicole Imprints, 2008.

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UNIT I FLUID POWER PRINCIPLES AND HYDRAULIC PUMPS
Introduction to Fluid power- Advantages and Applications-
Fluid power systems – Types of fluids- Properties of fluids – Basics of Hydraulics –
Pascal’s Law- Principles of flow – Friction loss- Work, Power and Torque. Problems
Sources of Hydraulic power: Pumping Theory–Pump Classification- Construction,
Page | 2Working, Design, Advantages, Disadvantages, Performance, Selection of Linear,
Rotary- Fixed and Variable displacement pumps.

1. FLUIUD POWER
Fluid power is the technology deals the generation, Transmission and to control to perform
useful work using pressurized fluid

ADVANTAGE AND APPLICATION OF FLUID POWER

1. Multiplication of small forces to achieve greater forces for performing work
2. It easily provide large amount of variable speed which is difficult to obtain from other drives

3. Accuracy utilization of electric power is reduced

4. in controlling large forces with instant reversal is possible
5. As the medium of power transmission a fluid it is not subjected to any breakage of parts mechanical
transmission The pats of hydraulic system are lubricated with the hydraulic fluid itself

6. Because of the simplicity and compactness, the cost is relatively low for the power manufacturing &
Transmition.

APPLICATION OF FLUID POWER SYSTEM:

1. Agriculture: Tractor and form equipments & chemical sprayers.

2. Automation: Automated transformer machine

3. Aviation: landing wheels on airplane, helicopter and aircraft trolleys etc.

4. Building industry: for metering and mixing of concrete ingredients from hopper Pneumatic conveyors
for transmitting powder materials

5. Construction equipment: earth moving equipment JCB, dozer, bore well diggers,
6. Defense: Missile launching system navigation control

7. Entertainment: amusement park, Entertainment rides like roller costar, sky jump,

8. Fabrication industry: tools like pneumatic drills grinder, reverting machine, Nut runner etc.

9. Foundry: molding machine, tiling of furnace, die casting operation, automatic pallet placing system.

10. Jigs: fluid power operated opening and closing of jigs and fixtures.

11. Machine Tools: Material loading and unloading, clamping and declamping.

12. Movies: Special effort equipment using fluid power animation in movies like titanic 2
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13. Mining: Rock drills, dig out equipment, ore conveyer, loaders opening and closing.

14. Plastic Industry: automatic injection molding machine, raw material feeding .

15. Forging: bulk metal forming, sheet metal bending, punching, stamping.
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16. Robotics: for robotics hand and leg movement, pneumatics grippers.

17. Automobile: Power steering, Power brakes, suspension system.

18. Glass industry: vacuum friction cups handling.

DIFFERNCE BETWEEN HYDRAULIC, PNEUMATIC

&ELECTRO-MECHANICAL SYSTEM

Hydraulic System Pneumatic System Electro-Mechanical System

Energy is transmitted throughmechanical

Pressurized Liquid is used Compressed Air is used components

Energy stored in Accumulator Energy stored in Tank Energy stored in Batteries

Hydraulic Valves are used Pneumatic Valves are used Variable Frequency drives

Transmission throughHydraulic cylinders, Transmission through Transmission through

Actuators Pneumatic cylinders,Actuators
Mechanical components likeGears, Cams

Hydraulic System
Pneumatic System Electro-Mechanical System

Energy is transmitted through mechanical

Pressurized Liquid is used Compressed Air is used components

Energy stored in Accumulator Energy stored in Tank Energy stored in Batteries

Hydraulic Valves are used Pneumatic Valves are used Variable Frequency drives

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Transmission through Hydraulic Transmission through

Transmission through
Mechanical components like
cylinders, Actuators Pneumatic cylinders, Actuators
Gears, Cams

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD HYDRAULIC FLUID

VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of a hydraulic fluid's resistance to flow. It is a hydraulic fluid's most important
characteristic and has a significant impact on the operation of the system. When a hydraulic oil is too
thin (low viscosity), it does not seal sufficiently. This leads to leakage and wear of parts. When
a hydraulic oil is too thick (high viscosity), the fluid will be more difficult to pump through the system
and may reduce operating efficiency. All hydraulic fluids must be able to retain optimum viscosity
during operation in cold or hot temperatures, in order to consistently and effectively transmit power.

COMPRESSIBILITY
Compressibility is a measure of the amount of volume reduction due to pressure. Although
hydraulic oils are basically incompressible, slight volume reductions can occur under certain pressure
ranges. Compressibility increases with pressure and temperature and has significant effects on high-
pressure fluid systems. It causes servo failure, efficiency loss, and cavitation; therefore, it is important
for a hydraulic oil to have low compressibility.

WEAR RESISTANCE
Wear resistance is a hydraulic fluid's ability to reduce the wear rate in frictional
boundary contacts. Antiwear hydraulic fluids contain antiwear components that can form
a protective film on metal surfaces to prevent abrasion, scuffing, and contact fatigue.
Antiwear additives enhance lubricant performance and extend equipment life.

OXIDATION STABILITY
Oxidation stability is a hydraulic oil's resistance to heat-induced degradation caused by a chemical
reaction with oxygen. Hydraulic oils must contain additives that counteract the process of oxidation,
improve the stability and extend the life of the fluid. Without these additives, the quality of the hydraulic
oil will deteriorate quickly.

POUR POINT
The pour point of lubricant is the lowest temperature at which oil can still flow without stopping, When
the temperature drops, a fluid becomes more viscous. It is hence important to determine the cold
properties of the fluid. It is normal to state the lowest pour temperature for the oil, i.e. the temperature at
which the fluid, under certain specified test conditions, cannot flow any more. By selecting a hydraulic
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fluid which has a pour point of at least 10 deg C below the lowest anticipated starting temperature, it is
probable that the system functions well.

FLASH POINT
Petroleum based hydraulic fluids like mineral oils have flash point(the lowest temperature at
Page | 5which the vapors will ignite) that ranges from 300 to 600 degrees Fahrenheit. The water-based hydraulic
fluids are inflammable; Flash point is a temperature at which liquid catches fire automatically. The flash
point of good hydraulic oil must be as high as possible so that fire possibility nullified.

TOXICITY:
Good hydraulic oil must be minimum toxic to human being working with them. Some fire
resistance hydraulic oils are highly toxic which can cause occupational diseases. Toxic property of
hydraulic oil is leads to difficulties in breathing and it can cause pneumonia, intestinal bleeding, or death
in humans.

FIRE-RESISTANT
Fire-resistant fluids are most often associated with hydraulic systems. In some of these systems,
components must operate at an extremely high temperature, which means you will want to use a fluid
that does not ignite easily in the event of a leak. This helps to reduce risk and ensure the safety of plant
personnel.

One of the first parameters to consider when assessing the need for a fire-resistant fluid is the operating
temperature. This temperature will determine the degree of fire protection required from the fluid in
operation. Many lubricants can withstand elevated temperatures, but when you exceed 200 degrees F,
your options become limited. This is when a fire-resistance fluid may be used.

THERMAL STABILITY
Thermal stability is the ability to resist breakdown at elevated temperatures. Antiwear additives
naturally degrade over time and this process can be accelerated at higher temperatures. The result of
poor thermal stability is the formation of sludge and varnish which can clog filters, minimize flow and
increase downtime. In addition, as these antiwear agents decompose at high temperatures, acids are
formed which attack bronze and yellow metals in piston pumps and other hydraulic system components.
Hydraulic oils can be formulated with very high levels of thermal stability to minimize these issues and
help extend the life of the hydraulic fluid and the components of the hydraulic system.

LUBRICITY
It is a measure of Ability of the hydraulic oil helps to lubricate the system components,. This is the
ability of oil to maintain a protective film on metal surfaces. This oil film prevents friction, which can
lead to excessive wear and heat generation. Lubrication reduces the friction and protects the system 5
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components against wear. Lubrication property of the hydraulic fluid means creating a strong film with
fluid that can’t be wiped out with the moving surface.

FILTERABILITY
Page | 6oil insoluble material and contaminants can present in the lubricant leads to block filters, valves and
other components resulting in decreased oil flow or the system going on bypass. Blockage can
eventually result in unplanned downtime. Hydraulic fluids are designed to be filtered with modern
filtration systems without fear of the additive being depleted or removed from the system. This enables
systems to stay clean without sacrificing critical performance requirements

RUST AND CORROSION PREVENTION

In many systems, water can enter as condensation or contamination, and mix with the hydraulic oil.
Water can cause rusting of hydraulic components. In addition, water can react with some additives to
form chemical species which can be aggressive to yellow metals. Hydraulic oil formulations contain
rust and corrosion inhibitors which prevent the interaction of water or other chemical species from
attacking metal surfaces.

FOAM RESISTANCE
Foam results from air or other gases becoming entrained in the hydraulic fluid. Air enters a hydraulic
system through the reservoir or through air leaks within the system.A hydraulic fluid under high
pressure can contain a large volume of dissolved or dispersed air bubbles. When this fluid is
depressurized, the air bubbles expand and produce foam. Because of its compressibility and poor
lubricating properties, foam can seriously affect the operation and lubrication of machinery. Proper foam
inhibitors modify the surface tension on air bubbles so they more easily breakup.

DEMULSIBILITY
Water that enters a hydraulic system can mix or emulsify with the hydraulic oil. If this 'wet' fluid is
circulated through the system, it can promote rust and corrosion. Highly refined mineral oils permit
water to separate or demulsify quickly. However, some of the additives used in hydraulic oils promote
emulsion formation, preventing the water from separating and settling out of the fluid. Demulsifier
additives are incorporated to promote water separation from hydraulic fluids.

COMPONENTS OF HYDRAULIC FLUID POWER SYSTEM

There are six basic components required in a hydraulic system
1. A tank (reservoir) to hold the hydraulic oil
2. A pump to force the oil through the system.
3. An electric motor or other power source to drive the pump
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4. Valves to control oil direction, pressure, and flow rate

5. An actuator to convert the pressure of the oil into mechanical force or torque to do useful work.
Actuators can either be cylinders to provide linear motion, or motors (hydraulic) to provide rotary
motion,
6. Piping, this carries the oil from one location to another

PNEUMATIC SYSTEM
Pneumatic systems have components that are similar to those used in hydraulic systems. Essentially the
following six basic components are required for pneumatic systems:

1. An air tank to store a given volume of compressed air

2. A compressor to compress the air that comes directly from the atmosphere
3. An electric motor or other prime mover to drive the compressor
4. Valves to control air direction, pressure, and flow rate
5. Actuators, which are similar in operation to hydraulic actuators
6. Piping to carry the pressurized air from one location to another

CLASSIFICATION OF POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMP

1. GEAR PUMP
a. External gear pump
b. Internal gear pump
c. Lope pump
d. Screw pump

2. VANE PUMP
a. Un balanced van pump
b. balanced vane pump
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3. PISTON PUMP
a. Axial piston pump
b. Radial piston pump

EXTERNAL GEAR PUMP

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Figure illustrates the operation of an external gear pump, which develops flow by carrying
fluid between the teeth of two meshing gears. One of the gears is connected to a drive shaft connected to
the prime mover. The second gear is driven as it meshes with the driver gear. Oil chambers are formed
between the gear teeth and the pump housing, The suction side is where teeth come out of mesh, and it is
here that the volume expands, bringing about a reduction in pressure to below atmospheric pressure.
Fluid is pushed into this void by atmospheric pressure because the oil supply tank is vented to the
atmosphere. The discharge side is where teeth go into mesh, and it is here that the volume decreases
between mating teeth. Since the pump has a positive internal seal against leakage, the oil is positively
ejected into the outlet port

WORKING PRINCIPLE

1. When the pump is first started the rotation of the gear drives the air out of the housing In the suction
side the teeth comes out of the mesh so volume expands
2. As the gears come out of mesh, they create expanding volume on the inlet side of the pump Volume
expansion leads to reduction in pressure so the fluid from the tank enters in to the pump inlet
3. Entered Liquid filled around the casing i.e. the pockets between the teeth and the casing

4. Finally, the meshing of the gear teeth guides the fluid from the suction side to the delivery side since
the pump has a positive seal against leakage so the fluid positively discharged through the out let port

INTERNAL GEAR PUMP

The following Figure illustrates the configuration and operation of the internal gear pump.
This design consists of an internal gear, a regular spur gear, a crescent-shaped seal, and an external
housing. As power is applied to either gear, the motion of the gears draws fluid from the reservoir and 8
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forces it around both sides of the crescent seal, which acts as a seal between the suction and discharge
ports.

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When the teeth mesh on the side

opposite to the crescent seal, the fluid is forced to enter the discharge port of the pump The above Figure
provides a cutaway view of an internal gear pump

LOBE PUMP
Also in the general family of gear pumps is the lobe pump, which is illustrated in below Figure. This
pump operates in a fashion similar to the external gear pump.

But unlike the external gear pump, both lobes are driven externally so that they do not actually contact
each other. Thus, they are quieter than other types of gear pumps. Due to the smaller number of mating
elements, the lobe pump output will have a somewhat greater amount of pulsation, although its
volumetric displacement is generally greater than that for other types of gear pumps.

SCREW PUMP

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The screw pump (see Figure 5-15 for construction and nomenclature) is an axial flow positive
displacement unit. Three precision ground screws, meshing within a closefitting housing, deliver
nonpulsating flow quietly and efficiently. The two symmetrically opposed idler rotors act as rotating
seals, confining the fluid in a succession of closures or stages. The idler rotors are in rolling contact with
the central power rotor and are free to float in their respective housing bores on a hydrodynamic oil film.
There are no radial bending loads. Axial hydraulic forces on the rotor set are balanced, eliminating any
need for thrust bearings.In Figure 5-16, we gpm. High-pressure designs are available for3500-psi
operation with output flow rates up to 88 gpm.

UN BALANCED VANE PUMPS

Basic Design and Operation

through Figure 5-17 illustrates the operation of a vane pump.The rotor, which contains radial slots, is
splined to the drive shaft and rotates inside a cam ring. Each slot contains a vane designed to mate
with the surface of the cam ring as the rotor turns. Centrifugal force keeps the vanes out against the
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surface of the cam ring. During one-half revolution of rotor rotation, the volume increases between
the rotor and cam ring. The resulting volume expansion causes a reduction of pressure. This is the
suction process, which causes fluid to flow through the inlet port and fill the void. As the rotor rotates
through the second half revolution, the surface of the cam ring pushes the vanes back into their slots,
Page | 11and the trapped volume is reduced. This positively ejects the trapped fluid the discharge port

BALENCED VANE PUMP

A balanced vane pump is one that has two intake and two outlet ports diametrically opposite each other.
Thus, pressure ports are opposite each other, and a

complete hydraulic balance is achieved. One disadvantage of a balanced vane pump is that it cannot be

designed as a variable displacement unit. Instead of having a circular cam ring, a balanced design vane

pump has an elliptical housing, which forms two separate pumping chambers on opposite sides of the

rotor. This eliminates the bearing side loads and thus permits higher operating pressures. The above

Figure shows the balanced vane pump principle of operation.

PISTON PUMPS

A piston pump works on the principle that a reciprocating piston can draw in fluid
when it retracts in a cylinder bore and discharge it when it extends. The basic question is how to
mechanize a series of reciprocating pistons. There are two basic types of piston pumps. One is the axial
design, having pistons that are parallel to the axis of the cylinder block. Axial piston pumps can be either
of the bent axis configuration or of the swash plate design. The second type of piston pump is the radial
design, which has pistons arranged radially in a cylinder block.
The following Figure shows an axial piston pump (bent-axis type) that contains a cylinder block
rotating with the drive shaft. However, the centerline of the cylinder block is set at an offset angle 11
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relative to the centerline of the drive shaft. The cylinder block contains a number of pistons arranged
along a circle. The piston rods are connected to the drive shaft flange by ball-and-socket joints. The
pistons are forced in and out of their bores as the distance between the drive shaft flange and cylinder
block changes
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. A universal link connects the block to the drive shaft to provide alignment and positive drive. The
volumetric displacement of the pump varies with the offset angle q, as shown in Figure 5-24. No flow is
produced when the cylinder block centerline is parallel to the drive shaft centerline. θ can vary from 0°
to a maximum of about 30°. Fixed displacement units are usually provided with 23° or 30° offset angles.
Variable displacement units are available with a yoke and some external control to change the offset
angle such as a stroking cylinder. Some designs have controls that move the yoke over the center
position to reverse the direction of flow through the pump.

PARAMETERS THAT PLAYS A ROLE IN PUMP SELECTIONS

With the following information, we are able to make a basic pump selection
LIQUID NAME
knowing the liquid that you are pumping is vital as it allows us to ensure that we offer a pump
constructed from compatible materials; thus avoiding potential corrosion and abrasion issues. What is
the chemical make up? Are there any solids present, if so what is the maximum particle size and
concentration?
Flowrate
This will determine the size of the pump required. A higher flow rate requires a larger pump.
Pressure
The pressure at the inlet and outlet of the pump will determine the type and often the size of pump
required. Knowing the pressure you are pumping against allows us to select the most suitable pump
technology. If you are unsure of your differential pressure; we can help to calculate it

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Viscosity
There are many units of measurement for viscosity however we tend to work in centipoise cP or
centistokes cSt. Viscosity is a measure of a liquid’s resistance to deformation caused by stress, or more
plainly; the ‘thickness’ of a liquid. Viscosity is typically higher for thicker liquids, for example; water
Page | 13has a viscosity of 1 cp at 20 degC whereas honey has a viscosity of approximately 10000 cp. Viscosity

affects the type and size of the pump required, with higher viscosities usually requiring positive
displacement units running at lower speeds rather than centrifugal pump solutions.
DENSITY
The density or specific gravity of the pumping liquid at the operating temperature will affect how much
power is required to achieve the required duty. This in turn will help us size a suitable drive or motor to
operate the pump without a problem.
Temperature
This can affect the materials of construction for the pump, and the type of pump offered. To provide a
more personalized selection, the following information is helpful to have;
Motor requirements
Electric or air? If electric, what voltage and frequency do you require ?
Control
Do you require any special controls for the pump? Will you be running at a fixed
speed or is a variable speed drive required?
Usage cycle
Will the pump be run continuously or intermittently?
Vapour pressure
do you know the vapour pressure of your process liquid? this is more relevant when pumping at elevated
temperatures.
Certification
Is any certification required with the pump? For example, are you operating in the food industry and
need to comply with FDA guidelines?
Budget
Roughly, what budget do you have available for the project? Often there is more than one solution for a
pumping application.
PUMP PERFORMANCE
The performance of a pump is primarily a function of the precision of its manufacture. Components
must be made to close tolerances, which must be maintained while the pump is operating under design
conditions. The maintenance of close tolerances is accomplished by designs that have mechanical
integrity and balanced pressures.
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Theoretically the ideal pump would be one having zero clearance between all mating parts.
Although this is not feasible, working clearances should be as small as possible while maintaining
proper oil films for lubrication between rubbing parts

Page | 14PUMP EFFICIENCIES

Pump manufacturers run tests to determine performance data for their various types of pumps. The
overall efficiency of a pump can be computed by comparing the hydraulic power output of the pump to
the mechanical input power supplied by the prime mover. Overall efficiency can be broken into two
distinct components called volumetric efficiency and mechanical efficiency.
1.VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY (%V). Volumetric efficiency indicates the amount of
leakage that takes place within the pump. This involves considerations such as manufacturing tolerances
and flexing of the pump casing under design pressure operating conditions:

actual flow-rate produced by pump QA

QT (5-7)
%v = -------------------- --------------------------------------
theoretical flow-rate pump should produce

Volumetric efficiencies typically run from 80% to 95% for gear pumps, vane pumps, and piston pumps.

2.MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY (%m). Mechanical efficiency indicates the amount of

energy losses that occur for reasons other than leakage. This includes friction in bearings and between
other mating parts. It also includes energy losses due to fluid turbulence. Mechanical efficiencies
typically run from 90% to 95%.pump output power assuming no leakage /actual power delivered to
pump

3.Overall efficiency (%o). The overall efficiency considers all energy losses and hence is
defined as follows:overall efficiency=actual power delivered by pump/actual power delivered to
pump

That the actual power delivered to a pump from a prime mover via a rotating shaft is called brake power
and the actual power delivered by a pump to the fluid is called hydraulic power.

UNIT -2

HYDRAULIC ACTUATORS AND VALVES

HYDRAULIC SINGLE ACTING CYLINDER OPERATING FEATURES
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Single acting hydraulic cylinders are the simplest form of hydraulic cylinder which is used for pulling,
lifting, moving and holding the load. Single acting hydraulic cylinder is displayed here in following
figure. Single acting cylinder, as shown in figure, will have one port i.e. cap end port. Single acting
cylinder, as name indicates, will be operated hydraulically in one direction only.
Page | 15Single acting hydraulic cylinder will have one piston within a cylindrical housing. When hydraulic oil

will be supplied to its cap end port, hydraulic pressure force will be applied over the piston or plunger
and hence piston will be extended and this stroke of cylinder will be termed as forward stroke.

For return stroke or during retraction of cylinder, piston or plunger will be returned due to its own
weight or by any mechanical media i.e. spring force. When piston will start its retraction i.e. return
stroke due to its self weight or spring force, oil will flow back to reservoir during retraction of cylinder.
Hence piston will be operated hydraulically only in one direction i.e. during extension or forward
direction. Retraction of cylinder will not be operated by hydraulic force but also it will be operated by
mechanical force such as spring force or piston may also returns due to its self weight on the basis of
design of cylinder.
Single acting cylinders are classified in two types on the basis of mechanism of retraction of cylinder.
1. Single acting cylinder- Gravity return
2. Single acting cylinder- Spring return

DOUBLE ACTING HYDRAULIC CYLINDER

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DOUBLE ACTING HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS

Double acting hydraulic cylinder is also one type of hydraulic cylinder which is used for pulling, lifting,
moving and holding the load. Double acting hydraulic cylinder is displayed here in following figure.
Double acting hydraulic cylinder, as shown in figure, will have two ports i.e. cap end port and rod end
port. Double acting hydraulic cylinder, as name indicates, will be operated hydraulically in both
direction i.e. forward direction and return direction.
Double acting hydraulic cylinder will have one piston within a cylindrical housing. When hydraulic
oil will be supplied to its cap end port, hydraulic pressure force will be applied over the piston or
plunger and hence piston will be extended and this stroke of cylinder will be termed as forward stroke.
During extension of the cylinder piston or plunger, hydraulic oil at rod end side will be pushed out and
will be directed towards reservoir.
For return stroke or retraction of cylinder, hydraulic fluid direction will be reversed with the help of
direction control valve. During return stroke, hydraulic oil will be supplied to its rod end port and
therefore hydraulic pressure force will be applied over the piston or plunger from rod end side and hence
piston will be retracted and this stroke of cylinder will be termed as return stroke. During retraction of
the cylinder piston or plunger, hydraulic oil at cap end side will be pushed out and will be directed
towards reservoir.
Hence double acting hydraulic cylinders will be operated hydraulically in both directions i.e. during
extension or forward direction and also during retraction or return stroke. Direction of hydraulic oil will
be changed with the help of double acting directional control valve or reversible pump could also be
used for changing the direction of flow of fluid.
SYMBOL OF DOUBLE ACTING HYDRAULIC CYLINDER
Image displayed here indicates the hydraulic symbol of double acting hydraulic cylinder.

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Hydraulic symbol of double acting hydraulic cylinder

HYDRAULIC CYLINDER CUSHIONING

What is hydraulic cylinder cushioning

Cylinder cushioning slows the speed of a cylinder piston before it reaches the end of the stokes. To
avoid the piston striking the cylinder walls it helps to preventing Mechanical shock. Additional benefits
include: Reduced noise and vibration

Double-acting cylinders sometimes contain cylinder cushions at the ends of the cylinder to slow the
piston down near the ends of the stroke. This prevents excessive impact when the piston is stopped by
the end caps, as illustrated in Figure 6-16. As shown, deceleration starts when the tapered plunger enters
the opening in the cap.
Hydraulic cylinder cushioning slows the speed of a cylinder piston before it reaches the end caps.
Decelerating the cylinder rod near end-of-stroke stops the piston from striking the hydraulic cylinder
ends, preventing mechanical shock. Additional benefits include:

 Reduced noise and vibration

 Improved performance when moving heavy loads at high speeds
 Less cylinder maintenance and an extended operating life

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Double-acting cylinders sometimes contain cylinder cushions at the ends of the cylinder to slow the
piston down near the ends of the stroke. This prevents excessive impact when the piston is stopped by
the end caps, as illustrated in Figure 6-16. As shown, deceleration starts when the tapered plunger enters
the opening in the cap. This restricts the exhaust flow from the barrel to the port. During the last small
portion of the stroke, the oil must exhaust through an adjustable opening. The cushion design also
incorporates a check valve to allow free flow to the piston during direction reversal.

TELESCOPING CYLINDER:

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They are used where long work strokes are needed. A telescoping cylinder
provides a relatively long working stroke for an overall reduced length by

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They are used where long work strokes are needed. A telescoping cylinder provides a relatively long
working stroke for an overall reduced length by employing several pistons which telescope into each
other. Since the diameter A of the ram is relatively large, this ram produces a large force for the
beginning of the lift of the load. When ram A reaches the end of the stroke, ram B begins to move. Now
ram B provides the required smaller force to continue raising the load. When ram B reaches the end of
its stroke, then ram C moves outwards to complete the lifting operation. These three rams can be
retracted by gravity acting on the load or by pressurized fluid acting on the lip of each ram.

FUNCTIONS OF VALVES IN FLUID POWER SYSTEM

DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES
. Directional control valves determine the path through which a fluid traverses a
given circuit. This control of the fluid path is accomplished primarily by non return valve,
shuttle valves and two-way, three-way, and four-way directional control valves
PRESSURE CONTROL VALVES
Pressure control valves protect the system against overpressure, which may occur due
to excessive actuator loads or due to the closing of a valve. In general pressure control is accomplished
by pressure relief, pressure reducing, sequence, unloading, and counterbalance valves.
In addition, fluid flow rate must be controlled in various lines of a hydraulic circuit. For example, the
control of actuator speeds depends on flow rates. This type of control is accomplished through the use of
flow control valves

3/2 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES 19

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Three-way directional control valves, which contain three ports, are typically of the spool design rather
than poppet design. A spool is a circular shaft containing lands that are large diameter sections machined
to slide in a very close fitting bore of the valve body.
Page | 20

The radial clearance between the land and bore is usually less than 0.001 in.The grooves between the
lands provide the flow paths between ports. These valves are designed to operate with two or three
unique positions of the spool. The spool can be positioned manually, mechanically, by using pilot
pressure, or by using electrical solenoids. Figure 8-6 shows the flow paths through a three-way valve
that uses two positions of the spool. Such a valve is called a three-way, two-position directional control
valve. The flow paths are shown by two schematic drawings (one for each spool position) as well as by a
graphic symbol (containing two side-by-side rectangles). In discussing the operation of these valves, the
rectangles are commonly called “envelopes.”The following is a description of the flow paths through the
three-way valve of Figure 8-6:
Spool Position 1: Flow can go from pump port P (the port connected to the pump discharge pipe) to
outlet port A as shown by the straight line and arrow in the left envelope. In this spool position, tank port
T (the port connected to the pipe leading to the oil tank) is blocked.
Spool Position 2: Flow can go from port A to port T. Port P is blocked by the spool. Note that the three
ports are labeled for only one of the two envelopes
of the graphic symbol. Thus the reader must mentally identify the ports on the second envelope. Three-
way valves are typically used to control the flow directions to and from single-acting cylinders, as
illustrated in Figure 8-7. As shown, the cylinder extends under hydraulic pressure (left envelope) and
retracts under spring force as oil flows to the oil tank (right envelope). Observe that fluid entering the
pump port of a three way valve can be directed to only a single outlet port (in this case port A).

4/3 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES

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Figure shows the flow paths through a four-way, two-position directional control valve. Observe that
fluid entering the valve at the pump port can be directed to either outlet port A or B. The following is a
description of the flow paths through this four-way valve:
Spool Position 1: Flow can go from P to A and B to T.
Page | 21Spool Position 2: Flow can go from P to B and A to T.

Figure 8-10 shows a cutaway of a four-way valve. Note that it is manually actuated (see hand lever). Since the spool is
spring-loaded at both ends, it is a spring-centered,

Spool Position 1: Flow can go from P to A and B to T.

Spool Position 2: Flow can go from P to B and A to T.
Spool Position 3: No Flow can go from pump to cylinder as well as cylinder
to tank

the above diagram explains the working principle of 4 port Three-position directional
control valve. Thus, when the valve is un actuated (no hand force on lever), the valve will
assume its center position due to the balancing opposing spring forces. Figure 8-10 also
provides the graphic symbol of this four-way valve.
Note in the graphic symbol that the ports are labeled on the center envelope, which
represents the flow path configuration in the spring-centered position of the spool.Also
observe the spring and lever actuation symbols used at the ends of the right and left
envelopes. These imply a spring-centered, manually actuated valve. It should be noted
that a three-position valve is used when it is necessary to stop or hold a hydraulic actuator
at some intermediate position within its entire stroke range
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FLOW CONTROL VALVE
Flow control valves are used to regulate the flow rate and pressure of liquids or gases
through a pipeline. Flow control valves are essential for maximizing system performance,
relying on a flow passage or port with a variable flow area..
Page | 22

Function of flow control valves

The purpose of a flow control valve is to regulate the flow rate in a specific portion of a hydraulic
circuit. In hydraulic systems, they’re used to control the flow rate to motors and cylinders, thereby
regulating the speed of those components.
Hydraulic flow control valves also control the rate of energy transfer at a given pressure. This is
based on the physics concept surrounding work, energy, and power:

Actuator force x distance traveled = work done on load

The energy transfer must be equal to the total work done. Because the actuator speed determines the rate
of energy transfer, speed is a function of the flow rate. Directional control valves serve a different
purpose, directing the energy transfer system to the appropriate location at the appropriate time,
although some pressure and flow rate control may be achieved using directional control valves, as they
can throttle the flow of fluid.

PRESSURE RELIEF VALVES

All relief valves have a pressure port that is connected to the pump line and a tank port that is connected
to the tank. The Figure shows the direct acting press relief valve, a ball or poppet is subjected to pump
pressure on one side and the force of a spring on the other. When the pressure in the system creates a
force on the ball that is less than the spring force, it remains on its seat and the pump flow will go to the
systems as shown in Fig. A. When the pressure is high enough to create a force greater than the spring
force, the ball will move off its seat and allow pump flow to go back to the tank through the relief as
shown in Fig. B. The pressure at which the relief valve opens can be adjusted by changing the amount of
spring compression, which changes the amount of force applied to the ball on the spring side. This is
accomplished with an adjustment screw or knob. This type of relief valve is called direct acting because
the ball is directly exposed to pump pressure.

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Page | 23

Pressure Relief Valve

The graphic symbol for an adjustable pressure relief valve, along with a pump is shown in Fig. C. The
symbol shows that the valve is normally closed on one side of the valve; pressure is fed in to try to open
the valve, while on the other side the spring is trying to keep it closed. The arrow through the spring
signifies that it is adjustable, allowing adjustment of the pressure level at which the relief valve
opens.pressure (force) is required for a part of the cylinder’s stroke, while low flow and high pressure
are required for the rest for example a metal stamping machine. In this machine it may be desirable for
the cylinder to move into position very quickly, and then slow down when it reaches the work piece. The
first part of the cycle requires only minimal pressure because the only resistance is the flow resistance of
the components and the friction of the cylinder. The second part of the cycle requires high pressure
because the cylinder is deforming the metal. This circuit supplies the cylinder with from both the high
flow pump and the low flow pump when the pressure is below 500 bar. When the pressure reaches 500
bar, the unloading valve opens and unloads the high flow pump back to tank at low pressure. Only the
low flow pump supplies the cylinder with flow at pressure from 500 bar to 1500 bar. If the pressure
reaches 1500 bar, flow from the low flow pump is forced over the relief valve at this pressure. Check
valve 1 isolates the high flow pump from the system pressure while it is being unloaded. Check valve 2
prevents the flow the high flow pump from flowing into the low flow pump line. This would reverse
the low flow pump, which would cause damage to the power unit.

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UNLOADING VALVES.
Unloading Valve

Page | 24

the unloading valve is connected to the line which is to be unloaded. The pilot port is connected to the line
which is supposed to send the pressure impulse for unloading the valve. As soon as the system pressure
reaches the setting pressure which is available at the pilot port, it lifts the spool against the spring force.
The valve is held open by pilot pressure and the delivery from the pump starts going into the reservoir.
When the pilot pressure is released, the spool is moved down by the spring and the flow is directed through
the valve into the circuit. The unloading valve is useful to control the amount of flow at any given time in
systems having more than one fixed delivery pump.
The symbol for each is shown in 'Figure A' for comparison. Both send flow back to the tank when a preset
pressure is reached. However, an unloading valve reads the pressure in an external line, rather than in its
own line, as indicated by the dashed pilot lines. 'Figure B' shows the application for an unloading valve. This
circuit can be used in an application in which high flow (speed) and low

pressure (force) is required for a part of the cylinder’s stroke, while low flow and high pressure are
required for the rest for example a metal stamping machine. In this machine it may be desirable for the
cylinder to move into position very quickly, and then slow down when it reaches the work piece. The first
part of the cycle requires only minimal pressure because the only resistance is the flow resistance of the
components and the friction of the cylinder. The second part of the cycle requires high pressure because
the cylinder is deforming the metal. This circuit supplies the cylinder with from both the high flow pump
and the low flow pump when the pressure is below 500 bar. When the pressure reaches 500 bar, the
unloading valve opens and unloads the high flow pump back to tank at low pressure. Only the low flow
pump supplies the cylinder with flow at pressure from 500 bar to 1500 bar. If the pressure reaches 1500
bar, flow from the low flow pump is forced over the relief valve at this pressure. Check valve 1 isolates the
high flow pump from the system pressure while it is being unloaded. Check valve 2 prevents the flow the
high flow pump from flowing into the low flow pump line. This would reverse the low flow pump, which
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would cause damage to the power unit.
PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE

This type of valve is used to maintain reduced pressure in specified locations of hydraulic systems. It is
normally an open valve. It is actuated by down stream pressure and tends to close as this pressure reaches
Page | 25the valve setting. The figure shows the construction of the valve. This valve is one which uses a spring
loaded spool to control the down stream pressure. If down stream pressure is below the valve pressure,
fluid will flow freely from the inlet to the out let. When the outlet pressure increases the valve setting, the
spool moves to partially block the outlet port. If the valve is closed completely by the spool, it could cause
the down stream pressure to build above the valve setting. To avoid this, a drain

line is provided to drain the fluid to the tank.

Pressure Reducing Valve

The below Figure compares the symbol for a relief valve and a reducing valve. The reducing valve is
normally open, while relief valve is normally closed.

The reducing valve reads the pressure down stream while the relief valve reads the pressure upstream.
The reducing valve has an external drain line, while a relief valve does not. When a valve has an external
drain, a line must be connected from the valves drain port to the tank. Drain lines, like pilot lines are shown
as dashed lines.

FLOW CONTROL VALVES

Flow control valves control the flow rate of fluid in a circuit. They accomplish this by incorporating a
variable orifice into the circuit that acts like a faucet; closing the flow control valve orifice reduces the flow
rate and opening the orifice increases the flow rate. The speed of an actuator depends directly upon the
flow rate in the system. Controlling the flow rate therefore allows us to control the speed of actuators. A
variable displacement pump’s flow output can be varied, even while it is being driven at a constant speed.
This will also control the actuator’s speed. In spite of this, flow control valves are commonly used because
they are much less expensive and easier to control than variable pumps.
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Types

1. Needle flow control valve

Page | 262. Pressure compensated flow control valve

3.4.1 NEEDLE VALVE
The simplest type of flow control valve is needle valve as shown in Figure.

Needle Valve
This valve is basically just an adjustable orifice than can be closed to reduce the flow rate in a circuit. The
orifice size is adjustment by turning the adjustment knob, which raises or lowers the valve stem and needle.
The first figure shows the valve fully open, allowing nearly unrestricted flow. The valve is partially closed
and is restricting the flow in the next figure. In the last figure, the valve is completely closed and is
therefore allowing no flow. The symbol for a needle valve is shown in D. Needle valves are often used as
manual shut-off in applications that require good metering characteristics. In most fluid applications, a
needle valve with an integral check valve is used to control the flow rate as shown in below Figure. Part A
shows the flow going through the valve from A to B. In this direction, it cannot go through the check and
must therefore go through the restriction. In part B, the flow is coming from the opposite direction B to A
and can pass through the check valve. The flow is virtually unrestricted in this direction. This flow control
valve therefore only controls the flow rate from A to B. From B to A, the flow is uncontrolled because the
restriction is by passed through the check.

Pressure Relief Valve

Pressure relief valves are the quite common valves used in hydraulic industries for performing two
important functions as mentioned here.
1. Protection against overload for various circuit components
2. Limiting the force or torque applied by actuators.
Pressure relief valve: Simple type

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Pressure relief valve will have two sections i.e. Body section and pilot valve section. Body section of
relief valve will have a piston which will be retained to its position or seat due to the action of spring
force. Pilot valve section will control the piston movement with the help of hydraulic force.

We can see one simple type of pressure relief valve in following figure. One port of pressure relief valve
Page | 27will be connected with pump delivery line or pressure line and other port will be connected with
hydraulic reservoir.

Poppet will be positioned to its seat due to the spring force, one adjusting screw is provided to change
the setting pressure of relief valve.

If pressure at the inlet of relief valve is not enough to overcome the spring force, in that situation poppet
will be remain seated over its seat and will not allow the flow of fluid through it and therefore relief
valve will be closed and will not allow flow through it.

When pressure at the inlet of relief valve increases and overcomes the spring force which was adjusted
with the help of pressure adjusting screw displayed at the top of relief valve, in that situation poppet will
leave the seat and will permit the flow of fluid through relief valve.
Hence, if pressure at inlet of relief valve overcomes the setting pressure of relief valve then fluid will
flow to hydraulic reservoir through relief valve and therefore further increment in pressure in pressure
line will be avoided.

When pressure at inlet of relief valve falls below the setting pressure, poppet will again positioned to its
seat due to the action of spring force and relief valve will be closed and will not allow the flow through
it.

PRESSURE CONTROL/PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE

A pressure control valve or pressure reducing valve is a special type of safety valve system used to
control or limit the pressure in a system. It can be manually or automatically controlled from a
pressurized vessel or piping system. The pressurized fluid is discharged to a reservoir or atmosphere to
relieve pressure in excess of the maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP). The primary purpose
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of a pressure relief valve is to protect pressure vessels or system from catastrophic failure. Catastrophic
failure could be disastrous during an overpressure event, could either be liquid or gaseous.

Page | 28

This device is widely used in petrochemical, petroleum refining, chemical manufacturing industries.
Industries where natural gas processing occurs and power generation, as well as water supply industries,
also make good use of pressure relief valve. Though it’s generally known as relief valve depending on
its field of application it can be called pressure relief valve (PRV), pressure safety valve (PSV), or safety
valve. You should note the design and operation of these valves are slightly different.

Working Principle
The working of a pressure control valve or pressure reducing valve consists of ball, poppet or spool
opposed by a spring which is placed into a cavity or ported body. A hydraulic system is often used to
limit fluid pressure in the part of the circuit they are installed.
The poppet is in the form of a disc or cone shape object that is mounted within an opposite machine seat.
If the part is forced closed by spring pressure, In the working of a relief valve, excessive pressurized
fluid is provided from an open path to a tank with the purpose of reducing work port pressure. As soon
as the fluid pressure begins to rise, the force is applied to the bottom of the spool or poppet. This allows
the valve to open modestly at first, bleeding little fluid as required to maintain the downstream pressure.
But if the downstream pressure continues to rise, the force acting upon the poppet or spool will be
pushing it further towards the spring until the point spring force is balanced by the hydraulic force .

8.5 SERVO VALVES

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MECHANICAL-TYPE SERVO VALVES
A servo valve is a directional control valve that has infinitely variable positioning capability. Thus, it
can control not only the direction of fluid flow but also the amount. Servo valves are coupled with
Page | 29feedback-sensing devices, which allow for the very accurate control of position, velocity, and
acceleration of an actuator.Figure shows the mechanical-type servo valve, which is essentially a force
amplifier used for positioning control. In this design, a small input force shifts the spool of the servo
valve to the right by a specified amount. The oil then flows through port p1, retracting the hydraulic
cylinder to the right .

The action of the feedback link shifts the sliding sleeve to the right until it blocks off the flow to the
hydraulic cylinder. Thus, a given input motion produces a specific and controlled amount of output
motion. Such a system, where the output is fed back to modify the input is called a closed-loop system.
One of the most common applications of this type of mechanical-hydraulic servo valve is the hydraulic
power steering system of automobiles transportation vehicles.

What is a proportional control valve and what is the function of a

proportional valve
A proportional valve is a valve that is capable to change the output, in response to the variation of
electrical input. These valves are also called electrohydraulic valves and they have some similarities
with the hydraulic servo valves like both of them are electrically controlled. In this valve, the spool of
the valve is driven with the help of a solenoid. The major difference between a servo valve and a
proportional valve is servo valves are used in closed-loop systems, whereas proportional valves are used
in open and closed-loop systems.

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Page | 30

Proportional valves can be used as a direction control or pressure control valve but mostly these valves
are used as direction control valves. The actuation is done with the help of an electric signal. The flow
direction and flow rate of the valve are influenced by the control signal.These valves have a closed-loop
control system, so the valves are controlled by the help of electrical inputs from the sensor. Because of
this feature, the proportional solenoid valves are used for many applications. These valves also have
certain safety features like, in case of power failure or if the electrical input is interrupted then the valve
will close immediately. Proportional solenoid valves have a long life and it only needs less maintenance.
The solenoid operator has only one moving part

The proportional flow control valve can be considered as the combination of the hydraulic valve
actuation with advanced electronic control. The hydraulic circuitry is reduced by using a proportional
valve, when a proportional valve is used it will reduce the number of components in a system. The
accuracy and efficiency of the system will increase by using a proportional valve. A proportional
directional control valve would vary the fluid flow according to the input electrical signal. These valves
produce output proportionally to the electronically controlled input. The output will be in three forms
they are direction, pressure, and flow. The coils in the valves mostly operate in DC and it could be by
varying voltages. This would create a varying force and this force is used to shift the spool. These valves
have high efficiency and accuracy and remote activation is another advantage of this valve. These valves
are capable to control cylinders or other hydraulic motors.

The operation of the valve takes place by a signal that is received from an outside device the device
could be a PLC, computer, or potentiometer. The control device will give the electrical signals to the
valve driver card and it would send a current signal to the valve solenoid. The spool will be shifted
because of the force that acts on it and a flow path is created between the pump and the actuator port.
According to the input in-put signal, the spool shifting takes place. A transducer is used to check the
spool movement.

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UNIT-III
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
Page | 31UNIT III HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS 9
Accumulators, Intensifiers, Industrial hydraulic circuits- Regenerative, Pump Unloading,
Double-pump,Pressure Intensifier, Air-over oil, Sequence, Reciprocation, Synchronization,
Fail-safe, Speed control, Hydrostatic transmission, Electro hydraulic circuits, Mechanical
Hydraulic servo systems
ACCUMULATORS
Accumulators are devices that store hydraulic fluid under pressure. Storing hydraulic fluid under
pressure is a way of storing energy for later use. Perhaps the most common application for an
accumulator is supplementing the pump flow in a hydraulic system in which a high flow rate is required
for a brief period of time.
Types;

1. Weight loaded accumulator

2. Spring loaded accumulator

3. Gas loaded accumulator

WEIGHT LOADED ACCUMULATOR

It is basically a vertically mounted cylinder with a large weight as show in Figure. The weight-loaded
accumulator is historically the oldest. This type consists of a vertical, heavy-wall steel cylinder, which
incorporates a piston with packing’s to prevent leakage. A deadweight is attached to the top of the piston
(see Figure 11-3). The force of gravity of the deadweight provides the potential energy in the accu-
mulator. This type of accumulator creates a constant fluid pressure throughout the full volume output of
the unit regardless of the rate and quantity of output.

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Page | 32

In the other types of accumulators, the fluid output pressure decreases as a function of the volume output
of the accumulator. The main disadvantage of this type of accumulator is its extremely large size and
heavy weight, which makes it unsuitable for mobile equipmentWhen hydraulic fluid is pumped into this
accumulator, the weight is raised. The weight then applies a force to the piston, which generates a
pressure on the fluid side of the piston. The advantage of this type of accumulator over all of the other, it
applies a constant pressure on the fluid throughout its entire range of motion. The disadvantage is that a
very large weight must be used to generate enough pressure. Because of that this type is seldom used.

SPRING LOADED ACCUMULATOR

A spring-loaded accumulator is similar to the weight-loaded type except that the piston is preloaded with
a spring, as illustrated in Figure 11-4. The compressed spring

is the source of energy that acts against the piston, forcing the fluid into the hydraulic system to drive an
actuator. The pressure generated by this type of accumulator depends on the size and preloading of the
spring. In addition, the pressure exerted on the fluid is not a constant. The spring-loaded accumulator 32
 Page 33 of 63
typically delivers a relatively small volume of oil at low pressures. Thus, they tend to be heavy and large
for high-pressure, large-volume systems. This type of accumulator should not be used for applications
requiring high cycle rates because the spring will fatigue, resulting in an inoperative accumulator.

GAS LODED ACCUMULATOR

Page | 33
Gas loaded accumulators are also called hydro-pneumatic accumulators. When there is a
separator placed between hydraulic fluid and gas, it is called separator type and when there is a barrier
placed between hydraulic fluid and gas, it is called gas loaded accumulator with separator .


 Initially the accumulator is pre charged to the required pressure with the compressed gas
in the bladder.
 When oil under pressure enters in the accumulator through inlet, it starts pushing the
bladder with the oil pressure.
 As the gas inside the bladder is compressible, the oil push the bladder in the upward
direction and compress the bladder when oil pressure is more than force of the bladder.
 The accumulator is completely charged when bladder is compressed sufficiently. Gas
expands during unloading the accumulator to the required application device.

1. PRESSURE INTENSIFIER CIRCUIT

.
 pump is the primary power source for a hydraulic system, auxiliary units are frequently
employed for special purposes. One such auxiliary unit is the pressure intensifier or booster

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Page | 34

 A pressure intensifier is used to increase the pressure in a hydraulic system to a value

above the pump discharge pressure. It accepts a high-volume flow at relatively low pump pressure and
converts a portion of this flow to high pressure.
 Figure 11-17 shows a cutaway view of a Racine pressure intensifier. The internal
construction consists of an automatically reciprocating large piston that has two small rod ends (also see
Figure 11-18). This piston has its large area (total area of piston) exposed to pressure from a low-
pressure pump. The force of the low-pressure oil moves the piston and causes the small area of the
piston rod to force the oil out at intensified high pressure. This device is symmetrical about a vertical
centerline. Thus, as the large piston reciprocates, the left- and right-hand halves of the unit duplicate
each other during each stroke of the large piston. The increase in pressure is in direct proportion to the
ratio of the large piston area and the rod area. The volume output is inversely proportional to this same
ratio

2. REGENERATIVE CYLINDER CIRCUIT

Figure 9-4(a) shows a regenerative circuit that is used to speed up the extending speed of a
double-acting hydraulic cylinder. Note that the pipelines to both ends of the hydraulic cylinder are
connected in parallel and that one of the ports of the four-way valve is blocked. A common method used
to block a valve port is to simply screw a threaded plug into the port opening.

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Page | 35

Figure 9-4B Regenerative cylinder circuit.

The operation of the cylinder during the retraction stroke is the same as that of a regular double-acting
cylinder. Fluid flows through the DCV via the right envelope during retraction. In this mode, fluid from
the pump bypasses the DCV and enters the rod end of the cylinder. Fluid in the blank end drains back to
the tank through the DCV as the cylinder retracts.
When the DCV is shifted into its left envelope configuration, the cylinder extends as shown in Figure 9-
4(b). The speed of extension is greater than that for a regular double-acting cylinder because flow from
the rod end (QR) regenerates with the pump flow (QP) to provide a total flow rate (QT), which is greater
than the pump flow rate to the blank end of the cylinder.

CYLINDER EXTENDING SPEED : the extending speed can be obtained as The total flow rate (QT)

entering the blank end of the cylinder equals the pump flow rate (QP) plus the regenerative flow rate
(QR) coming from the rod end of the cylinder

3. HYDRAULIC CYLINDER SEQUENCING CIRCUITS

As stated earlier, a sequence valve causes operations in a hydraulic circuit to behave sequentially. Figure
is an example where two sequence valves are used to control the sequence of operations of two double-
acting cylinders.

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Page | 36

When the DCV is shifted into its left envelope mode, the left cylinder extends completely, and then the
right cylinder extends. If the DCV is then shifted into its right envelope mode, the right cylinder retracts
fully, and then the left cylinder retracts. This sequence of cylinder operation is controlled by the
sequence valves. The spring-centered position of the DCV locks both cylinders in place.
One application of this circuit is a production operation. For example, the left cylinder could extend and
clamp a work piece via a power vise jaw. Then the right cylinder extends to drive a spindle to drill a
hole in the work piece. The right cylinder then retracts the drill spindle, and then the left cylinder retracts
to release the work piece for removal. Obviously these machining operations must occur in the proper
sequence as established by the sequence valves in the circuit.

4. CYLINDER RECIPROCATING SYSTEM

Figure 9-10 is a circuit that produces continuous reciprocation of a hydraulic cylinder.

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Page | 37

This is accomplished by using two sequence valves, each of which senses a stroke completion by the
corresponding buildup of pressure. Each check valve and corresponding pilot line prevents shifting of
the four-way valve until the particular stroke of the cylinder has been completed. The check valves are
needed to allow pilot oil to leave either end of the DCV while pilot pressure is applied to the opposite
end. This permits the spool of the DCV to shift as required.
WHERE IS THE CONTINUOUS RECIPROCATION CIRCUIT USED?
Many automated processes involving machining operations require that a cylinder be extended and
retracted indefinitely after the process is started. This is called "continuous reciprocation", and a simple
electrical control circuit can be used to control this action.

5. CYLINDER SYNCHRONIZING CIRCUITS

The circuit of Figure shows that the two cylinders in series is a simple way to synchronize the two
cylinders. For example, during the extending stroke of the cylinders, fluid from the pump is delivered to
the blank end of cylinder 1 via the flow path shown in the upper envelope of the DCV. As cylinder 1
extends, fluid from its rod end is delivered to the blank end of cylinder 2. Note that both ends of
cylinders and the entire pipeline between the cylinders is filled with fluid. Fluid returns to the oil tank
from the rod end of cylinder 2, as it extends, via the DCV.

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Page | 38

For the two cylinders to be synchronized, the piston area of cylinder 2 must equal the difference between
the areas of the piston and rod for cylinder 1. This can be shown by applying the continuity equation
which states that the rate at which fluid leaves the rod end of cylinder 1 must equal the rate at which
fluid enters cylinder 2. Thus, we have for a hydraulic fluid

6,7. METER-IN / METER-OUT FLOW CONTROL SYSTEMS

Figure 9-17 shows a circuit where speed control of a hydraulic cylinder is accomplished during the
extension stroke using a flow control valve. The operation is as follows:
When the directional control valve is actuated, oil flows through the flow control valve to extend the
cylinder. The extending speed of the cylinder depends on the setting (percent of full opening position) of
the flow control valve (FCV).
When the directional control valve is de actuated into its spring-offset mode, the cylinder retracts as oil
flows from the cylinder to the oil tank through the check valve as well as the flow control valve

METER-IN / METER-OUT FLOW CONTROL VALVE SYSTEMS

The circuit of Figure 9-17 depicts a meter-in flow control system, in which the flow control valve is
placed in the line leading to the inlet port of the cylinder. Hence a meter-in flow control system controls
the oil flow rate into the cylinder. Conversely, a meter-out flow control system is one in which the flow
control valve is placed in the outlet line of the hydraulic cylinder. As shown in Figure 9-18, a meter-out
flow control system controls the oil flow rate out of the cylinder.
Meter-in systems are used primarily when the external load opposes the direction of motion of the
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hydraulic cylinder. An example of the opposite situation is the case of a weight pulling downward on the
piston rod of a vertical cylinder. In this case the weight would suddenly drop by pulling the piston rod
down if a meterin system is used even if the flow control valve is completely closed. Thus, the meter-out
system is generally preferred over the meter-in type. One drawback of a meter-out system is the
Page | 39possibility of excessive pressure buildup in the rod end of the cylinder while it is extending. This is due

to the magnitude of back pressure that the flow control valve can create depending on its nearness to
being fully closed as well as the size of the external load and the piston-to-rod area ratio of the cylinder.
In addition an excessive pressure buildup in the rod end of the cylinder results in a large pressure drop
across the flow control valve. This produces the undesirable effect of a high heat generation rate with a
resulting increase in oil temperature.

METER-IN SYSTEMS

Figure 9-17. Meter-in speed control of hydraulic cylinder during extending stroke using
flow control valve. (DCV is in manually actuated position.)

Figure 9-18. Meter-out speed control of hydraulic cylinder during extending

stroke using flow control valve. (DCV is in manually actuated position.)
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8. PUMP-UNLOADING CIRCUIT
In Figure 9-6 we see a circuit using an unloading valve to unload a pump. The unloading valve opens

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when the cylinder reaches the end of its extension stroke because the check valve keeps high-pressure
oil in the pilot line of the unloading valve. When the DCV is shifted to retract the cylinder, the motion
of the piston reduces the pressure in the pilot line of the unloading valve. This resets the unloading
valve until the cylinder is fully retracted, at which point the unloading valve unloads the pump. Thus,
the unloading valve unloads the pump at the ends of the extending and retraction strokes as well as in
the spring-centered position of the DCV

9. DOUBLE-PUMP HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Figure 9-7 shows a circuit that uses a high-pressure, low-flow pump in conjunction with a low-pressure,
high-flow pump. A typical application is a sheet metal punch press in which the hydraulic ram (cylinder)
must extend rapidly over a great distance with very low pressure but high flow-rate requirements. This
rapid extension of the cylinder occurs under no external load as the punching tool (connected to the end
of the cylinder piston rod) approaches the sheet metal strip to be punched.However, during the short
motion portion when the punching operation occurs, the pressure requirements are high due to the
punching load. During the punching operation, the cylinder travel is small and thus the flow-rate 40
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requirements are low.

The circuit shown eliminates the necessity of having a very expensive high- pressure, high-flow pump.
When the punching operation begins, the increased pressure opens the unloading valve to unload the
Page | 41low-pressure pump. The purpose of the relief valve is to protect the high-pressure pump from
overpressure at the end of the cylinder stroke and when the DCV is in its spring-centered mode. The
check valve protects the low-pressure pump from high pressure, which occurs during the punching
operation, at the ends of the cylinder stroke, and when the DCV is in its spring-centered mode.

10. AIR-OVER-OIL CIRCUIT

Sometimes circuits using both air and oil are used to obtain the advantages of each medium. Figure 9-25
shows a air-over-oil circuit. Compressed air flows through a filter, regulator, lubricator unit (FRL) and
into a surge tank via a directional control valve (upper flow path configuration). Thus, the surge tank is
pressurized by compressed air. This pushes oil out the bottom of the surge tank and to the hydraulic
cylinder through a check valve and orifice hooked in parallel. This extends the cylinder to lift a load.
When the directional control valve is shifted into its lower flow path mode, the cylinder retracts at a con-
trolled rate.

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This happens because the variable orifice provides a controlled return flow of oil as air leaves the surge
tank and exhausts into the atmosphere via the directional control valve. The load can be stopped at any
intermediate position by the spring-centered position of the directional control valve. This system
eliminates the need for a costly hydraulic pump and tank unit

UNIT IV
UNIT IV PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
Properties of air– Perfect Gas Laws - Compressors- Filter, Regulator, Lubricator,
Muffler, Air control Valves, Quick Exhaust valves, Pneumatic actuators, Design of
pneumatic circuit cascade method- Electro pneumatic circuits, Introduction to
Fluidics, Pneumatic logic circuits.
COMPRESSORS
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A compressor is a machine that compresses air or another type of gas from a low inlet pressure
(atmospheric) to a higher desired pressure level. This is accomplished by reducing the volume of
the gas. Air compressors are generally positive displacement units
In pneumatic systems, compressors are used to compress and supply the necessary quantities
Page | 43of air. Compressors are typically of the piston, vane, or screw type. Basically, a compressor increases

the pressure of a gas by reducing its volume. Pneumatic systems normally use a large centralized air
compressor, which is considered to be an infinite air source similar to an electrical system. In this way,
pressurized air can be piped from one source to various locations throughout an entire industrial plant.
The compressed air is piped to each circuit through an air filter to remove contaminants, which might
harm the closely fitting parts of pneumatic components such as valves and cylinders. The air then flows
through a pressure regulator, which reduces the pressure to the desired level for the particular circuit
application. Because air is not a good lubricant, pneumatic systems require a lubricator to inject a very
fine mist of oil into the air discharging from the pressure regulator. This prevents wear of the closely
fitting moving parts of pneumatic components.
Free air from the atmosphere contains varying amounts of moisture. This moisture can be harmful in
that it can wash away lubricants and thus cause excessive wear and corrosion. Hence, in some
applications, air dryers are needed to remove this undesirable moisture. Since pneumatic systems
exhaust directly into the atmosphere, they are capable of generating excessive noise. Therefore, mufflers
are mounted on exhaust ports of air valves and actuators to reduce noise and prevent operating personnel
from possible injury, resulting not only from exposure to noise but also from high-speed airborne
particles
COMPRESSOR TYPES:
1. Piston Compressors
2. Screw Compressors
3. Vane Compressors
PROPERTIES OF AIR
Air is actually a mixture of gases containing about 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen, and 1% other gases such
as argon and carbon dioxide. The preceding percentage values are based on volume. Air also contains up
to 4% water vapor depending on the humidity. The percent of water vapor in atmospheric air can vary
constantly from hour to hour even at the same location.
Air is not only readily compressible, but its volume will vary to fill the vessel containing it because the
air molecules have substantial internal energy and are at a considerable distance from each other. This
accounts for the sensitivity of density changes with respect to changes in pressure and temperature.
Free air is considered to be air at actual atmospheric conditions. Since atmospheric pressure and
temperature vary from day to day, the characteristics of free air
THE PERFECT GAS LAWS 43
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During the sixteenth century, scientists discovered the laws that determine the interactions of pressure,
volume, and temperature of a gas or air These laws are called the “perfect gas laws” because they were
derived on the basis of a perfect gas. Even though perfect gases do not exist, air behaves very closely to
that predicted by Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, Gay-Lussac’s law,
Page | 44BOYLE’S LAW
Boyle’s law states that if the temperature of a given amount of gas is held constant, the volume of the
gas will change inversely with the absolute pressure of the gas:
V1 = P2/
V2 P1
Boyle’s law is demonstrated by the cylinder piston system of Figure 13-5. As shown, the air in the
cylinder is compressed at constant temperature from volume V1 to V2 by increasing the force applied to
the piston from F1 to F2. Since the volume decreases, the pressure increases, as depicted by the pressure
gage.
Charles’ Law
Charles’ law states that if the pressure on a given amount of gas is held constant, the volume of the gas
will change in direct proportion to the absolute temperature:
Vi by V2 = T1byT2
the air in the cylinder is heated while the piston rod is supporting a weight W. Since the weight
maintains a constant force on piston, the pressure remains constant and the volume increases.
Gay-Lussac’s Law
Gay-Lussac’s law states that if the volume of a given gas is held constant, the pressure exerted by the
gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature:
Pi by P2 = T1 by T2
heat is added to the air in the constant-volume cylinder, which causes an increase in temperature and
pressure.

FILTER REGULATOR LUBRICATOR

Filter Regulator Lubricator (FRL) consists of three elements - a filter (F) to, generally, remove particles
above 40 micron in size and water, a regulator (R), which controls pressure and a lubricator (L), to
provide a controlled quantity of oil into the system.

Filter:
Functions: The function of air filters is to remove all foreign matter and allow dry, clean air to flow
without restriction to the regulator and then on to the lubricator. Filters are available in wide ranges
starting from a fine mesh wire cloth (which only strains out heavier foreign particles) to elements made

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of synthetic materials (which are designed to remove very small particles) Usually in-line filter elements
can remove contaminants in the 5 to 50 pm range.

The filter body has a construction that creates a cyclonic action for the incoming air. This action works

Page | 45to deposit water and heavier particles to the bottom of the bowl. Working of Filter The air to be filtered
is allowed downward with a swirling motion that forces the moisture and the heavier particles to fall
down. The deflector used in the filter mechanically separates the contaminants before they pass through
the cartridge filter. The filter cartridge provides a random zigzag passage for the airflow. This type of
airflow arrests the solid particles in the cartridge passage. The water vapor gets condensed inside the
filter and is collected at the bottom of the filter bowl. Also, heavier foreign particles that are separated
from the air are collected at the bottom of the bowl. Then the accumulated water and other solid
particles at the bottom of the filter bowl are drained off with the use of an on-off drain valve located at
the bottom of the filter bowl.

A baffle, under the filter element, prevents the deposited water and debris being sucked back into the
output air flow. Air is then forced through a filter element, the mesh size determining the minimum size
of particle removed from the air flow. So, for example, a 40 micron filter will remove all particles
greater than 40 micron in size. 5 micron elements are also available,

REGULATOR:
The function of the air pressure regulator is to regulate the pressure of the incoming compressed air so
as to achieve the desired air pressure at a steady condition.
The compressed air leaving the compressor should be properly prepared before it goes into the circuit.
The air should have the proper operating pressure for the circuit. The improper fluctuating pressure level
in the piping system can adversely affect the operating characteristics of the system components such as
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valves, cylinders, etc. Therefore, air pressure regulators are fitted to ensure the constant supply pressure
irrespective of the pressure fluctuations in the compressor unit.
For example, the line from the compressor may carry a pressure of 10 bar, the air pressure regulator can
reduce this pressure to 0 bar to any point between the full line pressure and zero pressure.
Page | 46Thus the air pressure regulators act as pressure guards by preventing pressure surges or drops from

entering the air circuits.

Types: The two types of air pressure regulators are :
1. Diaphragm-type regulator, and
2. Piston-type regulator.

The control knob works against a spring which, in turn, places load against a diaphragm assembly. The
diaphragm pushes down on a valve pin connected to the valve seat and the seat drops;

this allows downstream air flow from the inlet port (P1) out of the outlet port (P2). As air passes down
P2, a breathe hole lets air into a chamber below the diaphragm; once pressure either side of the seat is
equal, the seat closes with the aid of the spring. Downstream demand will cause a pressure drop in the
chamber, opening the seat and allowing air to flow again until pressure is once more equalized and the
seat closes. The process is continuous, maintaining P2 at a set value.

LUBRICATOR:
The operation of a typical force-feed type air lubricator are illustrated in Fig. Its operation is similar to
the principle of simple carburetor used in the petrol engines to obtain an air-fuel mixture.
As the air to be lubricated enters into the inlet pipe, the venturi ring located in the pipe increases its
velocity of low. It causes a local reduction in the upper chamber. This pressure differential between
upper and lower chambers causes suction of lubrication oil from the oil reservoir to the upper chamber.
Now the oil in the form of mist is sprayed in the air stream and the air-oil mixture is obtained. This air- 46
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oil mixture is forced to swirl as it leaves the central cylinder causing more oil particles to be spread out
of the air stream. The amount of oil dropping into the upper chamber can be controlled by a needle
valve.A lubricator is designed to introduce a controlled quantity of oil into the downstream air flow.

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IMI Norgren offers two types. The standard oil-fog lubricator passes all droplets created into the air
flow. The micro-fog lubricator atomizes the droplets before they enter the air flow; the typical particle
size is <2 micron and only around 10% of the particles seen in the site dome are passed downstream.

Advantages of FRL Units:

1. FRL Units ensure clean air delivery to pneumatic system parts hence system blockage may be avoided.
2. Lubrication causes better life of parts.
3. Regulator devices avoid pressure drop or rise so that leakages and parts damages may be avoided.
4. Equipment Lifetime may increase.
5. Installation is easy.
6. Easy to maintenance and servicing.
Disadvantages of FRL Units :
1. If FRL Unit is placed in the place of heavy vibration then it may damage the Unit.
2. Piping materials without flexibility, such as steel tube piping, are prone to be affected by excess
moment loads and vibrations from the piping side. Use flexible tubing in between to avoid such effects.
PNEUMATIC SILENCERS (MUFFLER)
A pneumatic exhaust silencer (muffler) is used to control the noise caused by a rapidly exhausting
airstream flowing into the atmosphere. The increased use of compressed air in industry has created a
noise problem. Compressed air exhausts generate high-intensity sound energy, much of it in the same
frequency ranges as normal conversation. Excessive exposure to these noises can cause loss of hearing
without noticeable pain or discomfort. Noise exposure also causes fatigue and lowers production. It 47
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blocks out warning signals, thus causing accidents. This noise problem can be solved by installing a
pneumatic silencer at each pneumatic exhaust port. Figure 13-26 depicts several types of exhaust
silencers, which are designed not to build up back pressure with continued use.

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ELECTRO PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

Electrical devices have proven to be an important means of

improving the overall control flexibility of fluid power systems. In recent years, the trend
has been toward electrical control of fluid power systems and away from manual control.
One of the reasons for this trend is that more machines are being designed for automatic
operation to be controlled with electrical signals from computers.
There are seven basic electrical devices commonly used in the
control of fluid power systems: manually actuated push-button switches, limit switches,
pressure switches, solenoids, relays, timers, and temperature switches. Switches can be
wired either normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC). A normally open switch is
one in which no electric current can flow through the switching element until the switch
is actuated. In a normally closed switch, electric current can flow through the switching
element until the switch is actuated. These seven electrical devices are briefly described
as follows:
1. PUSH-BUTTON SWITCHES. By the use of a simple push-button switch, an operator
can cause sophisticated equipment to begin performing complex operations. These push-
button switches are used mainly for starting and stopping the operation of machinery as
well as providing for manual override when an emergency arises.

2. LIMIT SWITCHES. Limit switches open and close circuits when they are actuated either at the 52
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end of the retraction or extension strokes of hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders. Figure 15-1 shows a
hydraulic cylinder that incorporates its own limit switches (one at each end of the cylinder). Either
switch can be wired normally open or normally closed. The limit switch on the cap end of the cylinder is
actuated by an internal cam when the rod is fully retracted. The cam contacts the limit switch about 3/16
Page | 53in from the end of the stroke. At the end of the cylinder stroke, the cam has moved the plunger and stem

of the limit switch about 1/16 in for complete actuation. The limit switch on the head end of the cylinder
is similarly actuated. Since these limit switches are built into the cylinder end plates, they are not
susceptible to accidental movement, which can cause them to malfunction.

3. PRESSURE SWITCHES. Pressure switches open or close their contacts based on system
pressure. They generally have a high-pressure setting and a low-pressure setting. For example, it may be
necessary to start or stop a pump to maintain a given pressure. The low-pressure setting would start the
pump, and the high-pressure setting would stop it. Figure 15-2 shows a pressure switch that can be wired
either normally open (NO) orPressure switches have three electrical terminals: C (Common), NC
(normally closed), and NO (normally open). When wiring in a switch, only two terminals are used. The
common terminal is always used, plus either the NC or NO terminal depending on whether the switch is
to operate as a normally open or normally closed switch. In Figure 15-2, observe the front scale that is
used for visual check of the pressure setting, which is made by the self-locking, adjusting screw located
behind the scale. Figure 15-2 also gives the graphic symbol used to represent a pressure switch in
hydraulic circuits as well as the graphic symbol used in electrical circuits.

4. SOLENOIDS. Solenoids are electromagnets that provide a push or pull force to operate fluid
power valves remotely. When a solenoid (an electric coil wrapped around an armature) is energized, the
magnetic force created causes the armature to shift the spool of the valve containing the solenoid.

5. RELAYS. Relays are switches whose contacts open or close when their corresponding coils are
energized. These relays are commonly used for the energizing and de-energizing of solenoids because
they operate at a high current level. In this way a manually actuated switch can be operated at low
voltage levels to protect the operator. This low-voltage circuit can be used to energize relay coils that
control high-voltage contacts used to open and close circuits containing the solenoids. The use of relays
also provides interlock capability, which prevents the accidental energizing of two solenoids at the
opposite ends of a valve spool. This safety feature can, therefore, prevent the burnout of one or both of
these solenoids.

6. TIMERS. Time delay devices are used to control the time duration of a working cycle. In this way
a dwell can be provided where needed. For example, a dwell can be applied to a drilling machine
operation, which allows the drill to pause fora predetermined time at the end of the stroke to clean out
the hole. Most timers can be adjusted to give a specified dwell to accommodate changes in feed rates
and other system variables. 53
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UNIT V

TROUBLE SHOOTING AND APPLICATIONS

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Installation, Selection, Maintenance, Trouble Shooting and Remedies in Hydraulic
and Pneumatic systems. Design of hydraulic circuits for Drilling, Planning, Shaping,
Surface grinding, Press and Forklift applications. Design of Pneumatic circuits for a
Pick and Place application and tool handling in a CNC machine. - Low cost Automation –
Hydraulic and Pneumatic power packs- case studies

SELECTION OF HYDRAULIC MOTOR

In hydraulic system it is important to achieve the overall performance and efficiency to
the expected level. To achieve This proper selection of The motor and pump is very
important

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