YEAR 10 NOTES

SUBJECTS:
-Math
-English
-Biology
-Physics
-Geography
-Business
-ICT
-Art
 PHYSICS
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────

MEASUREMENTS

Speed- is a scalar, it has only magnitude.

distance distance
speed= time=
time speed

distance=speed x time

total distance
average speed=
total time
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────

Velocity- is a vector, it has a direction and magnitude.

distnace (¿ a specific direction)
velocity=
time taken
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────

force pressure
pressure= area=
area force

force=area x pressure

force=mass x acceleration
2
kgm/ s = ( kg ) x (m/s¿¿ 2)¿
weight =mass x gravity

W=mg
2
kgm/ s

force kgm
pressure=
area = 2 2
m s
2
m

m/s

velocity
acceleration=
time
2
m/s s

3
volume=LxBxW =m

mass
density =
volume

WEIGHT VS MASS

Weight is the measure of how strong gravity pulls on an

object
Mass is measure of how much matter is in an object.

WEIGHT MASS
Is a force Is the matter of substance
Unit is newton Unit is kilograms
It is a vector quantity It is a scalar quantity
Changes depending on the Is constant
gravitational pull
Measured using a Measure using a
Force meter Balance
Spring balance

Weight=mass x gravity

weight
Mass=
gravity

weight
gravity=
mass

MASS, WEIGHT AND GRAVITY

Gravity is the force existing between any two objects with mass.
*only in space*

Acceleration due to gravity is the acceleration of an object

falling freely under gravity.
 1 th
Objects on the moon weigh 6 of the weight on earth.
1
12N on earth = 12 x 6 = 2

Terminal velocity: the greatest speed reached by an object

through a fluid *water or gas*

If the mass increases the force of gravity increases.

If the distance decreases the force of gravity decreases

gravity= 9.81 (10)

1
The gravitational pull on the moon is 10 of the Earths gravity,
hence the objects tend to float on the moon.
To find the weight of the person you times the mass and gravity,
To find the weight of a person on the moon you divide the weight by
1
10

The gravitational pull of the sun is more than me the Earth due
to its mass so it pulls the Earth closer and the Earth does the
same for the moon.
~the heavier the bodies or the more the mass, the greater the
gravitational pull.

-fundamental quantity and units

quantity instruments unit symbol
length meter rule meter M
time stop watcher second S
mass -toparm balance kilograms Kg
-chemical balance
-scale
current Ammeter ampre A
Amount of mole mol
substance
 -derived (combination of 2 or more fundamental) quantity & units
quantity unit symbol
speed meter/second M/s
force newton N
pressure pascal PA
2 2
acceleration meter /second M /s
velocity meter/second M/s

Micro meter screwcage: used to measure thickness of paper etc.

Vernier calliper: used to measure the internal & external
diameter of a tube or cup

SPEED-TIME GRAPH

Increase: acceleration
Horizontal/steady: moving at a constant speed
Decreasing: decelerate
Stationary: speed is 0, so it has stopped
To find the distance travelled in a speed time graph, the area
under the graph of a speed time graph is the distance the object
has travelled.

VELOCITY-TIME GRAPH

Steeper line = higher speed

You must pay attention to the type of graph it is (p-t) or (v-t)
because it changes everything.

You can determine 3 things

 velocity
Acceleration: time

velocity
De-acceleration: - time

And the total distance travelled

Rectangle: base x height
1
Triangle: 2 base x height

ACCELLERATION
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.

v−u
a=
t

final velocity−initial velocity

acceleration=
time

v=u+at

2 2
v =u +2 as
 1 2
s ( distance )=ut + at
2

V=final velocity
U=initial velocity
S=distance

FORCES AND MOTION

What does a force do?

-make and object move

-change its direction
-make an object stop
-change an objects shape.

Two types of forces:

  Balanced: Two equal but opposite forces acting on an
object, stopping the object from moving.

 Unbalanced: Two or more forces acting on an object

causing it to move in the direction of the larger force.
*unbalanced forces produces acceleration*

Resultant force: the single force that has the same effct on a
body as two or more forces.
Bigger force – Smaller force = (N, in a direction)

TYPES OF FORCES:

-push and pull force

-friction
-reaction
-electrostatic
-magnetic
-gravitational
-weight
 ──────────────────────────────────────────────────────

FORCE, MASS AND ACCELERATION

Force=mass x acceleration Force= N

force
Mass=
aceeleration
Mass= Kg

force
acceleration=
mass
Acceleration=m/s 2

MOMENTUM

Defined as the product of mass x velocity.

Momentum=mass x velocity

Momentum= Kgm/s
momentum
Mass=
velocity Mass= Kg
momentum
Velocity=
mass Velocity= m/s
Newton’s second law of motion states that force is proportional
to the change in momentum.

Newton’s third law of motion states that whenever an object

exerts a force on another object the second object exerts an
equal and opposite force on the first.
*the forces cancel each other out*
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM:

Total momentum before = Total momentum after

Relationship between resultant force and momentum:

The rate of change of the momentum of an object is directly

proportion to the resultant force applied.

──────────────────────────────────────────────────────

IMPULSE
m(v−u)
Impulse=
time

M: mass
V: final velocity
U: initial velocity
T: time
 COLLISION

LAW OF COLLISION
Total momentum before collision = Total momentum after collision
Ma ×Ua+ Mb × Ub = MaV + MbV
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR
MOMENTUM
If no external force acts on colliding objects, the total
momentum before = total momentum after.

M: mass
V: final velocity
U: initial velocity
A: object A
B: object B

Total momentum before:

Ma ×Ua+ Mb × Ub

Total momentum after:

MaV + MbV

V= MaUa+ MbUb
Ma+ Mb

In opposite direction:
Before: MaUa – MbUb
After: MaV – MbV

If object B is stationary:
Before: MaUa + O
After: MaV + MbV
 SCALERS & VECTORS

Scalar quantity- a quantity that has magnitude (size) only.

E.g.
Speed Distance Time
Temperature Energy Mass

Vector quantity- a quantity that has magnitude and direction.

E.g.
Velocity Momentum Acceleration
Gravitational Field Mass Force

ADDING VECTORS
Case 1: Same direction (you add)
A =2N A+B
B =3N +
2N + 3N = 5Nto the right

Case 2: Opposite direction (the bigger – the smaller)

A B B - A
=2N =3N 3N - 2N =1N to the left
Case 3: Same forces moving opposite (minus)
A=3N - B=3N

Resultant =0

Case 4: Two forces moving perpendicular to one another.

1. Turn it into a square, then a triangle then find the missing side
(resultant force) using: a + b =c
2 2 2

2. To get the direction use SOHCAHTOA. (always use inverse.)

Case 4b: Scale drawings.

1. Create a scale, e.g. 1N = 1cm.

2. Turn the lines into a square.

3. Draw a line dividing the shape into two triangles, and find the
length of that line. (That is the resultant force)
4. Find the angle,(direction) use SOHCAHTOA.(always use inverse.)

Case 5: Two forces acting at an angle to each other.

Parallelogram law: two forces acting at an angle to each other,

the diagonal line is the resultant force.

TURNING EFFECT

Moment of a force = Force x Perpendicular

distance from the point of
action of the force
Pivot: fixed point which a lever turns. Also known as a fulcrum.

moment of a force=force x distance

EQUILIBRIUM
When no net force and no net movement act on a body causing
it to not move.

Principle of moment:
the ∑ of clockwise moment about a point =∑ of anticlockwise moments about the same point
 Conditions for a body to be in equilibrium:
1. Sum of forces acting upwards/sideways =
Sum of forces acting downwards/sideways.

2. Sum of anticlockwise moments about a point =

Sum of clockwise moments about the same point.

Types of equilibrium:
1. Stable: A cone on its base.
2. Unstable: A cone on its vortex.
3. Neutral: A cone on its side.

CENTRE OF GRAVITY
The point where the weight of the object appears to act.
Eg: A CD has a centre of gravity in the middle..
For humans the centre of gravity in the belly button.

FINDING THE CENTRE OF GRAVITY

The centre of gravity of an irregular object can be found using a
plumb line.
The centre of gravity of a regular object has a low centre of
gravity.
An unstable object has a high centre of gravity.

ENERGY STORES AND TRANSFERS

1. Nuclear energy: energy stored in the nucleus of an atom
2. Chemical energy: energy stored in bonds which can be
released when chemical reactions take place.
3. Elastic energy: energy stored in strings.
4. Thermal energy: energy transferred from a hotter to colder
place because of temperature difference.
5. Kinetic energy: energy possessed by a body in motion.
6. Potential energy: energy possessed by a body due to the
position or height above the ground.
7. Electrical energy: energy in an electrical wire.
8. Sound energy: energy due to vibration

Law of Conservation Of Energy

Energy cannot be created or destroyed only transferred from one
energy to another.
Example: in a television
set electrical energy
transferred to light, heat
and sound.

1 2
kinetic energy= ×mass × velocity
2

potiental energy : mass × g ( 10 ) x height

 GEOGRAPHY
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────

POPULATION EXPLOSION

Population explosion is the rapid increase of population in an

area due to different factors.

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
total population
population density =
total area

Population density is the amount of people in an area per square

kilometre.
Population distribution is how the population is spread around
the world

*natality rate- birth rate

*mortality rate- death rate

Case studies:
1. Population explosion: Places after and during WW1,
2. Over-population: Nigeria.
3. Under-population: Australia.
4, Pro-natalist: Russia, after WW1.
5. Anti-natalist: China, with the one child policy.
6. Migration (internal & international): Nigeria

POPULATION POLICY

A population policy is a set is measures put in place by a

country to control the population.
There are two types of population policies;
1. Pro-natalist, they encourage families to have more children
2. Anti-natalist, they don’t encourage families to have a lot of
children

Eugenics, is the mix of both Pro and Anti natalists policies,

where one part of the country follows the Pro-Natalist method
and the other Anti-natalist method.

A country may introduce the pro-natalist policy cause:

-The country may have an ageing population.

-Countries that have a shortage of economic activity.

A country can’t force people to have kids, but encourage them

by:

-Giving them money.

-Free or subsided childcare/healthcare/education
-Extended maternity or fraternity leave.
─────────────────────────────────────────────────────

A country may introduce the anti-natalist policy because:

-it is over populated.

-it has a young population.
If you have more kids than the law put in place;

-You may lose your job.

-Forced abortion.
-Fines.
-Removal of education and health rights for your kids.

Positive impacts for Anti-natalist policy.

-The population will reduce
-The resources will amount to the population.

Negative impacts for Anti-natalist policy.

-The men will eventually outnumber the women.
-There wouldn’t be enough workers in the future.
 MIGRATION
Migration is the movement from one country to another.

Migration could either be:

Internal: which is migrating within your country, like moving
from one state to another.
International: which is migrating from one county to another.

There are push and pull factors for every country:

Pull factors; they attract people to an area

-good health care
-job opportunities
-security
Push factors; they make people move away from an area
-War
-Famine
-Virus outbreak

SETTLEMENT AND URBANISATION

CAPITAL CITY
CONURBATION
CITY
TOWN
VILLAGE
HAMLET
ISOLATED DWELLING

Hierarchy is the order in which they are arranged, either highest

to smallest or smallest to largest,
Eg: arranging according to status.

*conurbation: an extended urban area, typically consisting of

several towns merging with suburbs of a central city.

POPULATION DYNAMICS
4 Factors That Affect Population Growth:

1. Immigration, entering a country.

2. Emigration, leaving a country.
3. Natality, birth rate.
4. Mortality, death rate.

Natural increase= birth-death rate

Dependent factors:

Biotic: factors in the environment that have an increasing effect

on the population size increasing.
E.g: Diseases
 Competition
Parasites
Abiotic: factors in the environment that affect the population
regardless of the population density
E.g: Temperature
Storm
Drought

Threshold Population
The minimum number of people required to provide a large
enough demand for a service.

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS
A settlement pattern is the shape that a settlement forms on a
map. There are 3 types:

Nucleated: A form of settlement in rural areas which a closely

packed together in a form of circles or squares.
This type of settlement gives a form of security as everyone
knows each other.
Dispersed: This form of settlement has houses or buildings
scattered all over, usually giving people their own sense of
privacy.
This settlement is usually ideal with poor agricultural farm land
and needs lots of space for growing crops etc.
Linear: This settlement has houses or buildings along a line,
having next to door neighbours.
This is easier for transport. This type of settlement can usually
have a river just in between it.

BUSINESS STUD.
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────

BUSINESS ACTIVITY

A need is something that is essential for living

A want is something you desire.

The economic problem/scarcity is unlimited wants to limited

resources.

FOUR FACTORS OF PRODUCTION:

Land: the natural resources used in a business.

Labour: the amount of workers available.
Capital: all the money and resources used to start a business.
Enterprise: the skill to take a risk and co-ordinate the 4 factors of
production to create a business.

Opportunity cost: the next best alternative when given a choice.

Specialisation: when a business or person concentrates on what

they are best on.
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────

Division of labour: when work is split up between people based

on what they good at.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
work is done faster and more workers become bored doing
efficient. the same thing.
workers are trained in one task if one worker is absent
and specialise in that. production stopped.
 BUSINESS ACTIVITY

Businesses combine the factors of production to make goods and

provide services.

Business activity therefore:

 Combines scarce factors of production to produce goods
and services.
 Produces goods and services which is needed to satisfy the
needs and wants of consumers.
 Employs people as workers and pays them wages.

Added value is the difference between the price of a product and

the cost of materials.
 Total price – Total material cost = profit

How can a business increase added value?

 Increase selling price but keep total cost of materials the

same.
 Reduce the cost of materials but keep the price the same.

CLASSIFICATION OF BUSINESS

There are three sectors of economy:

Primary sector: The process of extracting the Earth’s natural
resources to make raw materials.
Secondary sector: The process of refining the raw materials
from the primary sector.
Tertiary sector: They provide services to the consumers.

The relative importance of a sector can be judged by:

Total number of workers And The value of output

De-industrialisation is the decline of importance of the

secondary sector in a country.
They are three reasons de-industrialisation may occur:

1. Primary products are becoming scarce, eg: timbre, oil & gas.
2. Most developed economies are losing competitiveness in
manufacturing to newly industrialized countries.
3. As a country’s wealth increases the citizens tend to spend
money on travel etc. rather than buying a country’s
manufactured goods.
Mixed economy is an economy mixed with the public and
private sector.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Consumers have a wide They don’t provide public
variety services (transport.. etc)
Workers get to keep their They don’t plan or control
income and taxes are low the economy
Competition among Owners are fully held
businesses keep prices low responsible (with debts…
etc)
Private sector: businesses not owned or controlled by the
government. They make their own decisions and are more
focused on getting profit.
Private sectors will only manufacture items if there is a demand
for it, once there is not, it wont be manufactured again.

Public sector: businesses owned by the government or by the

state. Most of the services are free, but they are mainly after the
well-being of the country.

Price-mechanism: process of goods are therefore influences by

the demand and supply of the goods.

Privatisation is the act of a public sector business selling it to the

private sector.
 ENTERPRISE, BUSINESS GROWTH AND SIZE

Enterprise: the process of starting a business

Entrepreneur: a person who starts a business by taking a risk and
co-ordinating the 4 factors of production.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
You get to work at your own Risk, the business may fail if
time not planned well.
You may become rich and Capital, you have to use your
successful. own money in the business,
and look for other sources
May be more profitable than a Opportunity cost, lost income
9/5 job. from not being an employee.
You get to put your own ideas Extra stress.
into practice.
 Characteristics of an entrepreneur:
Hard - Confident Independen Optimistic
working t

A business plan is a document that contains the details and

plans of a business.

A business plan is usually made up of several sections:

 the business idea – what product or service the business will
provide
 the business’ aims and objectives – using
the SMART principles
 target market – determined through market research
 revenue forecast – predicting your revenue over a period of
time
 projected costs and profit – estimated costs based on previous
sales.
 cash flow forecast
 sources of finance – long-term and short-term finance
 location – where the business will be located
 marketing mix – the four Ps (product, price, place and
promotion)

WHY GOVERNMENTS SUPPORT BUSINESS

START UPS?

1. Tax, income tax and corporate tax.

2. They don’t get to pay unemployed people, job seekers
allowance.
3. Consumers get more choices.
4. To increase the value of output of the economy.
 HOW GOVERNMENTS SUPPORT BUSINESS
START UPS?

1. Business ideas, and trainings to business owners.

2. Premises, a location to start up your business.
3. Finance, Giving small businesses loans.
4. Labour, giving starting business workers.

WHO MEASUERS SIZE OF BUSINESSES:

Investors: to see where their money is going.

Governments: to see how much tax they will receive.
Banks: how important their loan will mean to the business.
Workers: to get an idea how many people they are working with.
Competitors: to compare the size and importance of other
businesses.
 HOW THE SIZE BUSINESSE CAN BE
MEASUERED:

Number of people employed

Value of output: how important the company is to the economy
of the country.
Value of sales: How much sales it makes
Value of capital employed: How much capital was invested into
the business.

WHY OWNERS OF A BUSINESS MAY WANT TO

EXPAND:

1. Higher profits.
2. More status.
3. Lower average cost
4. More market share; the portion of a market controlled by a
particular company.
 HOW BUSINESSES CAN GROW:

1. Internal growth: the personal decision to expand business

existing operations.

2. External growth: the take over or merger with another

business

Takeover: when one business buys out the owners of another

business.
Merger: when one business and another agree too become one
business.

Horizontal integration: when a business takes over or merges

with another business on the same stage of production.
Primary -> Primary
Secondary -> Secondary
Tertiary -> Tertiary

BENEFITS
 The merger reduces the amount of competition in the industry
There are opportunities for economies of scale
The business will have a bigger share of the total market.

Vertical integration: when a business takes over or merges with

a business on another stage of production.
Forward vertical integration: when a business integrates with
another business at a later stage of production. (closer to the
consumer)
Backward vertical integration: when a business integrates with
another business at an earlier stage of production. (closer to the
raw material suppliers)
 BENEFITS
Reduces manufacturing costs
Increases profits and efficiency
Direct link to the market

Conglomerate integration: when a business takes over or merges

with another business in a different industry.
*also known as diversification*
BENEFITS
The business now has activities in more then one industry
There might be a transfer of ideas between the different
sections of business
Economies is the area where products are produced.

PROBLEMS LINKED TO BUSINESS GROWTH

AND HOW TO OVER COME THEM:

PROBLEMS WAYS TO OVERCOME

RESULTING FROM PROBLEMS.
EXPANSION.
Larger businesses are difficult Operate the business in small
to control. units- this is a form of
decentralisation.
 Larger businesses lead to poor Use latest IT equipment and
communication. telecommunications, but those
can cause problems
Expansion costs so much that Use profits to pay for further
business may have finical growth.
problems.
Integrating with another Adapting a new management
business is more difficult than style is hard and requires good
expected. communication within the
work force. They need to
understand the reason for the
change.

WHY SOME BUSINESSES REMAIN SMALL:

1. Type of industry they are in;

Businesses like; hairdressing, plumbing, car repairs, cleaning,
offer personal services, so if they grow too much it would be
hard to offer personal services.
2. Market size; (market is the total number of customers)
If the market size is small the business is more likely to remain
small.

3. Owner’s objectives;
Some owners may prefer keeping their business small, and
keeping in close contact with their customers and staff.

WHY IT IS GOOD TO KEEP BUSINESSES

SMALL:
Keeps cost of business low.
Allows you spend more on inventory, staff, rent etc
Your business may generate higher profit rapidly.

CAUSES OF BUSINESS FAILURE:

1. Lack of management skills: lack of experience can lead to bad

decisions.
2. Changes in business environment: failure to plan for change
add to risk and uncertainty of operating a business.

3. Liquidity problems: shortage of cash means that workers,

suppliers can’t be paid.

4. Over-expansion: when a business expands too quickly it can

lead to a big problem of management and finance.

BUSINESS ORGANIZATION:

A business organization is the type of business owned,

controlled or established by an entrepreneur in an economy.
PRIVATE SECTOR: (profit) PUBLIC SECTOR: (well fare)

Sole traders Public corporation

Partnership
Private limited liability
Public limited liability
(joint stock company)
Franchise
Joint venture

Sole Trader:

A business owned by one person.

The owner is called the sole proprietor.
 Advantages Disadvantages
There are a few legal No one to discuss business
regulations to worry about. matters with
You are your own boss and Business may remain small
make your own decisions because is limited.
Freedom Source of money is limited
You get close contact with If sick, no-one to take control
your customers of the business.
You keep your profit Unlimited liability.

A sole trader is good for people:

-starting a new business
-do not need much capital
-would be dealing with mainly the public

Partnership:
A form of business where two or more people agree to own a
business together
Partnership agreement: a written and legal agreement between
business partners.

Advantages Disadvantages
More capital invested into the Unlimited liablity
business.
The responsibilities of the The business doesn’t have
business is now shared. separate legal identity.
Partners are motivated to work Most countries limit the
harder because they all benefit number of partners to 20, and
from profits. business growth can be
limited.
If a member dies the
partnership will end..

LLP- Limited Partnerships:

It offers partners limited liability. It’s partnership is a separate
legal unit and will still exist after the partner’s death, unlike an
ordinary partnership.

*unlimited liability is that the owners of a business are held responsible

for the debts of the business and may have to sell their belongings if they
can’t pay back*
*limited liability is the opposite of unlimited liability, shareholders in a
company are only limited to the amount they invested*

*incorporated businesses are companies that have separate legal status

from their owners*

*shareholders are the owners of a limited company, they buy shares

which represent part-ownership of a company*

*stakeholders are people who have direct or indirect interest for a

business

*private limited companies are businesses owned by shareholders but

they cannot sell shares to the public*

*perpetual succession is the continuation of an organization despite the

death, bankruptcy, insanity of a member or owner or any transfer of
stock, etc.*

Private limited companies:

Businesses that are owned by shareholders but they cannot sell
shares to the public.
 Advantages Disadvantages
Shares can be sold to a large There is usually more paper
number of people. work
All shareholders have limited Other people may be able to
liability view the business’s financial
information.
Gives individuals It can be time consuming.
opportunities to be their own
boss.
Shares in the business can be The business may require
sold to raise money. outside professional help to
manage its finances.

Shareholders;
1. Invest capital into a business.
2. Have a say in the running of a business.
3. Share business profits,
4. Shares cannot be sold or transferred tp anyone else without
the agreement of other shareholders.
5. Shares are not sold or offered to the public.

Public limited companies:

Businesses that are owned by shareholders but they can sell
shares to the public and trade shares on stock exchange.
 Advantages Disadvantages
Shareholders have limited The legal formalities of
liability. forming this type of company
is complicated.
You can sell shares to large There are many regulations
amount of people and make a and controls in order to protect
lot of capital. shareholders.
Businesses have separate legal Selling shares to the public is
identity from the shareholders. expensive.
There are no restrictions on They may lose control of the
selling, buying or transfers of business if it goes public.
shares.

Franchise:
When an owner (franchisor) of a business grants a licence to
another person or business (franchisee) to use their business
idea.

To the franchisor:

Advantages Disadvantages
All products sold must be Poor managements of one
obtained from the franchisor franchised outlet could lead to bad
reputation for the whole business.
Expansion of the franchised The franchisee keeps profit from
business is much faster if the the outlet.
franchisor had finance all the new
outlets.
The management of the outlets is
the responsibility of the
franchisee.

To the franchisee:
 Advantages Disadvantages
The chances of business failure Less-independence than with
are much reduced because a well- operating non-franchised business.
known product is sold.
The franchisor pays for License fee must be paid to the
advertisement. franchisor and possibly a
percentage of the annual turnover.
Training for staff and
management is provided by the
franchisor.
Banks are often willing to lend to
franchisees due to relatively low
risks.

Joint ventures:
A joint venture is where two or more businesses start a project
together, sharing capital, risks and profits.

Advantages Disadvantages
Sharing costs. If the new project is successful
then the profits are shared with the
partner.
Local knowledge when joint Disagreements over important
venture company is already based decisions might occur.
in the country.
Risks are shared. The two joint venture partners
might have different ways of
running a business.
Public Corporations:
A public corporation is a business in the public sector owned by
the government/state.

Advantages Disadvantages
Some industries are considered so There are no private shareholders.
important that government
ownership is thought to be
essential.
If industries are controlled by There isn’t a lot of competition.
monopolies it would be useful to
have competitors.
If an important business is failing Governments can use these
the government can nationalize it. business for political reasons

*nationalize private owned business being sold to government.

BUSINESS AND STAKEHOLDER

OBJECTIVES:
Business objectives are the targets that a business works
towards.

Benefits:
-Gives workers and managers a clear goal.
-Business managers can compare how the business has
performed to their objectives.

Common objectives:
-To achieve business survival
-To make profit
-Return to shareholder
-To grow
-Market share
-Service to community

Survival:
A firm is always trying to survive.

Possible threats:
-A firm recently launching
-The country’s economy is in financial trouble (recession)
-New competition in the market.

Profit:
The total income of a business.

Business owned by private individuals rather than government

are run to make profit.
Pay a return, to the owners of a business for the capital invested
and risks.

Return to shareholders:
Share holders own limited companies.

The managers of companies will often set the object of

‘increasing returns to shareholders’ this is to discourage
shareholders from selling their shares and helps managers keep
their jobs.
Growth:
Growth can only be achieved if the business’s consumers are
satisfies with the products or services being provided.
Measured by: Value of sales Value of output
Capital employed Number of people employed.

Market share:
The percentage of total market sales help by a business.
company sales
- Market share (%) = total market sales
x 100

Social enterprise:
The social objectives that aim to make profit to reinvest back
into the business.

People operating the social enterprise often set three

objectives for their business:

Social- provide jobs and help disabled etc.

Environmental- to protect environment
Financial- to make profit and reinvest into the social enterprise.

Why business objectives could change:

1. A business set up recently has survived for three years and the
owner now aims to work towards higher profit.
2. A business has achieved higher market share and how has the
objective of earning higher returns for shareholders.
3. A profit making business operates in a country facing a
serious economic recession so now has the short term objective
of survival.

*stakeholders are people who have direct or indirect interest for

a business

There are internal and external stakeholders of a business:

Internal-
Owners
Workers
Managers

External-
Customers
Government
Community
Banks
Owners (internal): they invest capital into the business and
expect a gain of return, they also bare the risk of starting the
business, but also the profit if the business succeeds.

Workers (internal): they are employees of the business, they

have to follow the instructions given by the business, they
require regular payment for their work, and security as well.

Managers (internal): they also employees of the business but

have a higher position than employees but are under the owner,
they control what the workers do and make important decisions
which determines the business fate. They have a high salary
because of their work.

Customers (external): they determine whether the business can

grow or not by buying the goods or services a business provides,
in exchange for quality products and value for their money.

Government (external): they are responsible for the economy of

the country, they expect taxes in return, and for people to be
employed.

Community (external): they don’t want products that will

damage their environment but rather safe products, and an
advantage is that there’s job opportunities for the working
population.
Banks (external): they provide finance for the business and
expect the loan to be paid back on time with interest.

Objectives of public sector business:

Financial: to meet profit targets set by the government.

Service: to provide a service to the public.
Social: to protect or create employment in areas.
 BIOLOGY
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────

CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF

LIVING ORGANSIMS

Biology is the study of living things/life

Traits every living thing has:

M-movement
R-respiration
S-sensitivity

N-nutrition
E-excretion
R-reproduction
G-growth

Movement: the action of moving from one place to another.

Respiration: is the chemical reaction in cells that break down
nutrient molecules and release energy for metabolism
Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes in your
environment.
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth and
development.
Excretion: the removal of waste products.
Reproduction: the process that makes more of the same kind of
species
Growth: permanent increase in size and dry mass.
 THE BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

Classification is the process of differentiating living things based

on their similarities
Aristotle is regarded as the father if early classification.

Specie: a group of organisms that can reproduce to produce

fertile offspring.

Fertile: able to reproduce

Infertile: unable to reproduce

Dichotomous key: a way of identifying an organism, by working

through pairs of statements that lead to its name
 The modern classification system:

Kingdom - King
Phylum - Phillip
Class - Came
Order - Over
Family - For
Genus - Green
Species - Skittles

Rules:
- The first letter of the genus is capitalised
- First letter of the species is never capitalized
 - It is either written in italics or underlined

E.g.: Homo sapiens

Canis lupus
Felis catus
 VERTEBRATES

-They all have backbones unlike invertebrates.

1. Fish; Sardine, Salmon, Tuna

-They all live underwater, because they have gills to breathe and
fins to swim.
-They have a streamline position.
-They are cold blooded.
-They lay eggs.

2. Amphibians; Frogs, Toads, Salamanders

-They live on land & water.

-They lay their eggs in water and the young ones live in water.
-They are cold blooded
-They breathe through 3 places: Gills, Lungs, Nose

3. Reptiles; Geckos, Snake, Lizard

-They have dry skin.

-They are cold blooded.
-They lay eggs, but their eggs are leathery.

4. Birds; Parrots, Owl, Crows

-They have feathers, but no hair, and scales on their feet

-They have wings, but not all fly
-They lay eggs
-They are warm blooded

5. Mammals; Dolphin, Human, Dog

-They give birth to live offspring.

-They have well developed brains.
-They breathe through their lungs.
-They are warm blooded.
 CELLS

Cells are the smallest units which all organisms are made from.

Organelle: tiny structure in cells that perform a particular

function.

There are two types of cells:

Animal and Plant cells.

DIFFERENCES
ANIMAL PLANT
No chloroplasts Contains chloroplasts
No cell wall Contains cell wall
Tiny/no vacuole Large vacuoles

*Root cells don’t have chloroplasts.

 ANIMAL

Nucleus: Contains genes, DNA or

chromosomes, they control the
activities of the cell.

Cytoplasm: Where reaction takes

place, it contains gel/jelly

Cell membrane: Controls what goes

in and out of the cell. (Outer
boundary)

Mitochondria: Where respiration tales place, the power house of

the cell and where the energy is released.
 PLANT

Cell wall: It gives strength to

the cells, and it contains
starch. (inner boundary)

Vacuole: It contains sap and it

gives the cell strength &
turgidity.

Chloroplasts: It contains
chlorophyll (green pigment) it
is used for photosynthesis.

Nucleus: Contains genes, DNA or chromosomes, they control

the activities of the cell.
 MICROSCOPES

There are two types of microscopes:

Light/optical microscopes & Electron microscopes

Electron microscopes pass beams of electrons through a

specimen and have a much greater resolution than a light
microscope.

The optical or light microscope, is a type of microscope that

uses visible light and a system of lenses to generate magnified
images of small objects.

FORMULA:
¿ image
magnification=
actual ¿ object

¿ image=magnification x actual ¿ object

 MONOCOTYLE DICOTYLED
FEATURE
DON ON
Leaf Shape Long and narrow Broad

Leaf veins parallel Branching

Cotyledons one Two

(seed leaf)

Grouping of In threes In fives

flower parts

Bacteria: Very small, single celled and have no nucleus.

Protoctists: single celled, no nucleus.
Fungi: cell walls contain chitin, has a nucleus.
Plants: multicellular organisms, makes food through
photosynthesis.
Animals: multicellular, have to obtain food.

MOVEMENT INTO & OUT OF CELLS

In order for the cell to carry out the many chemical reactions it
needs substances to enter and leave the cell.
It happens in 3 ways:
-Diffusions
-Active transportation
-Osmosis

DIFFUSION

The net movement of particles from a region of high

concentration to a region of lower concentration.
*It is random and passive*

Net movement: overall movement

Particle: the smallest pieces of which a substances is made of,
particles can be molecules, atoms or ions.
Kinetic energy: energy of moving objects.
Concentration gradient; an imaginary slope from a high
concentration to a low concentration.

4 factors that affect the rate of diffusion:

1. Temperature:

-Diffusion is slower at low temperatures and faster at high

temperatures.
-This is because as you increase the temperature the particles
gain more kinetic energy.
-This means the particles can move more quickly because they
have more energy.
-This means they will move from high to low concentration
more quickly.
2. Concentration gradient:

A concentration gradient is the difference between the number

of particles in one area and in another area.
If a concentration gradient is steep the rate of diffusion will be
quicker (like if you were on a steep slide)
The steeper the concentration gradient the faster diffusion takes
place.

3. Surface area to volume ratio:

-The larger the surface area the faster the rate of diffusion. This
is because there is more area for particles to diffuse.
-Organisms which are small (like a mouse) have a larger surface
area to volume ratio. This is because the ratio between surface
area and the volume is larger.
-Organisms can increase their surface area with adaptations.

1. find surface area; length x breath

2. find volume; length x breath x width
3. surface area ÷ volume = surface area : volume

3. Diffusion distance:

-The rate of diffusion is faster when the distance is small.

-This is why most exchange surfaces in the body are only one
cell think. It ensures rapid exchange because the particles do not
have to move very far.

DIFFUSION AND BREATHING

Oxygen in inhaled air diffuses through the lungs and into the
bloodstream, and is transported around the body.

Carbon dioxide is the waste gas produced by respiration, it

diffuses from body tissues into the bloodstream and is exhaled
through the lungs.

DIFFUSION AND DIGESTION

Digestion breaks down large food molecules into smaller

molecules such as glucose, amino acids and fatty acids that can
be easily absorbed.
Small food molecules are usually absorbed in the small intestine,
DIFFUSION AND THE SMALL INTESTINE
Small intestine contains these things called villi, they look like
millions of little sausages. They increase the overall are of the
small intestine.

DIFFUSION AND PLACENTA

Placenta is an organ that develops in the uterus during
pregnancy.
The umbilical cord connects the placenta to the foetus. It enables
nutrients and oxygen to pass from the mother to the foetus and
waste products vice versa.
The placenta can stop certain molecules and bacteria from
diffusing through, but can’t stop substances like alcohol, viruses
and some chemicals from diffusing through.

DIFFUSION AND NERVE IMPULSES

A synapse is a junction between two neurons across which two
electrical signals must pass.
Neurotransmitter molecules diffuse from vesicles towards the
neurotransmitter receptors, moving from an area of high
concentration to low concentration.
 DIFFUSION AND PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Carbon dioxide + water → oxygen + glucose

Carbon dioxide diffuses in through the stomata, and oxygen and
water diffuse out of the stomata.
During photosynthesis the level of carbon dioxide in the leaf is
low.
This creates a big concentration gradient hence carbon dioxide
diffuses out of the leaf

OSMOSIS
Osmosis is the net movement of water from a region of high
concentration to an area of low concentration across a partially
permeable membrane.
High water potential: an area where there a lot of water
molecules. *a dilute solution*

Low water potential: an area where there are not many water
molecules. *a concentrated solution*

Water potential gradient: a difference in water potential between

2 gases.

Partially permeable membrane: a membrane that allows some

particles pass through but prevents others

THE RATE OF WATER UPTAKE

60 minutes
C hange ∈mass=
period of time measured∈minutes

PERCENT CHANGE IN MASS

mass at the end−mass at the start
Change∈mass= x 100
mass at start

Turgid: plant cell that is tight firm, gains water.

Flaccid: plant cell that is soft and floppy, loses water.
Plasmolysis: a plant cell where the cell membrane tears away from the
cell wall.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
The movement of molecules from a region of low concentration
to a region of high concentration against a concentration
gradient using energy from respiration.

Cells that carry out active transport contain large numbers of

mitochondria for energy.

Examples of active transport:

In roots;
Mineral ions go from the soil (low concentration) to the roots
(high concentration),

In the gut;
Active transport allows sugar molecules to be absorbed the
small intestine (lower concentration) into the blood (higher
concentration).

BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
Any numerous substances that are produced by cells and living
organisms.

Carbohydrate

A glucose molecule made from: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen.

Also called monosaccharide, carbohydrates very small, water
soluble and taste sweet.

Examples:
Cellulose- makes plant cell walls.
Starch- plant storage molecule.
Glycogen- animal storage molecule.

In the presence of starch, iodine turns from brown to blue-black.

In the presence of reducing sugars, Benedict solutions turn from
blue to orange-red when heated.

-Glucose is the end product of carbohydrate digestion

-Carbohydrate provide energy for the body

Fat and Oil (Lipids)

A lipid molecule made from: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen.

Fats are in soluble in water.

Functions:
-energy store (twice as much as carbohydrate)
-energy in fat get used after the energy in carbohydrate have
been used up
-fat stored under the skin are called, adipose tissue.
-plants store oil in their seeds.

Ethanol Emulsion Test

-mix food with ethanol
-pour ethanol mix into water.
-if the fat is present the solution will turn cloudy.

Protien
Long chains of amino acid molecules joint together made from:
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Sulphur.
There are 20 different types of amino acid and different
combination form thousands of different protein.

Function:
-Used to make new cells.
-Used for growth and repair.
-Used to make anti-bodies.
-Used to make enzymes.

The Biuret test:

-mix the food with water
-then add Biuret A and B solution
-if the protein is present it turns blue-purple.
 ICT
──────────────────────────────────────────────────────
 TYPES OF COMPUTERS

1. Mainframe computer
- Very large.
- Speed calculated in MIPS (millions of instructions per
second.
- Multi-user many people can use at the same time.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Can process large amounts of Very expensive.
data at once.
You can upgrade it repair Large so it takes up space.
without shutting it down

2. Super computers
- Contains a lot of processors.
- Speed is measured in FLOPS (Floating point
operation per second)
- Uses parallel processing.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Extremely fast Very expensive.
Capable to solve complex Large so it takes up space.
problems

2. Personal computers
- Designed for domestic use.
 - For single useRs.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
Not as expensive Lower uptime
Portable Limited storage

HARDWARE
This is the physical component of the computer system.
Hardware types include,
 Input devices

 Output devices

 Storage (Memory) devices

 Internal componets

SOFTWARE
A software is a set of programs that have been written to achieve
a goal.
There are 2 main types of software:
1. System Software: The interface between the user and the
computer system.
2. Utility Software: Helps maintain the functionality of the
computer system.

3. Application Software: Designed to perform specific functions.

They are programs written with defined tasks in mind.

EXCEL

CountA = counting alphabets

Count = counting numbers
Put dollar sign when you want to do relative reference

VLOOKUP (the cells, 2, true)