1.

4000 = 4 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 4 × 10 3
2. 400 = 4 × 10 × 10= 4 × 10 2
1. Motion, Forces and Energy
All answers in this IGCSE Physics syllabus can be written in 2
or 3 significant figures.
1.1. Physical Quantities and
Measurement Techniques Common Length Conversions

Length: Measurements Units in meters

The metre rule can measure distances of a few 1 decimetre (dm) 10 −1 meters (m)
centimetres (cm) and the nearest millimetre (mm).
1 centimetre (cm) 10 −2 meters (m)
A tape measure will be used for measuring longer
distances. 1 millimetre (mm) 10 −3 meters (m)
Ensure the line of sight is at 90 degrees to avoid 1 micrometre (μm) 10 −6 meters (m)
parallax error. 1 nanometre (nm) 10 −9 meters (m)

Measurements Units in meters

1 kilometre (km) 10 3 meters (m)
1 gigametre (Gm) 10 9 meters (m)
Volume
A measuring cylinder can measure liquid volume and Scalar and Vector Quantities
volume change when measuring irregular objects.
(Ensure you measure from the bottom of the Scalar Vector
meniscus) ✔ magnitude, X direction ✔ magnitude, ✔ direction
Force, Weight, Velocity,
Distance, Energy,
Acceleration, Momentum,
Temperature, Speed, Time,
Electric Field Strength and
Mass
Gravitational Field Strength

Calculating Vectors (Calculation or Graphically)

If forces W and Q are acting at right angles to each other

from a point
Calculate the magnitude by using:
F = W 2 + Q2 ​

Calculate the force by using:

W
tan(x) = Q ​

Time
Clock, Digital Timers (reading to 0.1s or better) to
measure time intervals

Finding the Thickness of 1 Paper

Measure the thickness of 100 sheets of paper.

Dividing your answer by 100 will then give an accurate
figure for one sheet

Système International (SI) Units 1.2. Motion

SI Units Units Speed: the distance travelled per unit of time.
Length metre (m) Use the equation
Mass kilogram (kg) v= s
t ​

Time seconds (s) Where:

Standard Notation is always in the power of 10 v is speed (m/s)

 s is displacement (m) Calculating Acceleration on Speed-Time Graphs
t is time (s)

d
AverageSpeed = t
​

Velocity: the speed in a given direction.

Distance-Time Graphs

Free Fall
Distance-Time Graphs The acceleration of free fall “ɡ” for an object near the
1 Acceleration surface of the Earth is constant and is approximately 9.8
2 At rest m/s².
3 Deceleration Do note! In free fall, there is No Air Resistance.
From 2023 onwards, the instructions will tell you to use
4 Constant Speed
9.8 m/s². This detail is very important for numerous
calculations in this chapter.

Terminal Velocity

Speed-Time Graphs

Speed-Time Graphs
1 Increasing Acceleration
2 Constant Speed
3 Decreasing Acceleration
4 Uniform Acceleration
5 Uniform Deceleration
6 Decreasing Deceleration
7 Increasing Deceleration

Acceleration
1. As speed increases, air resistance increases.
Acceleration: the change in velocity per unit of time.
2. The acceleration will decrease.
Δv
a = v−u
Δt = Δt ​ ​
3. Eventually, air resistance = weight, leading to zero
resultant force. This reaches terminal velocity.
Where:
4. When the parachute is deployed, the parachute
a is acceleration surface area increases, leading to increased air
v is the final velocity resistance, decelerating the skydiver.
u is the initial velocity 5. As the skydiver decelerates, air resistance will
Δt is the change in time. decrease until it equals the weight. A new terminal
velocity is reached again.
The difference between the initial and final velocity finds the 6. At last, when it touches down, the velocity quickly
change in velocity. drops to zero.

Change in velocity = final velocity − initial velocity

Δv = v − u 1.3. Mass and Weight
NOTE: Deceleration is the same as Negative Acceleration. Mass: a measure of the quantity of matter in an object at rest
relative to the observer. The mass of a body is a measure of
the amount of matter in it.
Weight: a gravitational force on an object that has mass.
Gravitational field strength g: as force per unit mass. Forces may produce changes in an object's size, shape
The equation for gravitational field strength is : and motion.
Solid friction is the force between two surfaces that may
g=W
m
​

impede motion and produce heating.

Gravitational field strength is equivalent to the Friction (drag) acts on an object moving through a liquid
acceleration of free fall. or a gas (air resistance).
Weights (and masses) may be compared using a balance.
The weight of an object is the effect of a gravitational field Springs
on its mass.
Hooke’s Law
Weights (and masses) may be compared using a balance. Extension is directly proportional to force
This is only true if the limit of proportionality is
not exceeded
1.4. Density
The limit of proportionality is the point at which the load-
Density: mass per unit volume. extension graph becomes non-linear.
The equation for density is:
p = mv ​ Properties of Hooke’s Law

p = density The graph starts from the origin (0)

m = mass The graph is regular and in a straight line
v = volume

With this equation, you can determine the density of a liquid,

of a regularly shaped solid

Finding the Density of an Irregularly Shaped Object

Use a balance to measure the mass of the object

Find the volume using the water displacement method

Spring Constant

The spring constant k is defined as force per unit extension.

\n Recall and use the equation:
k = Fx ​

Where:

F is the force or load (N)

x is the extension (cm)
k is the spring constant (N/m, N/cm, N/mm)

Use the formulae p = m

v
​
Forces And Resultants

Sinking Phenomenon It has magnitude and direction (vector quantity)

Usually, there is more than one force acting on the object
An object will sink in a liquid of lower density than its own
Newton’s First Law
e.g., Wood has a lower density than water, so it floats
For, steel has a higher density than water, so it sinks An object stays at rest or continues to move in a straight
line at a constant speed unless acted on by a resultant
force.
1.5. Forces
For example, if these forces were absent, an object would
A force is a push or a pull.
move on forever
 The lesser the external forces opposing a moving body, no resultant force
the smaller the force needed to keep it moving with clockwise = anticlockwise
constant velocity
Center of Gravity
Newton’s Second Law
Centre of Gravity: the position at which all the mass of the
F = ma object is acted at

F= force If the centre of gravity passes through the base of the

m= mass object, the object can topple
a = acceleration
Conditions for Making an Object Stable
This is the force that acts on an object going from point A
to point B Lower the centre of gravity
increase the area of the bottom
Friction

Friction is the force that opposes one surface moving or 1.6. Momentum
trying to move.
Momentum: as mass x velocity (kg m/s)
Static Friction: when the force is applied on the object at
the start, and the friction is at its highest value
The equation for momentum is p = mv
Dynamic Friction: when friction acts on the object when it Where:
moves, it is less than the maximum value.
p is momentum
m is mass
Centripetal Force v is velocity

The force that acts towards the curve's centre and keeps The resultant force is defined as the change in momentum
a body moving in a circular path is called the centripetal per unit of time:
force.
Describe the motion in a circular path due to a force F = Δp
Δt ​

perpendicular to the motion. ∴ F = mΔv

Δt ​

In a circular motion, if speed increases, the force needed

Impulse of a force: as force x time for which force acts:
increases (mass and radius are constants).
In a circular motion, if the radius decreases, the force Impulse = F Δt = Δ(mv)
needed increases (mass and speed are constants). In a
circular motion, an increased force is required to keep The Principle of the Conservation of Momentum
speed and radius constant if mass is increased.
The general law of physics, according to which the quantity
the direction of the force is always towards the centre of
called momentum that characterises motion, never changes
the circle
in an isolated collection of objects; that is, the total
Moments of Forces momentum of a closed system remains constant.

Moment of a force as a measure of its turning effect. 1.7. Energy, Work and Power
The moment of a force is defined as
Energy 'stores’ are kinetic, gravitational potential,
moment = force x perpendicular distance from pivot
chemical, elastic (strain), nuclear electrostatic and
internal (thermal).
Applying the Principle of Moments Energy is transferred between stores during events and
processes.
When a body is not moving the sum of the
Energy is transferred by forces (mechanical work done),
clockwise moments about any point equals the
electrical currents (electrical work done), heating,
sum of the anticlockwise moments about the
electromagnetic, sound, and other waves.
same point. There is no resultant moment on
an object in equilibrium
The Principle of the Conservation of Energy
clockwise = anticlockwise
The principle of energy conservation states that energy is
Apply the principle of moments in situations with more
neither created nor destroyed. It may transform from one
than one force on each side of the pivot.
type to another.
Conditions for No Resultant Force
 Energy can only be used by converting it from one form to
another. Unless energy is added from the outside, a
system always possesses the same quantity of energy.
The chemical energy of the batteries is transformed into
electrical energy in a torch, which is then converted into
light and heat. This energy is either absorbed or reflected
by the environment.

Kinetic Energy Formula

Mechanical or electrical work done is equal to the energy
transferred.

The Equation for (mechanical) Work Done is:

W = F d = ΔE
Units: Joules (J)
Where:

W = Work Done
F = magnitude of the force
d = the distance in the direction of the force

Energy Resources
Change in Gravitational Potential Energy
Useful energy may be obtained, or electrical power
generated, from:
Non-Renewable Energy
Renewable Energy Sources
Sources
Fossil Fuels Wind
Oils Tidal
Coal Hydro-electric
Natural Gas Geothermal
Solar (EM Waves from the
Nuclear
sun)
- Biofuels

Some sources of energy derive their energy from the sun.

These are:
Energy Transfer Diagrams
Coal: formed from dead trees that have used energy from
the sun to produce hydrocarbons that have become coal
under pressure
Biofuels: organic matter that is burned to produce energy
Hydroelectric: energy relies on the sun’s energy to run the
water cycle so energy can be harnessed
Wind - gets heated and rises and cooler air flows to fill the
space
Solar - Electromagnetic waves from the sun are captured
by photocells and turned into energy

Sankey Diagrams Environme

Renewability Availability Reliability Scale
Impac
Wind ✓ high low high on bird
Solar ✓ high low high low impa
Almost
Geothermal ✓ low high low
impac
Biofuels ✓ high high high low impa
 Environmentalchange in pressure = density x gravitational field strength x
Renewability Availability Reliability Scale
Impact change in depth
Hydro- impacts Δp = ρgΔh
✓ high high high
electric marine life Where:
Tidal ✓ high low low - Δp = pressure difference in pascals (Pa)
ρ = density in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
Greenhouse
Coal ☓ high high low g = gravitational field strength (N/kg)
gases
Δh = change in height/height of vertical column (m)
Radioactive
Nuclear ☓ low high high
substances
2. Thermal Physics
Boilers, turbines, and generators generate electricity in a
power plant.
2.1. Kinetic Model of Matter
Properties of the 3 States of Matter: The Molecular Model

Efficiency

Useful energy output

Efficiency = × 100
Total energy input
​

Power

Power: work done per unit of time and energy transferred per
unit of time.
W Particles that make up matter can be made of one or
P= ​

more atoms
t
ΔE As particles of gas strike the walls of containers, their
P= ​
momentum changes and a force is created, which can be
t calculated using the following:
P = power (watt)
W = work done (J) ΔP
Fnet =
ΔE = energy transferred (J) Δt
​ ​

T = time (s)
The temperature has an Absolute Zero: -273 ℃ (Zero
Kinetic Energy)
1.8. Pressure Brownian Motion is the random motion of particles
suspended in a fluid resulting from their collision with
Pressure is defined as force per unit area and measured in fast-moving atoms or molecules in the fluid.
N/m or Pa. 1 Pa = 1 N/m
The equation for pressure is: p = Fa ​
Pressure and Volume at Constant Temperature
Where: (Boyle’s Law)
p is pressure
F is force P, V, T (Constant)
1
a is area P ∝ P is inversely proportional to V
​

V
k
Pressure in Liquids P = ​

V
∴ k = PV
Pressure beneath a liquid's surface changes with the liquid's
depth and density. The equation gives the change in pressure
P1 V1 = P2 V2
​ ​ ​ ​

beneath the surface of a liquid:

Temperature Conversions Δθ = change in temperature (o C )

Celcius to Kelvin o C → K : K = o C + 273 Note: 1 Joule = 1 Watt for 1 sec \n J = W x t (s)

Kelvin to Celcius K → o C : o C = K − 273
Melting, Boiling, and Evaporation

2.2. Thermal Properties of Matter and Melting Boiling Evaporation

Temperature Occurs at a fixed Occurs at a fixed Occurs at any
temperature temperature temperature
Expansion Speed depends on Relatively fast Relatively slow
the energy supply process process
All materials expand as they get warmer
It takes place at the It takes place
It is impossible to restrict the thermal expansion of solids It takes place at the
surface of the solid throughout the
and liquids surface only
only liquid
In Solids, particles vibrate faster and expand slightly in
No bubbles Bubbles are formed No bubbles
volume when temperature increases.
In Liquids, particles move faster around each other and Temperature Temperature Temperature may
expand when temperature increases. remains constant remains constant change
In Gases, the volume increases by a large amount as they The heat from Heat from
External thermal
spread out surroundings or surroundings is
energy source
The increasing internal energy of an object : external source required enough
Heating
Rubbing
Shaking
2.3. Thermal Energy Transfers
Increased temperature → Increased Internal Energy →
Conduction Convection Radiation
Increase in average kinetic energy of particles
Infrared Radiation
e.g.- Bimetallic Strip Fluid Conductors and
Thermal
are trapped in air Electromagnetic
When two equal lengths of metals are attached, one conductors Particle
pockets to prevent waves. All objects
metal expands more, and the strip bends. to Particle
convection flow emit and absorb
The Expansion of Ice radiation
As water is cooled to 4°C, it contracts. However, between 4°C Through movement Fluid with more
It depends on
and 0°C it expands; water has its maximum density at 4°C and vibration of energy rises above
temperature,
delocalized less energy to
colour, surface
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometer electrons \n Not for create a convection
area, and texture
Vacuums current.
It tells us how hot the body is Ex: Radiators or Ex: Vacuum of
the liquid in a glass bulb expands up a capillary tube when Ex: Kitchen Pans
heaters space
the bulb is heated
this tells us the temperature of the object
Radiation vs Colour and Texture
Specific Heat Capacity

The mass of the object

The material of the object
The temperature change required
The amount of energy required to change the
temperature of a material depends on its Specific Heat
Capacity.

ΔE
c=
mΔθ
​

Where :

m = mass (kg)
c = specific heat capacity ( J/K g o C )
ΔE = energy provided ( J )
Radiation vs Temperature and Surface Area The principal focus (focal point) is the point on the
principal axis where parallel waves passing through the
Temperature ∝ Surface area ∝ Energy emitted lens meet.
The principal axis is a line of symmetry passing through
the centre of the lens.
3. Waves The focal length is the distance from the centre of the lens
to the principal focus.
A virtual image is formed when diverging rays are
3.1. Light extrapolated backwards and do not form a visible
projection on a screen.
Light: an electromagnetic wave capable of passing through
free space or a material medium in the form of varying Position of The Relative Size Nature of
electric and magnetic fields. Position of Image
Object of an Image Image
Normal is a line drawn at right angles between the Point-sized, very Real and
At Infinity At Focus
boundary of two materials. small Inverted
The angle of incidence is the angle made by the incident Real and
Beyond 2F Between F and 2F Diminished
ray to the normal. The angle of reflection is the angle Inverted
made by the reflected ray to the normal. Real and
The image formed by a plane mirror has the following
At 2F At 2F Same size
Inverted
characteristics: same size, same distance from the
Between F Real and
mirror, and virtual. Beyond 2F Enlarged
and 2F Inverted
The Law of Reflection states that the angle of incidence is
Real and
equal to the angle of reflection. At Focus F At Infinity Huge, very large
Inverted
The angle of refraction is the angle made by the refracted
ray to the normal. On the same side
Between F Virtual and
The critical angle is the angle made to the normal in the of the lens as the Enlarged
and O Erect
denser material when the angle of refraction is 90°. object

The Equation for Critical Angle is: A single lens is used as a magnifying glass.
A converging lens is used to correct long-sightedness.
A diverging lens is used to correct short-sightedness

Dispersion of Light
The Dispersion of Light is shown by the refraction of white
light passing through a glass prism.

Refractive index, n: as the ratio of the speeds of a wave in

two different regions

The Equation for the Refractive Index is:

The seven colours (red, orange, yellow, green, blue,

indigo, and violet) of white light increase from red to
violet, and the wavelength decreases from red to blue.
Visible light of a single frequency or wavelength is
described as monochromatic.

Optical fibers are used mainly in telecommunications. Waves

A thin, converging lens converges a parallel beam of light.
A thin diverging lens diverges a parallel beam of light.
3.2. Sound
Longitudinal waves produced by vibrating sources are known
as sound waves.

Sound waves require a medium to be transmitted (such

as air).
Compressions: high pressure
Rarefactions - low pressure
Solids transmit sound the fastest, liquids are slower, and
gases are the slowest.
Wavelength (λ): distance between two crests or troughs,
Pitch, Amplitude, Frequencies and Echoes measured in mm cm or m
Frequency: Number of complete waves that go past a given
The louder a sound wave is, the greater its amplitude. point per unit of time.
The higher the pitch of a sound wave, the higher its Measured in hertz (Hz) 1Hz = 1 complete wave per unit
frequency. second
An echo is a reflection of sound waves. Amplitude: The maximum particle displacement of the wave
from the undisturbed position, measured in mm cm or m
Methods of Determining the Speed of Sound in Air Speed: Distance travelled by the wave per unit time,
measured in m/s, cm/s or mm/s
Make a noise at a known, significant distance from a solid Wavefront: A line drawn to represent the peaks of a wave in
wall and record the time it takes for the echo (reflected two dimensions. The distance between two adjacent
sound) to be heard, then use speed = distance/time, wavefronts is the wavelength of the wave. Wavefronts can be
considering that the sound has to travel there and back. used to show some properties of waves.

Speed of Sound in Matters and the Human Audible Relationship between speed,
Range
frequency and wavelength:
Sound travels at 343 meters per second in air, 1493
meters per second in water, and 5130 meters per second wave speed = frequency × wavelength ; v =f ×λ
in steel.
Reflection, refraction and diffraction (using water waves in a
The audible frequency range for a healthy human ear is
ripple tank) :
20 Hz to 20000 Hz.

Ultrasound

Ultrasound: sound having a frequency of more than 20000 Hz

Ultrasound is partially reflected when it reaches a border

between two media. The remaining waves pass through.
A transceiver can produce ultrasound and collect the
reflected waves to determine the distance of objects
below the surface. Ultrasound is utilized for SONAR and
medical imaging without ionizing radiation.

3.3. General Properties of Waves

 1 1
Frequency = f=
period (s)
​ ​

T
1 1
Period (s) = T=
Frequency Frequency
​ ​