Chem finals

13.1 atoms and elements

- All matter is made up of small particles called atoms
Atom
- The smallest part of an element
Element
- Is made up of one kind of atom
- First letter should be in upper case and the second letter if there is any should be in lower case
- 118 elements have been identified in 2017
o 92 occurred naturally; Rest have been made
- Can be classified as metal, non-metals and semi-metals
Molecule
- Some elements are made up of particles known as molecules
- Consists of atoms of the same kind
- Hydrogen -> hydrogen molecule -> two hydrogen atoms
- Some elements exist as molecules which means a group of atoms
- Can be presented by chemical formula -> indicates the number of atoms it contains
Chemical formula
- For example H2O (2 hydrogen atoms, 1 oxygen atom
element group period atomic neutron Mass Metal? symbol ions f E.A

Hydrogen non 1 1 0 1 N-M H H+/- H2 1

Helium 0 1 2 2 4 M He 2
Lithium 1 2 3 4 7 M Li L+ 2,1
Beryllium 2 2 4 5 9 M Be 2,2
Boron 3 2 5 6 11 S-M B 2,3
Carbon 4 2 6 6 12 N-M C 2,4
Nitrogen 5 2 7 7 14 N-M N N3- N2 2,5
Oxygen 6 2 8 8 16 N-M O O2- O2 2,6
Fluorine 7 2 9 10 19 N-M F F- F2 2,7
Neon 0 2 10 10 20 N-M Ne 2,8
Sodium 1 3 11 12 23 M Na Na+ 2,8,1
Magnesium 2 3 12 12 24 M Mg Mg2+ 2,8,2
Aluminum 3 3 13 14 27 M Al Al3+ 2,8,3
silicon 4 3 14 14 28 S-M Si 2,8,4
phosphors 5 3 15 16 31 N-M P P3- P4 2,8,5
sluphur 6 3 16 16 32 N-M S S2- S8 2,8,6
chlorine 7 3 17 18 35 N-M Cl Cl- Cl2 2,8,7
argon 0 3 18 22 40 N-M Ar 2,8,8
Potassium 1 4 19 20 39 M K K+ 2,8,8,1
calcium 2 4 20 20 40 M Ca Ca2+ 2,8,8,2
Metal Non metal
Physicals state Solid at room temp Non-metal solid or gas- room temp
(mercury is liquid room temp) (bromine liquid at room temp)
appearance Shiny in appearance Dull in appearance
Strength Most are strong Are usually brittle
Melting and boiling point High Low
Density High density (denser than water Low density
Thermal conductivity Good conductor of heat Poor conductor of heat
Electrical conductivity Good conductor of electricity Poor conductor of electricity
malleability Are malleable, can be bent or present Not malleable
into different shapes
ductility They can be pulled into thin wires Not ductile
Semi- metals
- Boron silicon
- Have both properties (metals and nonmetals)
- Semi-metals do not conduct electricity
o When they are mixed with a small amount of impurity, they conduct electricity quite well
o Semi-conductor
 Silicon is widely used in the electronics industry to make computer chips
Exceptions
- Sodium  Metal
 Is soft that it can be cut easily
 Has a low melting point (below 100˚C)
- Carbon  Non- metal
 Can exist in different forms
 Diamond -> the hardest natural substance, Very shiny, and has extremely
high boiling and melting point
 Graphite -> can conduct electricity
The structure of an atom
- Very tiny “solid” spheres -> can never be divided
- Later found out that it was made up of even smaller particles
o Protons, neutrons, electrons
- Center
o Very tiny and extremely dense -> nucleus
o Tightly packed protons and neutrons
o Atom -> mostly empty space occupied by electrons
o Electrons
 Move very fast around the nucleus
o Neutron
 No charge
o Protons
 Positively charged
Comparing masses
- Proton and neutron have about the same mass
- The nucleus is positively charged
- Electrons are negatively charged, much lighter than protons and neutrons
Sub-atomic particles Location Relative mass Relative charge
Protons (p) Inside the nucleus 1 +1 (positive)
Neutrons (n) Inside the nucleus 1 0 (neutral)
-
Electrons (e ) Moves around the 1/1836 (negligible) -1 (negative)
nucleus
- The nucleus of an atom has most of its mass
- The size of the nucleus is like the size of a pea in a football stadium
- The rest of the atom is mostly spaces
- Electrons move very fast around the nucleus
- An atom has no overall charge, the number of protons and electrons of an atom must be the same
Atomic number and mass number
- Atomic number
o ‘Z’
o The number of protons in the atom
o Has its own unique atomic number
o The atomic number of an atom is equal to the number of electrons in an atom it is a unique
number that indicates what element the atom is.
 - Mass number
o ‘A’
o Sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the atom
o Iron atom (26 protons and 30 neutrons) -> 26+30 = 56
o The mass number of an atom is equal to the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in
the atom
o When comparing masses
 Only the numbers of protons and neutrons are considered
 The relative masses of protons and neutrons are comparable to each other `
Electron
o ‘e-‘
o Has the same number as protons
o The mass of the electron is so small that it can be neglected
Ions
- Atom is electrically neutral because it contains an equal number of protons and electrons
- Loses one or more electrons -> positively charged ion
- Gains one or more electrons -> negatively charged ion (get more electrons)
- Balanced ionic half equation (involve e-)
- Generally, atoms tend to lose an electron
- Losing electron -> positive ion (metals  cations)
Na --- Na++ e-
Sodium atom  sodium ion + electron
- Gaining electron -> negative charge (non-metals  anions)
Cl + e---- Cl-
Chlorine + electron  chloride ion

13.2 periodic table

- Was called Mendeleev’s periodic table

- Modern periodic table
o More than 100 elements
o In order of increasing the atomic number
o Hydrogen (atomic number=1) is the first in the table
- The columns (vertical) are called groups
 o Periodic change
o Elements of the same group have similar chemical properties
 Mg and Ca react with hydrochloric acid to give hydrogen gas
o Elements of the same group differ in reactivity
 Ca reacts with hydrochloric acid more vigorously than Mg
o Main group metal (group1, 2) increases reactivity down the group
o Non-metal (group 4-6) decreases down the group
 These react with sodium
o Special groups
 Group 1: alkali metals
 Group 2: alkaline earth metals
 Group 7: halogens
 Group 0: noble gases
- The rows (horizontals) are called period
o From left to right across the period
o Elements are arranged from metals  semi-metals  non-metals
- the block in the middle is called transition metals
o Transition metals appear from period 4
o Properties are not the same
o Relatively high boiling point
o Very dense
Chemical properties ≠physical properties
- Elements are listed according to chemical properties instead of physical properties
Hydrogen is unique, it bears no similarity to any of the groups, therefore does not belong to any group and
hence was placed in the middle of the periodic table
Common elements and their uses
Helium (group0)
- Filling balloon
Aluminum (group 3) (non-toxic) (corrosion-resistant)
- Making soft drink cans
Phosphorus (group5)
- Making matches
Chlorine (group 7)
- Killing germs in swimming pools and drinking water
Lithium (group1)
- Making lithium-ion batteries for mobile phones, computers, etc
Magnesium (group2)
- Added to fireworks to produce brilliant white sparks
Silicon (group 4)
- Making glass
- Silicon dioxide
- Computer chips
Oxygen (group 6)
- Used to help patients with breathing difficulties
Electronic arrangements of atoms
- Arranged in electron shells -> which can hold a different number of electrons
- Max no of e- for the nth electron shell = 2n2
- 2,8,18,32
- But for the 3rd shell of the 1-20 element, (valent) can only hold 8 electrons at most
- Period -number of electron shells occupied, group- number of outermost shell electrons
- Period = no of shell
- Atomic number= no of proton =no of electron = electronic arrangement added up
 - 2,8,8,1 (2-> first) (8-> second) (8-> third) (1-> forth)
- Atoms are stable if their outer most shell is fully occupied
o They do not bond with others, they do no react with other they are unreactive
o Atoms of group VII/0 (noble gases) are stable in nature
 Duplet rule
 Outermost shell is completely filled with 2 electrons
 Only true for period one element
 Octet rule
 Octet=8
 The outermost shell is completely filled with 8 electrons
 They are very stable
How do draw the electronic diagram

- Use a dot or a cross to represent the number of electrons

- The big circles represent the number of shell
- Only draw the cross or dot on the left right up and down position
of the big circle
- When is told to only draw the electronic diagram showing the
outermost electron shell
o Only draw the last circle with the last group of electron

Formation of ions
- Atoms of elements other than noble gases are not stable
- They bond with other atoms to make in order to gain the same arrangement of an outer-shell
electron as a noble gases atom
o Because it is a stable arrangement
- Positive ions -> cation
o It is formed by losing electron(s) , usually comes from metals
o The number of positive charges on a metal ion is equal to the group number of the metal of
the periodic table
- Negative ions -> anions
o Formed by gaining electron(s), usually comes from nonmetals
o The number of negative charges on a nonmetal is equal to 8 minus the group number of the
non-metals in the period table
Lithium original electronic arrangement 2,1 Oxygen original electronic arrangement 2,6
It needs to lose one electron or gain 7 electrons to It needs to gain 2 electrons or lose 6 electrons to
make itself stable make itself stable (8)
Chooses to lose 1 electron (because it is easier) Choose to gain 2 electrons (because it is easier)
New electronic arrangement 2 (He) -> Li+ New electronic arrangement 2,8 (Ne) -> O2-

Explanation of the reactivity of metals and non-metals down the group

- Ca (group 4) is more reactive than Mg (group 3)
- The easier for the elements above to form ions the more reactive they are
- Non-metal -> bigger atom, bigger shell, less reactive
- Metal -> bigger atom, bigger shell, more electron shell more reactive
 - When it is more reactive (bigger atom) it has weaker attraction between the positively charged
nucleus and the negatively charged electron thus makes it easier to lose electron

Metal (group1,2) Non-metal (group 5,6,7)

Forming ions by Losing electron Gaining electron
The radius of atom down the group Increase Increase
Larger radius -> more occupied
electron shell in between
Force between the nucleus and the Decrease Decrease
outermost shell electrons
Ease in forming ions down the group Increase (losing) Decrease (gaining)
Reactivity down the group Increase (easier to form ion) Decrease (harder to form)
Names and formulae of simple ions from first 20 elements (memorise)
cations + anions -
+ 3+ -
Hydrogen ion H Aluminum ion Al Hydride ion H Phosphide ion P3-
+
Lithium ion Li Potassium ion K+ Nitride ion N3- Sulphide ion S2-
Sodium ion Na+ Calcium ion Ca2+ Oxide ion O2- Chloride ion Cl
Magnesium ion Mg2+ Fluoride ion F-

- Simple ion (monoatomic ion) from a single atom

- All simple ions and H+ ions are cations they are while all non-metal ions are anions
o Anions end with -ide
- An atom and its ion have different physical and chemical properties because they have different
numbers of electrons
o After gaining or losing electron(s), the identity of the element does not change
 Still the same atomic symbol
 No change in the number of protons inside the nucleus
Names and formulae of transition metals ions and polyatomic ions (memorise)
Cations + Anions -

Ammonium ion NH4+ Iron (ll) ion Fe2+ Hydroxide ion OH- Sulphate ion SO42-

Silver ion Ag+ Iron (lll) ion Fe3+ Cyanide ion CN- Sulphite ion SO32-

Zinc ion Zn2+ Lead (ll) ion Pb2+ Nitrate ion NO3- Silicate ion SiO32-

Copper (l) ion Cu+ Cobalt (ll) ion Co2+ Nitrite ion NO2- Chromate ion CrO42-

Copper (ll) ion Cu2+ Nickel (ll) ion Ni2+ Hydrogencarbonate Ion HCO3- Dichromate ion Cr2O72-

Mercury (l) ion Hg+ Manganese (ll) ion Mn2+ Hydrogensulphate ion HSO4- Carbonate ion CO32-

Mercury (ll) ion Hg2+ Chromium (lll) ion Cr3+ Permanganate ion MnO4- Phosphate ion Po43-

- Polyatomic ion is derived from a group of atoms

- (ll) = 2+ (lll) =3+
- IDE = simple anion (except OH- CN-)
- ITE = polyatomic anion with less oxygen atom less oxygen
- ATE= polyatomic anion with more oxygen atom more oxygen
- H+ (hydrogen ion)+ CO32-(carbonate ion) = HCO3- hydrogencarbonate ion
Colour of ions
Name Colour Name Colour
2- 2+
Chromate ion CrO4 Yellow Cobalt(ll) ion Co Pink
Dichromate ion Cr2O72- Orange Copper (ll) ion Cu2+ Blue
2+
Manganese (ll) ion Mg Colourless/ Nickel (ll) ion Ni2+ Green
 Very pale pink
2+
Iron (ll) ion Fe Pale green Permanganate ion MnO4- Purple
3+
Iron (lll) ion Fe Yellow Chromium (lll) ion Cr3+ Green
- Potassium chloride sulphur sodium nitrate hydroxide hydrogencarbonate
- Are all colourless which is transparent ≠ white since white is opaque
Experiment
Classifying some elements into metals and non-metals
1. Use a piece of sandpaper to polish the surface of copper, zinc, tin and aluminum
2. Observe whether the appearance of each sample is shiny or dull, and record observation
3. Set up a circuit and connect copper to the circuit.
Does the light bulb light up? Record the observation
4. Repeat step 3 with other samples
5. Place copper in a mortar. Use a pestle to hit it a few times.
can it break into smaller pieces easily, record observation
6. Repeat step 5 with other samples
Results
copper zinc tin aluminum Sulphur
Appearance shinny shinny shinny shinny Dull
Light up? yes yes yes Yes no
Can break? yes no no no No
Conclusion
copper zinc tin Aluminum Sulphur
Electricity yes yes yes yes No
Strong yes yes yes yes No
classify metal metal metal metal Non-metal
Do elements in the same group have a similar reaction with dilute hydrochloric acid?
1. Label three test tubes A, B,C. fill each tube with 5cm3of dilute hydrochloric acid. Put three test tubes in a test
tube rack
2. Add two calcium granules to test tube A. stopper test tube A for one minute
3. Observe any gas bubbles given out. Also, touch the bottom of the test tube. Is heat released during the
reaction? Record your observation
4. Remove the stopper from test tube a and immediately place a burning splint over the mouth of the test tube
What happens to the burning splint? Is any gas produced? If eyes what gas is produced? Record operation
5. repeat 2-4 with two magnesium granules
6. repeat 2-4 with a spoonful of carbon powder
results
Any gas bubbles Is heat released What gas is produced
Calcium Yes yes Hydrogen
Magnesium Yes Yes Hydrogen
carbon No no No
Conclusion
- elements reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid
o calcium and magnesium
- do all reactions produce the same gas
o yes (hydrogen)
- are all the elements in the same group
o yes (calcium and magnesium)
o group 1
comparing the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on calcium and magnesium
1. make a mark about 7cm from the bottom of a test tube
2. fill the test tube to the top with tap water
3. place the test tube upside-down in a beaker half-filled with water. Put the end of the delivery tube under the
mouth of the test tube
4. filling a boiling tube with 15cm3of dilute hydrochloric acid. add 0.5g of calcium powder to the acid.
Immediately fit the stopper with the delivery tube into the boiling tube
(the method is called displacement of water of gas collect)
 5. Using a stopwatch, measure the time taken for the water level to reach the marking, and record your result
in the table below
6. Repeat step1-5 with 0.5g of magnesium powder, record the observation
Result
Time taken
Calcium 17 (shorter time)
magnesium 20s (longer time)
Conclusion  Calcium Is more reactive
13.3 compound and mixture
 Matter has pure substances and mixtures; can be separated by physical methods
 Pure substance has elements and compounds; can be separated by chemical methods
Elements  pure substance; cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical means
Compounds  pure substance; consisting of two or more elements chemically joined together
Mixtures  impure substance; consisting of two or more pure substances physically mixed tgt
Not chemically joined tgt; (pure substance) element and compounds
Mixture of elements, of compounds, of elements and compounds
Compounds
compounds Chemical formula Constituent elements
Water H2o Hydrogen oxygen
Table salt NaCl Sodium chlorine
glucose C6H12O6 Carbon hydrogen oxygen
Quartz (silicon dioxide) SiO2 Silicon oxygen
Chalk (calcium carbonate) CaCO3 Calcium carbon oxygen
Hydrochloric acid HCl Hydrogen chlorine
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Hydrogen Sulphur oxygen
Nitric acid HNO3 Hydrogen nitrogen oxygen
Lime water (calcium hydroxide) Ca(OH)2 Calcium oxygen hydrogen
5 features of a compound
- Constituent elements must be in a fixed ratio
o The ratio is indicated in the chemical formula  NaCl (1:1) (toxic) C6H12O6 (1:2:1) (non-toxic)
- Energy is usually taken in or released during the formation
Neutralization of acid and alkalis to give salt and water Released
Magnesium reacting with hydrochloric acid Released
Electrolysis of water to give hydrogen and oxygen Taken in
Burning petroleum in car engine to give carbon dioxide and water Released
Photosynthesis of plants Taken in
Decomposition of baking soda to produce carbon dioxide, make a spongier cake Taken in
- Properties are very different from its constituent element
o Physical  hydrogen and oxygen  gases; water  liquid
o Chemical  hydrogen flammable; oxygen supports burning; water none
- Purity: compounds have sharp melting points and boiling points
o Pure substance  sharp boiling point (in a range not out range) (no impurities)
o Mixtures boil or melt over a range of temperatures (not sharp)
- Can be separated into its constituent element by chemical methods
o Copper can be separated from copper (ll) oxide by heating with carbon
o Aluminum can be separated from aluminum oxide by electrolysis, the decomposition of a compound
using electricity
o Lysis  breaking down of something
5 features of the mixture
1. Can be mixed in any proportion
2. No energy change when the mixture is formed
3. Properties similar to those of the substances making up the mixture
4. No sharp bp and mp (impure)
5. Can be separated by simple physical method
Formation of a compound involves chemical change
- Chemical change is a change in which new substances are formed (burning)
Formation of a mixture involves physical change
- Physical change is a change in which no new substances are formed (change state)
Crystallization, sublimation
When asked if the thing is a compound and mixture; answer what it is and why
- Bronze  mixture because it is a mixture of two elements: copper and tin
- Glucose  compound because it is a pure substance with more than one element
Chemical equation
1. Is a statement in which shows the relative numbers of particles involved in a reaction
2. It gives information about the reaction
o LHS is the reactant involved, RHS is the product produced
o S solid; L liquid; G gas; AQ aqueous solution (water)
3. Important to balance a chemical equation so that the no of each type of particle is the same on both sides,
particles cannot be destroyed and created
4. Useful to consider polyatomic ions, as single units in balancing an equation
5. The coefficient in front of a chemical formula is different from a subscript
4H2O 4 water molecules; 2 hydrogen atoms in one water molecule and x the coefficient
o 8h4o
o The triangle shows heat is needed, one arrow  irreversible reaction
o Two arrows show a reversible reaction  
Metal ores method type ease discovery reactivity
Potassium Potassium salt in sea electrolysis chemical Most recent Most
water KCL difficult reactive
Sodium Common salt NaCL of Chemical
Calcium Limestone CaCO3 molten Chemical
Magnesium Magnesite MgCO3 ores Chemical
Aluminum Bauxite Al2O3 - Chemical
Zinc Zinc blende ZnS Sulphide Chemical
heat in air
iron Haematite Fe2O3  oxide Chemical
lead Galena Pbs Oxide  Chemical
heating
copper Copper oxide CuO with charcoal Chemical
 metal
copper Copper pyrite CuFeS2 Sulphide  Chemical
heat in air
mercury Cinnabar Hgs  metal Chemical
silver Silver glance Ag2S heat Chemical
Free in nature Mechanical Physical
separation
platinum Free in nature Mechincal Physical
gold Free in nautre seperation Physical easiest Earliest least
Most reaction  potassium
(first five most reactive metals can only be extracted by electrolysis)
Extraction of metals  physical and chemical
Physical  eg gold panning , people crush pieces of gold ores into smaller pieces then but the pieces into a pan
containing water when people shake the pan, sand and small pieces of rock are washed away by water leaving
behind denser gold grains
Chemical  by heating the oxides with carbon
When asked if the thing is a compound and mixture; answer what it is and why
- Bronze  mixture because it is a mixture of two elements: copper and tin
- Glucose  compound because it is a pure substance with more than one element
Chemical equation
1. Is a statement in which shows the relative numbers of particles involved in a reaction
2. It gives information about the reaction
o LHS is the reactant involved, RHS is the product produced
o S solid; L liquid; G gas; AQ aqueous solution (water)
 3. Important to balance a chemical equation so that the no of each type of particle is the same on both sides,
particles cannot be destroyed and created
4. Useful to consider polyatomic ions, as single units in balancing an equation
5. The coefficient in front of a chemical formula is different from a subscript
4H2O 4 water molecules; 2 hydrogen atoms in one water molecule and x the coefficient
o 8h4o
o The triangle shows heat is needed, one arrow  irreversible reaction
o Two arrows show a reversible reaction
Experiment 13.6 (bk 51-54)
Part A
Word equation: Iron(lll) oxide + carbon – heat iron + carbon dioxide (heating is required)
Iron(lll) oxide (fe2O3) reacts with sodium carbonate, the sodium carbonate fuses easily and brings the Iron(lll) oxide
(fe2O3) into close contact with the carbon (C)
Chemical equation: 2 fe2O3 (s)+ 3C(s) –heat 4Fe(s)+ 3CO2(g)
- Carbon is oxidized (gaining oxygen) by the iron(lll) oxide to form carbon dioxide
- The iron (lll) oxide is reduced (removing oxygen) by the carbon to form metallic iron
o Iron (Fe) can be extracted
o Is the substance that is ferromagnetic that moves with the magnet after the reactions
Part B
copper(ll)oxide(CuO) is heated with the charcoal/carbon powder (C) in air copper is extracted
word equation: copper(ll) oxide + carbon – heat copper+ carbon oxide
chemical equation: 2CuO(s) + C(s) – heat 2Cu(s) + CO2(g)
- Carbon is oxidized by the copper(ll) oxide to form carbon dioxide
- The copper(ll) oxide is reduced by the carbon to form metallic copper
Copper (Cu) can be extracted, it is dull that appears reddish-brown in color after reaction
Why is the lid half open but not fully opened tho
- because it is to release carbon dioxide air in the crucible
why is the crucible broken in half after reaction
- it is due to the large temperature difference
Experiment 13.7 (bk 55-56)
- copper turnings of iron powder, copper(ll) oxide, iron(lll) oxide, sample x and sample y
- add 10 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid to a test tube, put one spatula of turnings into the test tube
substance appearance Gas bubble Dissolve in acid
Copper Shiny no No
Iron shiny Yes Yes
Copper(ll) oxide Dull No Yes
Iron(lll)oxide Dull No Yes
Iron (residue in 13.6) Yes Yes
Copper (dull solid pieces in 13.6) No No
magnesium Shiny Yes Yes
Magnesium oxide dull No Yes
Do the residue and shiny solid pieces react with dilute sulphuric acid in a similar way to iron and copper respectively
 yes
Do the residue and shiny solid pieces contain iron and copper respectively
- yes they react with dilute sulphuric acid in a similar way to iron and copper
do metals react with dilute sulphuric acid in a way similar to metal oxides  NO
SAMPLE X is likely to be metal  behaves similarly to iron
SAMPLE Y likely to be metal oxide  behaves similarly to the other 2 metal oxides
Metal oxide+ carbon – heat metal + carbon dioxide
Electrolysis
Extraction of aluminum from molten aluminum oxide (Al2O3) from its ore Bauxite
Ions in aluminium oxide is more free to move upon melting
- melting point is over 2000c it would be very expensive to heat the aluminum oxide to this temperature. It
dissolves in molten cryolite to lower its melting point
- Allow electrolysis to happen at about 950 less heat energy required lower operation cost
- During electrolysis —> al is produced in molten form at the negative electrode
 o Molten aluminum sinks to the bottom of 5e tank and runs off at intervals
o Aluminium ions + electrons ————> aluminium

- During electrolysis —> oxygen (o2) is produced he positive electrode

o Oxide ions ——-> oxygen +electrons
o The o2 reacts with the carbon electrodes to from carbon dioxide
o Wears away the carbon electrodes and need to be replaced periodically
o Overall chemical reaction
12e- + 4Al3+ —> 4Al
602- —-> 3O2+12e-
=4Al 3+ + 602- ——> 4Al + 3O2
13.5 materials of the modern world
Alloys  Mixture of a metal and one or a few other elements
- By heating the metal and other elements tgt  melt and mix
Main advantage
- Metals become much harder, less malleable and less ductile
o Since the different metals are with different size  more difficult for the each layer of metal to slide
(More corrosion resistant)
Use of alloys
- Steel is an alloy of iron  95% iron, 5% carbon
o Steel is strong than iron  used as frames of many buildings and construct bridge
- Stainless steel alloy of iron  70%iron, 20% chromium 9.5% nickel, 0.5%
o It is stronger and more resistant to corrosion than iron  cooking utensils
Brass Copper zinc Musical instrument door knobs and keys
Bronze Copper tin statues
Solder Tin lead Joining electronic parts in circuit boards
Carbon steel Iron carbon Motor car bodies, construction materials
Titanium alloy Titanium aluminium vanadium Aircraft, spacecraft bodies glasses frames
Duralumin Aluminium copper magnesium Aircraft bodies
manganese
Coinage metals Copper zinc nickel tin Make coin
Carat gold Gold (major) silver copper Ornaments coins
Crude oil
- Most important natural resources (fuels and plastics  crude oil)
- Thick, black liquid (viscous), pungent odour, thick dark brown
- Complex mixture of hydrocarbons  with different molecular sizes
- Simplest  methane (CH4)  some may have to 70 carbon atoms
- Some are gases (C1-C4) or solid, but soluble in liquid (C5-C17)
methane ethane propane Butane
CH4 C2H6 C3H8 C4H10
CnH2n+2  it ends with ANE
How is crude oil turned into useful material
- Cannot be burnt directly  when it is burnt directly  black smoke and harmful gases
- Soot, “sooty flames”, carbon monoxide  harmful
- Must be refined before is made useful
- Crude oil is a fuel  when it is burnt the fire triangle is completed so it is more like burning it than distilling it
- A hydrocarbon that is larger  higher boiling point  based on the size and boiling point (can be separated
by fractional distillation)  by fraction
o Each fraction contains a mixture
hydrocarbon  small difference of BP
EXPERIMENT
1. Put some wool into a boiling tube and add 5cm of
crude oil to the boiling tube (glass wool should be
soaked with crude oil
2. Set up apparatus
 3. Heat the crude oil gently, move it back and forth so it is heated uniformly
4. Collect the distillate with a BP form room temp to 100ºC, remove and stopper the test tube label it as one
(as it is the first fraction)
5. Heat the remaining crude oil more strongly  use another tube with BP form 100º-150º remove it and
stopper it. Label it as 2
6. Repeat 5 to collect the third fraction (BP 150º-200º), forth fraction (BP 200º-250º)
7. Turn off the Bunsen burner
Experiment
1. Examine the colour of each fraction in previous experiment
2. Tilt the tubes of each fraction and see how the fraction flows, if it flows slowly  high viscosity
3. Divide a piece of filter paper into four equal sectors, use a new dropper each time add a drop of each
fraction onto the sectorscan see how fast the fraction driesvolatility (ease of evaporation)
4. Using a dropper , add five drops of the first fraction o`to an evaporating dish, light it with a brunig splint
 if it burns easily, higher flammability  see the amount of black smoke produced too
Room -100 100-150 150-200 200-250
Colour Pale yellow yellow yellow Brown
Viscosity lowest 2 3 Highest
Volatility Easiest 2 3 Hardest
Flammability Highest 3 2 Lowest
Black smoke least 2 3 Most
Viscosity  how sticky ; Volatility how easily a liquid evaporates; flammability how easily a fuel burns; soot
 the black smoke produced
Molecular size increase Intermolecular force  larger molecules are stronger
- Boiling point increase More heat is needed to overcome these stronger
- Volatility of liquid decrease attraction to separate the molecule
- Viscosity of liquid increase  higher intermolecular force (difficult for molecules to change position
o Thicker so more sticky they are more attracted to each other
- Flammability decrease
Co  poisonous it reduces the capacity of blood to carry oxygen
fractional distillation  fractionating tower
- Crude oil is heated to 400 at the bottom of the furnace
- Boiling points of fraction increase DOWN the tower
- The liquid will be forced to the bottom  vapor rise
high in the tower
lighter fractions more effectively with CLEAR FLAME, more
expensive
heavier fraction less effectively with sootier flame  cheaper
for fuels
1. Crude oil is heated in a furnace becomes vapor and
liquid
2. The liquid flows to the bottom
3. The vapor in the crude oil rises up
Different hydrocarbons in vapor cools and condense at
a different level
- Hydrocarbon with larger molecule  higher boiling
point condense at lower hotter level
- Hydrocarbon with smaller molecules  lower boiling
point condense at higher cooler level

Below 40 Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Domestic fuel taxi; raw material for manufacture
40-70 Petrol (gasoline) Fuel for motor car
70-170 Naphtha Raw material for town gas, plastic, chemical
170-250 Kerosene Fuel for aeroplanes, domestic fuel
250-350 Disel oil Fuel for heavy vehicles (lorries, buses)
 Over 350 Fuel oil For ships; burnt to generate electricity in power plant
Over 350 Lubricating oil and wax Make lubricating oil and candles
Over 350 Bitumen Covering roads
- Most are used a fuel
o transportation domestic and industrial
- LPG  For domestic heating and cooking
- Fuel oil  generating electricity in power station
Source of raw material
- For making different chemical
o Plastic products, Paints, Detergents, Solvents
- They dissolve substances that are insoluble in water