Chapter

1
HUMAN
ORGAN
SYSTEMS

STUDENTS’ LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying this chapter, students will be able to:

þ Describe the structure and functions of the nervous system.
þ Describe the working of the nervous system.
þ Explain reflex action with an example.
þ Differentiate between voluntary and involuntary actions.
þ Define excretion.
þ Draw and label human excretory system.
þ Describe the role of kidney in excretion of nitrogenous wastes.
þ Investigate the possible causes of malfunctioning of kidneys.
þ Suggest techniques to cure problems of kidneys.

In previous classes, we have learnt about various organs and their functions in human
body. In this chapter we will study the functions of human brain, spinal cord and nerves
which constitutes nervous system. Kidneys, their role in excretion, kidney problems
and their treatment will also be discussed.
1.1 Nervous System
Whenever a person gets injury on his foot while walking, he feels pain and his hand
immediately reaches the injured site. Who asked the hand to reach the site? In fact, there
is an organ system in our body which carries messages form one part of the body to
another and coordinates body functions. This system is called nervous system.
 Human Organ Systems 2 General Science 8

Human nervous system consists of Brain

Central
central nervous system (CNS) and nervous
peripheral nervous system (PNS) system
Spinal
(Figure 1.1). The central nervous cord
system is composed of brain and spinal Peripheral
nervous
cord. Peripheral nervous system system
consists of a network of nerves which
connect the central nervous system to
all parts of the body.
Figure 1.1: Human nervous system
Neuron or Nerve Cell
Neuron or nerve cell is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system. All
parts of the nervous system, i.e., brain, spinal cord and nerves are made up of neurons.
Neurons transmit messages in the form of electrochemical waves called nerve impulses.

Dendrite
Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Terminal ends
of axon

Axon
Cell body
Figure 1.2: Nerve cell or neuron

The part of a neuron which contains nucleus and most of the cytoplasm is called cell
body. The fine projections of the cell body which receive messages are called dendrites.
A long projection of the cell body which conducts messages away from the cell body is
called axon (Figure 1.2). Terminal ends of the axons transmit the messages to the next
cells.
General Science 8 3 Human Organ Systems

Interesting information

Impulses may travel as fast as 150 metre per second or as slow as 0.2 metre per second.

Nerve
A nerve is cable-like bundle of axons enclosed in a common sheath. Nerve transmits
messages from one part of body to another.
Types of Neurons
On the basis of their functions, neurons are of three types, i.e. sensory neurons, motor
neurons and inter-neurons. Sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from sense organs
(ears, eyes, skin, tongue, nose, etc.) to the central nervous system. Motor neurons carry
nerve impulses from central nervous system to effectors (muscles and glands), i.e.,
the parts which respond. Inter-neurons are present in central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord). They form a link between sensory and motor neurons (Figure 1.3).

Cell body
Cell body

Axon

Sensor y neuron
Dendrites

Axon
Inter-
neuron

Motor neuron

Axon Dendrites
Cell body

Figure 1.3: Sensory neuron, Inter-neuron and Motor neuron

 Human Organ Systems 4 General Science 8

Activity 1.1 - Identification and Labelling

Identify the following diagram and label the parts which are indicated.

Mini Exercise

Make the diagram of a neuron or nerve cell and label its different parts.

1.1.1 Central Nervous System(CNS)

Central nervous system acts as a control centre of the whole nervous system. It comprises
brain and spinal cord.
Brain
Human brain (Figure 1.4) is enclosed in a bony skull called cranium, and consists of
billions of inter-neurons. It is divided into the following parts.
1. Forebrain
Forebrain is the largest part of the brain. It consists of three main parts, i.e., cerebrum,
thalamus and hypothalamus. Cerebrum is the topmost and the largest part of the
brain. It is divided into right and left cerebral hemispheres. Cerebrum controls many
actions like thinking, feelings, emotions, seeing, hearing, perceptions, memory,
speech, decision making, etc.
General Science 8 5 Human Organ Systems

Inside cerebrum there is small structure called thalamus. It controls many sensory
functions. Hypothalamus lies at the base of thalamus. It controls body temperature,
hunger and thirst.
Cerebrum

Thalamus Forebrain

Hypothalamus

Midbrain
Cerebellum
Pons Hindbrain
Medulla oblongta

Figure 1.4: Section of skull showing different parts of human brain

2 Midbrain
Midbrain is a small part of the brain which is present below the cerebrum. It receives
information from sense organs which is then passed on appropriate part of the
forebrain.

3. Hindbrain
Hindbrain consists of three parts, i.e., cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata.
Cerebellum lies under the back part of the cerebrum. It acts as a controller for
maintaining the body balance and making precise and accurate movements. Pons is
an oval structure present beneath midbrain. It controls many functions like sleep,
swallowing, equilibrium and taste, etc.

Medulla oblongata forms the posterior part of the brain where it is connected with
the spinal cord. Medulla oblongata controls heartbeat, breathing and digestion, etc.
Medulla oblongata keeps on working when rest of the brain goes to sleep.

? Do you know?

Brain of an adult man weighs about 1.5 kg and consists of about 100,000,000,000 neurons.
 Human Organ Systems 6 General Science 8

Spinal Cord
Spinal cord is an extension of medulla Brain
oblongata (Figure 1.5). It runs backwards
inside the backbone up to its lower end. It is Spinal
cord
also made up of inter-neurons.

Spinal cord creates a link between brain and

different body parts. It also controls some
reflex actions (immediate and involuntary
actions) and some other involuntary actions.

1.1.2 Peripheral Nervous System Figure 1.5: Spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) consists of a network of nerves which are spread in the
body to connect all the body parts to the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)
(Figure 1.1). The nerves which arise from brain are called cranial nerves. The nerves
which arise from spinal cord are called spinal nerves. There are 12 pairs of cranial
nerves and 31 pairs of spinal nerves in human body.

1.1.3 Working Model of the Nervous System

Nervous system coordinates all body functions. It also detects the changes in
environment and produces response to the changes. The working of the nervous system
has been depicted in Figure 1.6.

Sensory neuron

Processing

Motor neuron

Figure 1.6: Function of nervous system

General Science 8 7 Human Organ Systems

§ Any change in the environment (external or internal) that can be detected by a

receptor to initiate a nerve impulse is called stimulus (Plural: stimuli). Heat, cold,
pressure, sound waves, etc. are the examples of stimuli. The special organs,
tissues or cells which detect stimuli are called receptors.

§ The sensory neurons carry the messages regarding stimuli in the form of nerve
impulses from receptors to central nervous system.
§ The central nervous system processes the messages and transmits the nerve
impulses to motor neurons.

§ The motor neurons carry the nerve impulses to the parts of the body which
produce responses. Such parts are called effectors. Muscles and glands in the
body act as effectors.

Activity 1.2

Make a flow diagram showing the pathway of a nerve impulse when you pat at the shoulder of your friend.

1.1.4 Actions Controlled by the Nervous System

Voluntary Actions
The body actions which are performed under conscious control, i.e., which are done after
thinking over them are called voluntary actions. For example; speaking, eating,
reading, walking, running, clapping, etc., are voluntary actions.

Involuntary Actions
The body actions which are performed without involvement of thinking process are
called involuntary actions. Involuntary actions are not performed under conscious
control. Heartbeat, breathing, blinking of eyes, movement of small intestine, etc., are the
examples of involuntary actions.

1.2 Reflex Action

An immediate and involuntary response to a stimulus is called reflex action. Quick
pulling of hand just after touching the hot object is a common example of reflex action.
In this example of reflex action shown in Figure 1.7, temperature of hot object is a
 Human Organ Systems 8 General Science 8

stimulus which is received by the cells (receptors) of the skin. A nerve impulse is created
in the sensory neuron present in skin. The nerve impulse is carried by the sensory neuron
to the spinal cord. The inter-neuron of the spinal cord transmits the impulse to the motor
neuron. The motor neuron carries the impulse to the arm muscles (effectors). The arm
muscles contract and the hand is pulled back. The pathway of nerve impulses which
complete a reflex action is called reflex arc. It consists of receptor, a sensory neuron, an
inter-neuron, a motor neuron and effectors.

Pain receptor
in skin

Hot object Inter-neuron

Spinal cord
Direction of Motor neuron
nerve impulse

Effectors (Muscles of arm)

Sensory neuron

Figure 1.7: Reflex arc representing reflex action. Touching a hot object (flame in this example)
results in immediate withdrawal of hand through contraction of muscles of arm.

1.3 Excretory System

As a result of breakdown of various food items and other chemical components of the
body, nitrogenous waste matter is produced, which must be immediately removed from
the body. Waste products in the body also include nitrogenous materials and other salts.
Accumulation of waste materials in the body is dangerous and therefore must be
removed from the body. The removal of nitrogenous waste materials from the body is
called excretion.
Nitrogenous materials, extra water and salts are removed by the excretory system. Some
extra salts are also removed through skin during perspiration. Human excretory system
consists of one pair of kidneys and associated structures, i.e. two ureters, a urinary
bladder and a urethra (Figure 1.8).
General Science 8 9 Human Organ Systems

1.3.1 Kidneys and Associated Structures

Human body has two dark brown,
bean-shaped kidneys in the
abdominal region, one on either
side of the vertebral column. The Renal
vein
right kidney is a little lower than the Renal artery

left one. The outer surface of kidney Right Left

kidney kidney
is convex while the inner surface is
concave. The following structures Ureter
are attached with kidneys.
Urinary
A tube which arises from each kidney bladder
and enters the urinary bladder is
Urethra
called ureter. It transports urine from
kidneys to urinary bladder. Urinary Figure 1.8: Human excretory system
bladder is a muscular sac which collects urine from both ureters. A fine tube through
which urine is released from urinary bladder to the outside is called Urethra.

Internal Structure of Kidney

Internally, each kidney is divided into
Renal cortex
three regions, i.e., renal cortex, renal
medulla and renal pelvis (Figure 1.9).
Renal medulla
Renal cortex is the outermost region.
Renal medulla is the middle region Renal pelvis

which is divided into conical masses

called renal pyramids. Renal pelvis
is the inner area where urine is
drained. The urine from renal pelvis
moves into ureter.
Nephron Figure 1.9: Internal structure of kidney
Nephrons are the functional units of the kidney. They are the tubules where urine is
formed. There are over one million nephrons in each kidney. Each nephron has two parts,
i.e., renal corpuscle and renal tubule (Figure 1.10).
 Human Organ Systems 10 General Science 8

Proximal tubule
Distal tubule

Bowman’s
capsule
Glomerulus

Loop of
Henle
Collecting
duct

Figure 1.10: Structure of a nephron

Renal Corpuscle
It is the first part of nephron. It consists of two structures, i.e., glomerulus and Bowman’s
capsule (Figure 1.10). Glomerulus is a tuft of blood capillaries formed by the division
and sub-division of small arteries and veins. Bowman’s capsule is a cup-shaped
structure enclosing glomerulus.

Renal Tubule
This part of nephron starts after Bowman’s capsule. The first coiled part of renal tubule is
called proximal tubule. The next part is U-shaped and is called Loop of Henle. The last
part of the renal tubule is again coiled and is called distal tubule.
The distal tubules of many nephrons open in a collecting duct (Figure 1.10). Many
collecting ducts join and drain into renal pelvis.
General Science 8 11 Human Organ Systems

1.3.2 Function of Kidneys

Blood carries nitrogenous waste materials from the body to the kidneys. Inside the
kidneys, blood containing nitrogenous waste reaches the glomerulus. Here, most of
the water and waste materials are filtered from the blood into the Bowman’s capsule
(Figure 1.11). The blood after losing waste material is collected in arterioles, which
ultimately form renal artery. The “clean” blood is brought back to the main circulatory
system. This filtrate which moves into the renal tubule of nephron also contains some
useful substances. During its passage towards the collecting duct, 99% of the filtrate
(containing useful substances) is reabsorbed into the blood in capillaries around renal

Glomerulus
Nitrogenous waste, water, salts
enter in Bowman’s capsule

Artery (Renal artery)

Blood which is free of

nitrogenous waste
Bowman’s capsule
Vein (Renal vein)
Blood with nitrogenous
material
Figure 1.11: Structure of a Bowman’s capsule

tubule. During this reabsorption, more For your information

waste materials are absorbed from blood The average composition of normal human urine
in grams per 100 cm3 is approximately as follows:
capillaries into the renal tubule filtrate.
Water = 96.0 g
Now, the filtrate in renal tubule is called
Urea = 2.0 g
urine which moves into the collecting
Mineral salts (mainly sodium chloride) = 1.8 g
ducts and then into the renal pelvis. Other nitrogenous substances = 0.2 g

Activity 1.3
§ Get or purchase a kidney of a sheep or a goat from butcher’s shop.
§ Observe its outer structure and make its diagram on your
workbook.
§ Cut the kidney lengthwise into two halves.
§ Observe the cut surfaces of two halves of the kidney with
the help of a magnifying glass and draw the internal
structure of the kidney on your workbook.
 Human Organ Systems 12 General Science 8

1.4 Malfunctioning of Kidneys

1.4.1 Formation of Stones in Kidneys
Sometimes kidneys cannot work efficiently, i.e. to remove nitrogenous waste or
salts from the blood. In such situation, the salts accumulate in kidneys and form stones
(Figure 1.12). Formation of stones disturbs the normal functioning of kidneys and causes
severe pain. Kidney stones may travel to ureter or urinary bladder (Figure 1.12). The
common causes of stones in kidneys are excessive calcium salts in the food and uric
acid, etc.

Stone in
kidney
Stone in
urinary bladder

Figure 1.12: Stones in kidney and urinary bladder

Small sized stones can be removed through urinary system by drinking more water.
Medium sized stones are removed by lithotripsy. Lithotripsy involves bombardment
of shockwaves on the stones from outside. Shockwaves break the stones into small
pieces which are passed out of the body through urine. Still larger stones need surgery
for their removal.

1.4.2 Renal Failure

Renal failure is the complete or partial failure of kidneys to work. The main causes of
renal failure are long-term infections, diabetes mellitus and hypertension. Diabetes
mellitus is a disease in which sugar level increases in the blood. Hypertension is a
state of high blood pressure in the body. Sudden blockage of blood supply to the
kidneys may also result in renal failure. Dialysis and kidney transplant are the
treatments of renal failure.
General Science 8 13 Human Organ Systems

1.4.3 Treatment of Malfunctional Kidneys

1.4.3.1 Dialysis
Cleaning of blood by artificial methods is called dialysis. It is done by a machine
called dialyzer. The blood of the patient is passed through the dialyzer which
contains dialysis fluid. Blood flows through the tubes of the dialyzer and dialysis
fluid flows around these tubes (Figure 1.13). The waste materials move from blood to
the dialysis fluid. The cleansed blood is returned to the body.

Blood with
wastes

Used
dialysis fluid

Fresh
dialysis fluid

Clean blood

Dialyzer

Figure 1.13: Dialysis Diseased kidney

1.4.3.2 Kidney Transplant

This method is used at the last stage of kidney
failure. In this method, a kidney donated by some
healthy person is grafted in the body of the
New
patient (Figure 1.14). The donor of kidney may kidney
be blood relative or any other close relative.

Figure 1.14: Kidney transplant

Science, Technology, Society and Environment

Lithotripsy and kidney transplant are the well-known technologies used in medical science to cure
kidney problems.
Human Organ Systems 14 General Science 8

KEY POINTS

§ Nervous system carries messages from one part of the body to another and
coordinates body’s functions.
§ Central nervous system consists of brain and spinal cord.
§ Peripheral nervous system consists of a network of nerves which connect
the central nervous system to all the body parts.
§ Sensory neurons carry messages from sense organs to central nervous
system.
§ Motor neurons carry messages from central nervous system to muscles
and glands.
§ Inter-neurons are present in brain and spinal cord. They form a link
between sensory neurons and motor neurons.
§ The actions which are performed under conscious control are called
voluntary actions.
§ The actions which are performed without involvement of thinking process
are called involuntary actions.
§ An immediate and involuntary response to a stimulus is called reflex
action.
§ Human excretory system consists of a pair of kidneys, two ureters, a
urinary bladder and a urethra.
§ Nephrons are the functional units of kidneys. These are the tubules where
urine is formed.
§ Accumulation of salts in kidneys results into kidney stones.
§ Kidney stones can be removed by using more water, by lithotripsy or by
surgery.
§ Dialysis and kidney transplant are the treatments of renal failure.
General Science 8 15 Human Organ Systems

QUESTIONS
1.1 Encircle the correct option.
(i) The neurons which decide about the action for a certain stimulus:
a. sensory neuron b. motor neuron
c. inter-neuron d. all of a, b, c
(ii) The parts of a neuron which receive messages are:
a. cell bodies b. dendrites
c. axons d. nuclei
(iii) Heartbeat is controlled by:
a. cerebrum b. cerebellum
c. medulla oblongata d. hypothalamus
(iv) Many axons present side by side and enclosed in a common sheath:
a. nerve cell b. nerve
c. dendrite d. spinal cord
(v) Sensory neurons carry messages towards:
a. muscles b. muscles and glands
c. sense organs d. brain and spinal cord
(vi) If body movements are NOT precise and accurate, the part of brain which
may be affected:
a. cerebellum b. cerebrum
c. thalamus d. midbrain
(vii) When you have a toothache, you feel pain because:
a. there is a cavity in your tooth
b. tiny bits of food are left between your teeth
c. bacteria digest the food left between your teeth and produce an acid
d. the cavity reaches the nerves and the nerves send a message to the
brain
(viii) The part of body which filters nitrogenous wastes from blood:
a. liver b. kidney
c. intestine d. stomach
 Human Organ Systems 16 General Science 8

(ix) The part of the nephron where reabsorption of useful materials occurs
from filtrate to blood:
a. glomerulus b. renal tubule
c. collecting duct d. Bowman’s capsule
(x) The function of nephron is to:
a. store urine
b. form urine
c. push out urine from urinary bladder
d. break stones in kidneys

1.2 Write names of the main parts of the following.

(i) Forebrain (ii) Hindbrain
(iii) Neuron (iv) Nephron

1.3 Write the functions of the following.

(i) Forebrain (ii) Hindbrain
(iii) Neuron (iv) Nephron

1.4 Give short answers.

(i) Give at least three examples of voluntary actions.
(ii) Give at least three examples of involuntary actions.
(iii) Define:
(a) sensory neurons (b) motor neuron
(c) inter-neuron
(iv) Skin is also considered as excretory organ. Why?

1.5 Differentiate between:

(i) Receptors and effectors
(ii) Neuron and nerve
(iii) Voluntary actions and involuntary actions
(iv) Kidneys and lungs
(v) Lithotripsy and dialysis

1.6 Explain the central nervous system.

1.7 Describe peripheral nervous system.
General Science 8 17 Human Organ Systems

1.8 Describe the main parts of excretory system in humans.

1.9 Write a note on the internal structure of kidney.
1.10 Describe structure of nephron.
1.11 Write notes on:
(a) Reflex action (b) Renal failure (c) Dialyzer
1.12 Identify and label the following diagrams.

(a) ------------------------------------------------------------------

(b) ------------------------------------------------------------------
Human Organ Systems 18 General Science 8

Critical Thinking

1. Why a motor cyclist is advised to wear the helmet?

2. A person met an accident in a car. When he was brought to the hospital he did not know even his
name. What would have happened to him? Relate your answer with reference to your nervous
system.
3. The table below shows the list of your daily activities. Write the name of that part of brain
(forebrain, midbrain or hindbrain) which is controlling this activity.

No. Activity Part of brain controlling activity

1. Sleeping
2. Brushing your teeth
3. Taking the breakfast
4. Balancing your body
5. Taking deep breath

Online Learning

www.pitb.gov.pk
www.n-e-r-v-o-u-s.com/
www.healthline.com/human-body-maps/nervous-system
www.kidsbiology.com/human_biology/excretory-system.php
www.biology4kids.com/files/systems_excretory.html