MMEN 120

Mechanical Behaviour of Materials

 Introduction
 The mechanical behavior of a material reflects its response or deformation in relation to an
applied load or force.
 The mechanical behavior of a material
reflects its response or deformation in
relation to an applied load or force.
 Key mechanical design properties are
stiffness, strength, hardness, ductility, and
toughness.
 Many materials are subjected to forces or
loads when in service; examples include:
the aluminum alloy from which an
airplane wing is constructed and
the steel in an automobile axle.
Steel cables used in suspension bridges
 Introduction
Illustration of mechanical properties

All right (Stiff, strong, tough, light)

Not stiff enough (needs higher E)

Not strong enough (needs higher 𝝈𝒚 )

Not tough enough (needs higher 𝑲𝑰𝑪 )

Too heavy needs (needs lower density)

 Introduction
Mechanical tests Objective Who need the data
Tension test To determine Producers
Hardness test mechanical properties Users
Impact test Research organization
Fatigue test Government agencies
Creep test
Bending Test
 Introduction
 There is need for consistency in the manner Testing Requirements
in which tests are conducted and in the Specimen geometry and dimensions
interpretation of their results.
Testing machine requirements
 This consistency is accomplished by using Testing machine calibration
standardized testing techniques. procedures
International Standards Testing procedures
ASTM (American Standard for Testing Data interpretation methods
of Materials) Mechanical properties are influenced by:
JIS (Japan Industrial Standard) Temperature,
BS (British Standard) Rate of deformation
DIN (Germany Standard) Surface condition,
GOST (Russian standard) Environment and
API (American Petroleum Institute) type of material.
ASME (American Society of Mechanical
Engineers)
 Introduction
Elastic material
If a material regains its original position, on the removal of the external forces, it
is called an elastic material.
Plastic Materials
If a material does not regain its original position, on the removal of the external
forces, it is called a plastic material.
Ductile Materials
If a material can undergo a considerable deformation, without rupture (e.g. if a
material can be drawn into wires), it is called a ductile material.
Brittle Material
If a material cannot undergo any deformation (like glass, china-ware, etc.) when
some external forces act on it and it fails by rupture, it is called a brittle
material.
 Tension Test
 The tension test is the most commonly
used test to know various mechanical
properties such as
 Strength
 Ductility and
 Toughness of the material.
 A specimen is deformed, usually to
fracture, with a gradually increasing
tensile load that is applied uniaxially
along the long axis of a specimen.
 The “dogbone” specimen configuration was chosen so
 Mostly, a standard tensile specimen has
that during testing,
a circular cross section.
 Deformation is confined to the narrow center
 The standard diameter is region.
approximately 12.8 mm (0.5 in.),  The likelihood of fracture at the ends of the
 The reduced section length should specimen is reduced.
be at least four times the diameter;
60 mm (2 1/4 in.)
 The standard gauge length is 50mm
(2”)
 Tension Test
 During tensile test, the load vs extension data is
recorded.
 The load–deformation characteristics depend on the
specimen size.
 To minimize size/geometrical factors, load and
elongation are normalized to the respective parameters
of engineering stress and engineering strain.

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎 = =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙 − 𝑙 ∆𝑙
𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝜖 = = =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙 𝑙
 A universal testing machine (UTM) is usually used to
conduct the tension test.
Fig: Schematic representation of the apparatus used to
conduct tensile stress– strain tests.
The specimen is elongated by the moving crosshead; load
cell and extensometer measure, respectively, the
magnitude of the applied load and the elongation.
 Tension Test
Load, P (N)
Extension, ∆𝑙 (m)
Stress, 𝜎 ( ⁄ )
Strain, 𝜖

 Stress-strain curve is plotted

Exercise
1. Sketch a typical stress-strain curve for mild
steel in tension and briefly explain the behavior
of the material at the various sections of the
curve.

Fig: Typical engineering stress–strain behavior to

fracture, point F. The tensile strength TS is indicated
at point M. The circular insets represent the geometry
of the deformed specimen at various points along
the curve
 Tension Test
A typical stress-strain curve for mild steel in tension

 The curve from O to A is a straight line, which indicates that the stress is
proportional to strain.
 The point A is the elastic limit of the specimen metal. Hooke’s law holds good only
up to this limit.
 The stress, corresponding to the point B is called the yield point (Yield strength)
 If the load on the specimen is removed, then the elongation from A to B will not
disappear. But will remain as a permanent set. (Hooke’s law not obeyed).
 B – C Strain hardening: At B - C, the specimen regains some strength and higher
values of stresses are required, for higher strains.
 Necking: The gradual increase in the length of the specimen is followed with the
uniform reduction of its cross-sectional area.
 At C, the stress, which attains its maximum value, is known as ultimate stress.
 After the specimen has reached the ultimate stress, a neck is formed, which
decreases the cross-sectional area of the specimen.
 From C, the stress reduces until the specimen breaks away at the stress
represented by the point E (breaking stress./fracture strength).
 If for each value of the strain between C and E the tensile load is divided by the
reduced cross-sectional area at the narrowest part of the neck, then the true
stress-strain curve will follow the dotted line C-F.
 However, it is an established practice, to calculate strains on the basis of original
cross-sectional area of the specimen.
 Compression Test
 A compression test is conducted in a manner similar to the tensile test, except that
the force is compressive and the specimen contracts along the direction of the
stress.
 ASTM Standard E9, “Standard Test Methods of Compression Testing of Metallic
Materials at Room Temperature.”

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠, 𝜎 = =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙 − 𝑙 ∆𝑙
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛, 𝜖 = = =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙 𝑙

 By convention, a compressive force is taken to be negative, which yields a negative

stress.
 Since 𝑙 is greater than 𝑙 , compressive strains computed are also negative.
 Compressive tests are used;
 When a material’s behavior under large and permanent (i.e., plastic) strains is
desired, as in manufacturing applications such forging, rolling and extrusion in
which material is subjected to compression
 When the material is brittle in tension.
 The true stress-true strain curves are similar for tension and compression tests
conducted on a ductile material, but the results vary for brittle materials.
 Brittle materials are more stronger in compression than in tension while to ductile Fig. Compression test for a
materials, which are more stronger in tension than in compression. ductile and brittle material
 True Stress -Strain
 In Fig** the decline in the stress necessary to continue deformation past the
maximum—point C—seems to indicate that the metal is becoming weaker.
 This is not at all the case; as a matter of fact, it is increasing in strength.
 However, the cross-sectional area is decreasing rapidly within the neck region,
where deformation is occurring.
 This results in a reduction in the load-bearing capacity of the specimen.
 The curve C-E is computed on the basis of the original cross-sectional area before
any deformation and does not take into account this reduction in area at the neck.
 True stress (𝝈𝑻 ) is defined as the load (F) divided by the instantaneous cross-
sectional area 𝑨𝒊 over which deformation is occurring.

𝜎 =

 True strain (𝝐𝑻 ) is defined by: 𝜖 = ln

 True and engineering stress and strain are related according to:
𝜎 =𝜎 1+𝜖 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜖 = ln(1 + 𝜖)
 For some metals and alloys the region of the true stress–strain curve from the
onset of plastic deformation to the point at which necking begins may be
approximated by:
𝜎 = 𝐾𝜖 K and n are constants;
 K and n values vary from alloy to alloy and also depend on the condition of the Fig. Stress strain curve for
material (whether it has been plastically deformed, heat-treated, etc.). mild steel
 Shear and Torsion Test
 For tests performed using a pure shear force, the shear stress 𝝉 is computed according to

𝑭
𝝉=
𝑨𝟎 Fig: Schematic of at
specimen subjected to
 Shear strain 𝛾 = tan 𝜃. pure shear force (F).

 Torsion is a variation of pure shear in which a structural member is twisted/subjected to Torque.

 Torsional forces produce a rotational motion about the longitudinal axis of one end of the member
relative to the other end.
 Examples of torsion are found for machine axles and drive shafts as well as for twist drills.
 Shear and Torsion Test
 Torsion is associated with shear strength, which in turn, is connected to the modulus of rigidity
(shear modulus, 𝑮) of the material.
 Higher modulus of rigidity (𝑮) means increased shear strength.
 The torsion test is used to measure the shear modulus of material and also shear strain.
 ASTM Standard E143, “Standard Test Method for Shear Modulus at Room Temperature.”

 Torsional tests are normally performed on cylindrical

solid shafts or tubes subjected to a twisting moment.
 A shear stress 𝝉 is a function of the applied torque 𝑻,
whereas shear strain 𝜸 is related to the angle of twist,
𝜽.
𝑻 𝑮𝜽 𝝉
 Torsion formulae 𝑱 = 𝑳 = 𝑹

Where 𝑻 is the torque, 𝑱 is the polar moment of inertia, 𝝉 is the shear

stress, 𝜽 is the angle of twist, 𝑳 is the length of the specimen, 𝑮 is the
modulus of rigidity and 𝑹 is the radius of the specimen

Fig: Schematic representation of torsional deformation

(i.e., angle ∅ of twist f) produced by an applied torque T.
 Stiffness
 Deformation in which stress and strain are proportional is called
elastic deformation;
 For most metals that are stressed in tension and at relatively low
levels, stress and strain are proportional to each other through
the relationship:
𝝈
𝝈 = 𝑬𝝐 𝑬= 𝝐
 This relationship is known as the Hooke’s law.
 E is the modulus of Elasticity/Young’s Modulus (GPa)
 E is the slope of the linear segment of the stress – strain curve.
 E can also be referred as stiffness/material’s resistance to
elastic deformation.
 The greater the modulus, the stiffer the material. Fig: Schematic stress–strain diagram
showing linear elastic deformation for
loading and unloading cycles.
 Shear modulus (𝑮) is defined as the slope of the linear elastic
region of the shear stress–strain curve.
𝝉
𝝉 = 𝑮𝜸 𝑮=
𝜸
 Shear and elastic moduli are related to each other as shown:
𝑬 = 𝟐𝑮(𝟏 + 𝝁)
where 𝝁 is the Poisson’s ratio
 Stiffness

 For materials (i.e., gray cast iron) that show a non-

linear elastic behaviour, the tangent or secant
method can be used to determine Elastic modulus.
 The tangent modulus is taken as the slope of the
stress–strain curve at some specified level of
stress.
 The secant modulus represents the slope of a
secant drawn from the origin to some given point of
the stress – strain curve curve.

Fig: Schematic stress–strain diagram

showing nonlinear elastic behavior and how
secant and tangent moduli are determined..
Room-Temperature Elastic and Shear Moduli and
Poisson’s Ratio for Various Metal Alloys
 Yield Strength
 Since most structures are designed to ensure that only
elastic deformation will result when a stress is applied, it
is important to know the stress level at which plastic
deformation/yielding begins.
 The start of yielding corresponds to the proportionality
limit i.e., the point of initial departure from linearity of
the stress–strain curve.
 Alternatively, yield strength can be defined as the stress
corresponding to the intersection of the stress – strain
curve and the straight line is constructed parallel to the
elastic portion of the stress–strain curve at some
Fig: Typical stress– strain behavior for a metal
specified strain offset, usually 0.002. showing elastic and plastic deformations, the
proportional limit P, and the yield strength 𝝈𝒚 , as
determined using the 0.002 strain offset method.
 Tensile and Fracture Strength
 After yielding, the stress necessary to continue
plastic deformation in metals increases to a
maximum, point M as shown in Fig and then
decreases to the eventual fracture, point F.
 The increase in the stress is as a result of strain
hardening/ work hardening.
 The stress corresponding to point M is known as
the tensile strength TS (MPa)
 It is the stress at the maximum on the
engineering stress–strain curve.
 At the maximum stress, necking i.e., a small
constriction or neck begins to form at some
point.
 Necking reduces the effective cross-
sectional area.
 Fracture finally occurs at point F, corresponding
to Fracture strength.
Fig: Typical engineering stress–strain behavior to fracture, point
F. The tensile strength TS is indicated at point M. The circular
insets represent the geometry of the deformed specimen at
various points along the curve
 Working Stress Factor of Safety
 The stress-strain curve gives a  The ratio of elastic limit (or ultimate stress) to the
valuable information about the
mechanical properties of a metal. working stress is called the factor of safety.
 By knowing the elastic limit, yield  The general practice followed is, that for structural
point and ultimate stress in a
steel work (when subjected to gradually increasing
material, it is very easy to
establish the magnitude of loads) the factor of safety is taken as the ratio of
stress, which can be safely elastic limit to the working stress;
undertaken by it.
 This is, generally, done by  𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = = ~2 𝑡𝑜 2.5
keeping the safe stress well
below the elastic limit.  But in the case of cast iron, concrete, wood, etc. (or
 This safe stress, which is when structural steel work is subjected to sudden
allowed to be undertaken by the
material in designs, is called the loads) the factor of safety is taken as the ratio of
working stress/permissible ultimate stress to the working stress.
stress/allowable stress/safe
stress  𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = = ~4 𝑡𝑜 6
 Exercise

1. From the tensile stress–strain behavior for the

brass specimen shown in Fig, determine the
following:
a. The modulus of elasticity. (E=~97GPa)
b. The yield strength at a strain offset of
0.002. (σy=~250 MPa)
c. The maximum load that can be sustained by
a cylindrical specimen having an original
diameter of 12.8 mm. (Fmax=57.9 kN)
d. The change in length of a specimen
originally 250 mm long that is subjected to
a tensile stress of 345 Mpa. (∆𝒍 = 𝟏𝟓 𝒎𝒎)

The stress–strain behavior for the brass specimen

 Ductility
 Ductility is the measure of the degree of plastic  Most metals possess at least a moderate degree
deformation that has been sustained at fracture. of ductility at room temperature; however, some
 Brittle materials experience very little or no plastic become brittle as the temperature is lowered.
Give examples of such materials?
deformation upon fracture.
 Ductility may be expressed quantitatively as either:
 Percent elongation
𝑙 −𝑙
%𝐸𝐿 = 𝑥100
𝑙
 Percent reduction in area.
𝐴 −𝐴
%𝑅𝐴 = 𝑥100
𝐴

 Why is the knowledge of the ductility of materials is

important?
 It indicates to a designer the degree to which a
structure will deform plastically before
fracture.
 it specifies the degree of allowable deformation
Fig: Schematic representations of tensile stress–strain behavior
during fabrication operations. for brittle and ductile metals loaded to fracture.
 Ductile vs Brittle fracture

Detailed information regarding the mechanism of fracture is available from microscopic examination,
normally using scanning electron microscopy. Study of this type is termed fractography.
 Exercise
1. Sketch a typical stress-strain curve for mild steel in tension and briefly explain the
behavior of the material at the various sections of the curve.
2. A mild steel rod of 12 mm diameter was tested for tensile strength, with the
gauge length of 60 mm. Following were the observations
• Final length = 78 mm
• Final diameter = 7 mm
• Yield load = 34 kN
• Ultimate load = 61 kN
Calculate (a) yield stress, (b) ultimate tensile stress, (c) percentage reduction, and (d)
percentage elongation.
 Resilience
 Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb energy
when it is deformed elastically and then, upon unloading, to
have this energy recovered.
 The associated property is the modulus of resilience,𝑼𝒓 ,
which is the strain energy per unit volume required to
stress a material from an unloaded state up to the point
of yielding/elastic limit.
 The modulus of resilience for a specimen subjected to a
uniaxial tension test is just the area under the engineering
stress–strain curve taken to yielding.

 Assuming linear elastic region;

Fig: Schematic representation showing how modulus
of resilience (corresponding to the shaded area) is
determined from the tensile stress–strain behavior
of a material.
 Resilience

 The units for resilience is J/m3 or Pa.

 In other words, this area under the stress–strain curve represents
energy absorption per unit volume

 Substituting for strain at yielding (𝜖 ), we get:

 The above equation implies that resilient materials are those having
high yield strengths and low moduli of elasticity;
 such materials are used in spring applications
 Toughness
 Toughness is a mechanical term that may be used in several contexts.
a. Toughness (fracture toughness) is a property that is indicative of a material’s
resistance to fracture when a crack (or other stress-concentrating defect) is
present.
 Because it is nearly impossible (as well as costly) to manufacture materials with
zero defects (or to prevent damage during service), fracture toughness is a major
consideration for all structural materials.
b. Toughness is as the ability of a material to absorb energy and plastically deform
before fracturing.
 For dynamic (high strain rate) loading conditions and when a notch (or point of stress
concentration) is present, notch toughness is assessed by using an impact test
 Impact Test
 Charpy and Izod tests measure impact energy or notch toughness : Charpy V- notch (CVN) is
most common.
 Before fracture mechanics - impact testing was used to measure impact behaviour and
likelihood of brittle fracture. Developed in response to onset of brittle failure in ductile
materials e.g. steel ships, bridges etc.
 Three main factors were producing these fractures in service:
 Triaxial stress state (at notches, cracks etc)
 Low temperatures
 High strain or loading rates
 Impact testing is used for:
 checking quality
Fig. Izod/Charpy impact tester
 tendency for brittle failure
 temperature dependence
 Impact Test
Ductile to brittle transition
 In the nineteenth century, it was discovered that brittle fracture in steels was promoted by
low temperatures.
 Example: Failure of the Liberty ships in WWII.
 Carbon steels are ductile at Room Temperature
 They became brittle when exposed to cold waters of the Atlantic ocean.
 The ship underwent a ductile to brittle transition.
 Fatigue cracks nucleated at the corners of square hatches and propagated rapidly by brittle fracture.

A schematic of the general effect of temperature

on the fracture energy of structural metals
 Impact Test
Ductile to brittle transition
 Charpy and Izod tests measure impact energy or notch toughness : Charpy V- notch (CVN) is
most common.
 Charpy tests can be used to determine whether or not a material experiences a ductile-to-
brittle transition as the temperature is decreased.
 Use a standard sized bar
specimen with a central notch.
 Weighted pendulum released
from a height h1
 Impacts the specimen behind
the notch.
 Fracture of specimen occurs
and energy is absorbed.
 The pendulum travels to point
h2, where h1>h2
 Obtain the amount of absorbed
energy from scale. (a) Izod and (b) Charpy impact test
 Impact Test
Ductile to brittle transition
 At higher temperatures the impact energy is relatively large since the fracture is ductile.
 As the temperature is lowered, the impact energy drops over a narrow temperature range as
the fracture becomes more brittle.
 The sudden drop in impact energy is the ductile-to-brittle transition (DBT)
 The transition can also be observed from the fracture surfaces, which appear
 fibrous or dull for totally ductile fracture, and
 granular and shiny for totally brittle fracture.
 The DBT is exhibited in BCC metals, such as low
carbon steel, which become brittle at low
temperature.
 BCC metals have limited slip dislocation at low temperature
 Steels should always be used above their DBTT.

 FCC and HCP metals, however, generally remain

ductile at low temperatures.
 In FCC and HCP metals, the force required to move
dislocations, is not strongly temperature dependent.
 Therefore, dislocation movement remains high even at low
temperatures and the material remains relatively ductile.
 Impact Test
Ductile to brittle transition
 Impact Test
Ductile to brittle transition
Impurities and alloying effect on DBTT
 Alloying usually increases DBTT by inhibiting dislocation motion.
 They are generally added to increase strength or are (an unwanted) outcome of the processing.
 For steel P, S, Si, Mo, O increase DBTT while Ni and Mn decease DBTT.

Mn decreases DBTT of
steel by reducing the
content of S in steel
by forming
manganese-sulfide
(MnS). S is known to
cause brittleness in
steels.

Fig. Variation in ductile-to-brittle transition temperature with alloy composition. (a) Charpy V-notch impact
energy with temperature for plain-carbon steels with various carbon levels (in weight percent). (b) Charpy V-
notch impact energy with temperature for Fe–Mn–0.05C alloys with various manganese levels (in %wt).
 HARDNESS TEST
 Hardness refers to the resistance of material to local plastic deformation. (e.g., a small
dent or a scratch).
 Advantages of hardness test
Simple and inexpensive
Non destructive
Can be related to strength
Small size specimen is possible
Types of hardness test
.
Scratch method/Morhs hardness Indentation methods
 Was based on the ability of a  A small indenter is forced into the surface of a
material to scratch another material to be tested
material which was softer.  The depth or size of the resulting indentation is
 A qualitative and somewhat measured and related to a hardness number;
arbitrary hardness indexing  The softer the material, the larger and deeper
scheme was devised, termed the the indentation, and the lower the hardness
Mohs scale, which ranged from 1 index number.
on the soft end for talc to 10 for
diamond.  They include: Rockwell, Brinell and Vickers
hardness tests
 HARDNESS TEST
Brinell hardness test
 ASTM Standard E10, “Standard Test Method for Brinell Hardness of Metallic Materials.”
 A hard, spherical indenter is forced into the surface of the metal to be tested.
 The indenter is a a hardened steel or tungsten carbide ball of 10 mm diameter
 Standard loads range between 500 and 3000 kg in 500-kg increments;
 During a test, the load is maintained constant for a specified time (between 10 and 30 s).
 Subsequently the load is released and the diameter of impression, usually a hemispherical
cavity, is measured with the help of a travelling microscope.
 A number, called Brinell Hardness Number (BHN), is used to measure the hardness of the
material.
 HB, is a function of both the magnitude of the load and the diameter of the resulting
indentation.

𝐻𝐵 = =

Where;
D =diameter of the steel ball
d = diameter of the indentation
 HARDNESS TEST
Rockwell hardness test
 ASTM Standard E18, “Standard Test Methods for Rockwell Hardness of Metallic Materials.”
 It is based on measuring depth of penetration.
 The indenter is pressed against the surface of the specimen, fist with a minor load and then with a
major load.
 Indenters include spherical and hardened steel balls having diameters of , , and in
 A conical diamond (Brale) indenter is also used for the hardest materials.
 The difference in the depths of penetration is a measure of hardness of the material.
 On the basis of the magnitude of both major and minor loads, there are two types of tests:

Rockwell Superficial Rockwell

 The minor load is 10 kg, whereas  The minor load is 3 kg, whereas the major loads are 15,
major loads are 60, 100, and 150 kg. 30, and 45 kg.
 Each scale is represented by a  These scales are identified by a 15, 30, or 45 (according
letter of the alphabet A,B,C.. to load), followed by N, T, W, X, or Y, depending on the
indenter.
 Frequently performed on thin specimens.
 HARDNESS TEST
Rockwell hardness test

 When specifying Rockwell and superficial hardnesses, both hardness number and scale symbol must be
indicated.
 The scale is designated by the symbol HR followed by the appropriate scale identification.
 For example, 80 HRB represents a Rockwell hardness of 80 on the B scale, and 60 HR30W
indicates a superficial hardness of 60 on the 30W scale
 HARDNESS TEST
Vickers Microindentation hardness test
 ASTM Standard E92, “Standard Test Method for Vickers Hardness of Metallic Materials,” and
ASTM Standard
 Also known as diamond pyramid hardness test.
 It uses a 136° pyramid-shaped diamond indenter on a square base.
 On pressing the indenter against the surface of test specimen, it produces a square-shaped
indentation.
 The test uses a load varying between 1 kg and 120 kg.
 The resulting impression is observed under a microscope and measured.
 The hardness is usually expressed in terms of the Vickers hardness Number (HV).

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑔 1.854𝑃

𝐻𝑉 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚 𝑑

Where;
𝑑 = Diagonal of the indent
P = load on the test specimen
 HARDNESS TEST
Knoop Microindentation hardness test
 ASTM Standard E384, “Standard Test Method for Microindentation Hardness of Materials.”
 Similar to Vickers Microindentation hardness test in that a very small diamond ndenter having
pyramidal geometry is forced into the surface of the specimen.
 The resulting impression is observed under a microscope and measured.
 The hardness is usually expressed in terms of the Knoop hardness Number (HV).

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝑔 14.2𝑃

𝐻𝐾 = =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑚 𝑙
Hardness Test
Correlation between Hardness and Tensile Strength
 Both tensile strength and hardness are
indicators of a metal’s resistance to plastic
deformation.
 For most steels, the HB and the tensile
strength are related according to:

𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (𝑇𝑆) = 3.45 x HB

Fig: Relationships between hardness and

tensile strength for steel, brass, and cast
iron.
 Fatigue Test
 Components such as the wings of an aircraft, the crankshaft of an automobile engine, and gear teeth
in machinery are all subjected to static and cyclic loads.
 The excessive values of cyclic loads may lead to the formation of cracks, which may result in failure of
components and the property responsible for it is called fatigue.
 Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic and fluctuating stresses
(e.g., bridges, aircraft, machine components).
 The term fatigue is used because this type of failure normally occurs after a lengthy period of
repeated stress or strain cycling.
 Fatigue failure has brittle nature and probably account for nearly 90% of all mechanical failure.

Fig. Reversed Stress Cycle

Fig. Random Stress Cycle
 Fatigue Test
Examples of fatigue failures
 Fatigue Test
 The main objective of fatigue test is to determine the:
 Fatigue strength/fatigue limit/endurance limit.
 No. of stress cycles to failure.
 Endurance limit/fatigue strength is the maximum stress before fatigue failure,
regardless of the number of stress application cycles.
 The ASTM standards for fatigue test include:
 ASTM Standard E466, “Standard Practice for Conducting Force Controlled Constant
Amplitude Axial Fatigue Tests of Metallic Materials,” and
 ASTM Standard E468, “Standard Practice for Presentation of Constant Amplitude
Fatigue Test Results for Metallic Materials.”
 Fatigue Test
 The most common type of fatigue test conducted in a
laboratory setting employs a rotating–bending beam:
 Alternating tension and compression stresses of
equal magnitude are imposed on the specimen as
it is simultaneously bent and rotated.
 In this case, the stress cycle is reversed—that
is, stress ration (R) =-1.
 The test is performed on a rotating shaft/beam,
with a constant downward load as shown in Fig. During
rotation,
 The lower surface of the specimen is subjected
to a tensile (i.e., positive) stress, whereas
 The upper surface experiences compression (i.e.,
Fig: Rotating–bending fatigue tests testing apparatus
negative) stress.
 During testing, stress amplitudes (S), and the number
of cycles (N) required to produce the failure is
recorded.
 The stress amplitude represents the maximum stress
(tensile or compressive ) to which the specimen is
subjected.
 A graph is plotted between S and N and the resulting Fig: Rotating–bending fatigue test specimen
figure is known as S-N curve.
 Fatigue Test
 It is evident from the S-N plots that the higher
the magnitude of the stress, the smaller the
number of cycles (N) the material is capable of
sustaining before failure.
 For some Ferrous (Iron-base) and Titanium
alloys, the S–N curve becomes horizontal at
higher N values.
 The limiting stress level corresponding to
the horizontal line is known as fatigue limit
(endurance limit)
 Below the fatigue limit, fatigue failure does
not occur.
 The fatigue limit represents the largest value
of fluctuating stress that will not cause failure
for essentially an infinite number of cycles. Fig: Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of
the number of cycles to fatigue failure (N) for
 For many steels, fatigue limits range between a material that displays a fatigue limit
35% and 60% of the tensile strength.
 Fatigue Test
 Most nonferrous alloys (e.g., aluminum, copper)
do not have a fatigue limit
 That is, the S–N curve continues its
downward trend at increasingly greater N
values as shown in Fig.
 Thus, fatigue ultimately occurs regardless of
the magnitude of the stress.
 For these materials, the fatigue response is
specified as fatigue strength, which is defined
as the stress level at which failure will occur
for some specified number of cycles (N) (e.g.,
107 cycles).

 What is fatigue life ( )? Fig: Stress amplitude (S) versus logarithm of

 It is the number of cycles to cause failure the number of cycles to fatigue failure (N) for
at a specified stress level, as taken from a material that does not display a fatigue limit.
the 𝑺– 𝑵 plot.
Fatigue Test
Fig: Maximum stress (S) versus logarithm of
the number of cycles to fatigue failure (N) for
seven metal alloys. Curves were generated
using rotating– bending and reversed-cycle
tests i.e (R=-1)
 Creep Test
 Creep failure often occurs in components placed in service at elevated temperatures and exposed to
static mechanical stresses (e.g., turbine rotors in jet engines and steam generators that experience
centrifugal stresses; high-pressure steam lines).

 It is a time-dependent and permanent deformation of materials when subjected to a constant load or

stress.

 In creep, components elongate permanently under applied stresses, which ultimately lead to
components’ failure.

 It is a very slow process but of great importance from design point of view.

 Creep is important in applications such as: turbine blades (jet engines), gas turbines, power plants (boilers
and steam lines) which must operate at high stresses and high temperatures without any changes in
dimensions.

 Also occur at room temperature in some materials such as lead, polymers.

 Creep Test
 A typical creep test (ASTM Standard E139), involve
subjecting a specimen to a constant load or stress
while maintaining the temperature constant;
 A creep test is conducted on a test specimen,
usually a lead wire of length 1m and diameter 2-
3mm.
 The lead wire is subjected to a constant tension
load at room temperature
 The change in the length, over a regular
interval of time is recorded.
 Initially, the extension in the wire is measured
at regular intervals of 15 seconds and after
sometime, say 10 or 15 minutes, at interval of 1
minute.
 A graph of strain vs time is plotted.
It has been observed in old houses
 The test can also be done on other materials at that a window glass has more thickness
elevated temperatures as illustrated in Fig.. at its bottom than at its top part.
Explain.
 Creep Test
 Upon application of the load, there is an
instantaneous deformation 𝜺𝟎 , that is totally
elastic.
 The resulting creep curve consists of three
regions:
 Primary/transient creep
 Creep rate decreases with time
 Effect of work hardening more than
recovery.
 Secondary/steady state creep
 Stage of minimum creep rate → ~
constant.
 Work hardening is balanced by
Fig: Typical creep curve of strain versus time at recovery.
constant load and constant elevated temp.  Tertiary creep
 Necking of specimen starts in this
 Initially, the strain rate is high and it gradually decreases stage.
to a constant value.
 The specimen finally breaks by necking with a conical  Specimen failure processes set in.
shaped fracture.
Summary of Mechanical Properties for Metals
Thank You !!