1

Introduction to Multiphase Flow

1.1 Introduction

1.1.1 Scope
In the context of this book, the term multiphase flow is used to refer to any fluid flow
consisting of more than one phase or component. For brevity and because they are
covered in other texts, we exclude those circumstances in which the components are
well mixed above the molecular level. Consequently, the flows considered here have
some level of phase or component separation at a scale well above the molecular
level. This still leaves an enormous spectrum of different multiphase flows. One could
classify them according to the state of the different phases or components and therefore
refer to gas/solids flows or liquid/solids flows or gas/particle flows or bubbly flows and
so on; many texts exist that limit their attention in this way. Some treatises are defined
in terms of a specific type of fluid flow and deal with low-Reynolds-number suspension
flows, dusty gas dynamics, and so on. Others focus attention on a specific application
such as slurry flows, cavitating flows, aerosols, debris flows, fluidized beds, and so
on; again, there are many such texts. In this book we attempt to identify the basic
fluid mechanical phenomena and to illustrate those phenomena with examples from a
broad range of applications and types of flow.
Parenthetically, it is valuable to reflect on the diverse and ubiquitous challenges of
multiphase flow. Virtually every processing technology must deal with multiphase flow,
from cavitating pumps and turbines to electrophotographic processes to papermaking
to the pellet form of almost all raw plastics. The amount of granular material, coal,
grain, ore, and so on that is transported every year is enormous and, at many stages,
that material is required to flow. Clearly the ability to predict the fluid flow behavior
of these processes is central to the efficiency and effectiveness of those processes.
For example, the effective flow of toner is a major factor in the quality and speed of
electrophotographic printers. Multiphase flows are also a ubiquitous feature of our
environment whether one considers rain, snow, fog, avalanches, mud slides, sediment
transport, debris flows, and countless other natural phenomena, to say nothing of

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 2 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

what happens beyond our planet. Very critical biological and medical flows are also
multiphase, from blood flow to semen to the bends to lithotripsy to laser surgery
cavitation and so on. No single list can adequately illustrate the diversity and ubiquity;
consequently, any attempt at a comprehensive treatment of multiphase flows is flawed
unless it focuses on common phenomenological themes and avoids the temptation to
digress into lists of observations.
Two general topologies of multiphase flow can be usefully identified at the outset,
namely disperse flows and separated flows. By disperse flows we mean those consisting
of finite particles, drops, or bubbles (the disperse phase) distributed in a connected
volume of the continuous phase. Separated flows consist of two or more continuous
streams of different fluids separated by interfaces.

1.1.2 Multiphase Flow Models

A persistent theme throughout the study of multiphase flows is the need to model and
predict the detailed behavior of those flows and the phenomena that they manifest.
There are three ways in which such models are explored: (1) experimentally, through
laboratory-sized models equipped with appropriate instrumentation; (2) theoretically,
using mathematical equations and models for the flow; and (3) computationally, using
the power and size of modern computers to address the complexity of the flow. Clearly
there are some applications in which full-scale laboratory models are possible. But, in
many instances, the laboratory model must have a very different scale from the proto-
type and then a reliable theoretical or computational model is essential for confident
extrapolation to the scale of the prototype. There are also cases in which a laboratory
model is impossible for a wide variety of reasons.
Consequently, the predictive capability and physical understanding must rely heav-
ily on theoretical and/or computational models and here the complexity of most mul-
tiphase flows presents a major hurdle. It may be possible at some distant time in the
future to code the Navier–Stokes equations for each of the phases or components and
to compute every detail of a multiphase flow, the motion of all the fluid around and
inside every particle or drop, the position of every interface. But the computer power
and speed required to do this are far beyond present capability for most of the flows
that are commonly experienced. When one or both of the phases become turbulent (as
often happens), the magnitude of the challenge becomes truly astronomical. Therefore,
simplifications are essential in realistic models of most multiphase flows.
In disperse flows two types of models are prevalent, trajectory models and two-fluid
models. In trajectory models, the motion of the disperse phase is assessed by following
the motion of either the actual particles or larger, representative particles. The details of
the flow around each of the particles are subsumed into assumed drag, lift, and moment
forces acting on and altering the trajectory of those particles. The thermal history of
the particles can also be tracked if it is appropriate to do so. Trajectory models have
been very useful in studies of the rheology of granular flows (see Chapter 13) primarily

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 1.1 Introduction 3

because the effects of the interstitial fluid are small. In the alternative approach, two-
fluid models, the disperse phase is treated as a second continuous phase intermingled
and interacting with the continuous phase. Effective conservation equations (of mass,
momentum, and energy) are developed for the two fluid flows; these include interaction
terms modeling the exchange of mass, momentum, and energy between the two flows.
These equations are then solved either theoretically or computationally. Thus, two-fluid
models neglect the discrete nature of the disperse phase and approximate its effects on
the continuous phase. Inherent in this approach are averaging processes necessary to
characterize the properties of the disperse phase; these involve significant difficulties.
The boundary conditions appropriate in two-fluid models also pose difficult modeling
issues.
In contrast, separated flows present many fewer issues. In theory one must solve the
single-phase fluid-flow equations in the two streams, coupling them through appro-
priate kinematic and dynamic conditions at the interface. Free streamline theory (see,
for example, Birkhoff and Zarantonello 1957, Tulin 1964, Woods 1961, Wu 1972) is
an example of a successful implementation of such a strategy, though the interface
conditions used in that context are particularly simple.
In the first part of this book, the basic tools for both trajectory and two-fluid models
are developed and discussed. In the remainder of this first chapter, a basic notation for
multiphase flow is developed and this leads naturally into a description of the mass,
momentum, and energy equations applicable to multiphase flows and, particularly in
two-fluid models. In Chapters 2, 3, and 4, we examine the dynamics of individual
particles, drops, and bubbles. In Chapter 7 we address the different topologies of
multiphase flows and, in the subsequent chapters, we examine phenomena in which
particle interactions and the particle/fluid interactions modify the flow.

1.1.3 Multiphase Flow Notation

The notation that is used is close to the standard described by Wallis (1969). It has,
however, been slightly modified to permit more ready adoption to the Cartesian tensor
form. In particular the subscripts that can be attached to a property consist of a group
of uppercase subscripts followed by lowercase subscripts. The lowercase subscripts
(i, ij, etc.) are used in the conventional manner to denote vector or tensor components. A
single uppercase subscript (N) refers to the property of a specific phase or component.
In some contexts generic subscripts N = A, B are used for generality. However, other
letters such as N = C (continuous phase), N = D (disperse phase), N = L (liquid),
N = G (gas), N = V (vapor), or N = S (solid) are used for clarity in other contexts.
Finally two uppercase subscripts imply the difference between the two properties for
the two single uppercase subscripts.
Specific properties frequently used are as follows. Volumetric fluxes (volume flow
per unit area) of individual components are denoted by jAi , jBi (i = 1, 2, or 3 in
three-dimensional flow). These are sometimes referred to as superficial component

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 4 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

velocities. The total volumetric flux, ji , is then given by the following:

ji = jAi + jBi + · · · = jNi . (1.1)
N

Mass fluxes are similarly denoted by G Ai , G Bi , or G i . Thus if the densities of individual

components are denoted by ρA , ρB it follows that


G Ai = ρA jAi ; G Bi = ρB jBi ; G i = ρN jNi . (1.2)
N

Velocities of the specific phases are denoted by uAi , u Bi or, in general, by u Ni . The
relative velocity between the two phases A and B is denoted by u ABi such that

u Ai − u Bi = u ABi . (1.3)

The volume fraction of a component or phase is denoted by αN and, in the case of two
components or phases, A and B, it follows that αB = 1 − αA . Though this is clearly
a well-defined property for any finite volume in the flow, there are some substantial
problems associated with assigning a value to an infinitesimal volume or point in the
flow. Provided these can be resolved, it follows that the volumetric flux of a component,
N , and its velocity are related by

jNi = αN u Ni (1.4)

and that


ji = αA u Ai + αB u Bi + · · · = αN u Ni . (1.5)
N

Two other fractional properties are relevant only in the context of one-dimensional
flows. The volumetric quality, βN , is the ratio of the volumetric flux of the component,
N, to the total volumetric flux, that is,

βN = jN /j, (1.6)

where the index i has been dropped from jN and j because β is only used in the context
of one-dimensional flows and the jN , j refer to cross-sectionally averaged quantities.
The mass fraction, xA , of a phase or component, A, is simply given by ρA αA /ρ
[see Eq. (1.8) for ρ]. Conversely, the mass quality, XA , is often referred to simply as
the quality and is the ratio of the mass flux of component A to the total mass flux or
GA ρA jA
XA = = . (1.7)
G ρN jN
N

Furthermore, when only two components or phases are present it is often redundant
to use subscripts on the volume fraction and the qualities because αA = 1 − αB , βA =
1 − βB , and XA = 1 − XB . Thus unsubscripted quantities α, β, and X are often used
in these circumstances.

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 1.1 Introduction 5

It is clear that a multiphase mixture has certain mixture properties, of which the
most readily evaluated is the mixture density denoted by ρ and given by the following:


ρ= αN ρN . (1.8)
N

Conversely, the specific enthalpy, h, and specific entropy, s, being defined as per unit
mass rather than per unit volume, are weighted according to the following:



ρh = ρN αN h N ; ρs = ρN αN sN . (1.9)
N N

Other properties such as the mixture viscosity or thermal conductivity cannot be

reliably obtained from such simple weighted means.
Aside from the relative velocities between phases that were described earlier, there
are two other measures of relative motion that are frequently used. The drift velocity
of a component is defined as the velocity of that component in a frame of reference
moving at a velocity equal to the total volumetric flux, ji , and is therefore given by
u NJi , where

u NJi = u Ni − ji . (1.10)

Even more frequent use will be made of the drift flux of a component, which is defined
as the volumetric flux of a component in the frame of reference moving at ji . Denoted
by jNJi , this is given by the following:

jNJi = jNi − αN ji = αN (u Ni − ji ) = αN u NJi . (1.11)

It is particularly important to notice that the sum of all the drift fluxes must be zero
because from Eq. (1.11) we have the following:




jNJi = jNi − ji αN = ji − ji = 0. (1.12)
N N N

When only two phases or components, A and B, are present it follows that jAJi = − jBJi
and hence it is convenient to denote both of these drift fluxes by the vector jABi , where
we have the following:

jABi = jAJi = − jBJi . (1.13)

Moreover it follows from Eq. (1.11) that we have the following:

jABi = αA αB u ABi = αA (1 − αA )u ABi , (1.14)

and hence the drift flux, jABi , and the relative velocity, u ABi , are simply related.
Finally, it is clear that certain basic relations follow from the preceding definitions
and it is convenient to identify these here for later use. First the relations between the
volume and mass qualities that follow from Eqs. (1.6) and (1.7) only involve ratios of

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 6 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

Figure 1.1. Measured size distribution functions

for small bubbles in three different water tunnels
(Peterson et al. 1975, Gates and Bacon 1978, Katz
1978) and in the ocean off Los Angeles, California
(O’Hern et al. 1985).

the densities of the following components:

 ρN 
 ρA 
X A = βA / βN ; βA = X A / XN . (1.15)
N
ρA N
ρN
Conversely, the relation between the volume fraction and the volume quality necessar-
ily involves some measure of the relative motion between the phases (or components).
The following useful results for two-phase (or two-component) one-dimensional flows
can readily be obtained from Eqs. (1.11) and (1.6) as follows:
jNJ jAB jAB
βN = α N + ; β A = αA + ; βB = αB − , (1.16)
j j j
which demonstrate the importance of the drift flux as a measure of the relative motion.

1.1.4 Size Distribution Functions

In many multiphase flow contexts we shall make the simplifying assumption that all
the disperse phase particles (bubbles, droplets, or solid particles) have the same size.
However, in many natural and technological processes it is necessary to consider the
distribution of particle size. One fundamental measure of this is the size distribution
function, N (v), defined such that the number of particles in a unit volume of the
multiphase mixture with volume between v and v + dv is N (v)dv. For convenience,

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 1.1 Introduction 7

Figure 1.2. Size distribution functions

for bubbles in freshly poured Guinness
and after five minutes. Adapted from
Kawaguchi and Maeda (2003).

it is often assumed that the particle size can be represented by a single linear dimension
(for example, the diameter, D, or radius, R, in the case of spherical particles) so that
alternative size distribution functions, N
(D) or N

(R), may be used. Examples of
size distribution functions based on radius are shown in Figures 1.1 and 1.2.
Often such information is presented in the form of cumulative number distributions.
For example, the cumulative distribution, N ∗ (v ∗ ), defined as
 v∗
∗ ∗
N (v ) = N (v)dv, (1.17)
0

is the total number of particles of volume less than v ∗ . Examples of cumulative dis-
tributions (in this case for coal slurries) are shown in Figure 1.3.
In these disperse flows, the evaluation of global quantities or characteristics of the
disperse phase will clearly require integration over the full range of particle sizes using
the size distribution function. For example, the volume fraction of the disperse phase,

Figure 1.3. Cumulative size distribu-

tions for various coal slurries. Adapted
from Shook and Roco (1991).

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 8 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

αD , is given by the following:

 ∞ 
π ∞ 3

αD = v N (v)dv = D N (D)d D, (1.18)
0 6 0
where the last expression clearly applies to spherical particles. Other properties of the
disperse phase or of the interactions between the disperse and continuous phases can
involve other moments of the size distribution function (see, for example, Friedlander
1977). This leads to a series of mean diameters (or sizes in the case of nonspherical
particles) of the form, Djk , where
 ∞  j−k
1

D j N
(D)d D
D jk = 0∞ . (1.19)
0 D k N
(D)d D

A commonly used example is the mass mean diameter, D30 . Conversely, processes
that are controlled by particle surface area would be characterized by the surface
area mean diameter, D20 . The surface area mean diameter would be important, for
example, in determining the exchange of heat between the phases or the rates of
chemical interaction at the disperse phase surface. Another measure of the average
size that proves useful in characterizing many disperse particulates is the Sauter mean
diameter, D32 . This is a measure of the ratio of the particle volume to the particle
surface area and, as such, is often used in characterizing particulates (see, for example,
Chapter 14).

1.2 Equations of Motion

1.2.1 Averaging
In Section 1.1.3 it was implicitly assumed that there existed an infinitesimal volume
of dimension, , such that  was not only very much smaller than the typical distance
over which the flow properties varied significantly but also very much larger than the
size of the individual phase elements (the disperse phase particles, drops, or bubbles).
The first condition is necessary to define derivatives of the flow properties within the
flow field. The second is necessary so that each averaging volume (of volume  3 )
contains representative samples of each of the components or phases. In the sections
that follow (Sections 1.2.2 to 1.2.9), we proceed to develop the effective differential
equations of motion for multiphase flow assuming that these conditions hold.
However, one of the more difficult hurdles in treating multiphase flows is that the
preceding two conditions are rarely both satisfied. As a consequence the averaging
volumes contain a finite number of finite-sized particles and therefore flow properties
such as the continuous phase velocity vary significantly from point to point within these
averaging volumes. These variations pose the challenge of how to define appropriate
average quantities in the averaging volume. Moreover, the gradients of those averaged

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 1.2 Equations of Motion 9

flow properties appear in the equations of motion that follow and the mean of the
gradient is not necessarily equal to the gradient of the mean. These difficulties are
addressed in Section 1.4 after we have explored the basic structure of the Equations
in the absence of such complications.

1.2.2 Continuum Equations for Conservation of Mass

Consider now the construction of the effective differential equations of motion for a
disperse multiphase flow (such as might be used in a two-fluid model) assuming that
an appropriate elemental volume can be identified. For convenience this elemental
volume is chosen to be a unit cube with edges parallel to the x1 , x2 , x3 directions. The
mass flow of component N through one of the faces perpendicular to the i direction is
given by ρN jNi and therefore the net outflow of mass of component N from the cube
is given by the divergence of ρN jNi or
∂(ρN jNi )
. (1.20)
∂ xi
The rate of increase of the mass of component N stored in the elemental volume is
∂(ρN αN )/∂t and hence conservation of mass of component N requires that
∂ ∂(ρN jNi )
(ρN αN ) + = IN , (1.21)
∂t ∂ xi
where IN is the rate of transfer of mass to the phase N from the other phases per
unit total volume. Such mass exchange would result from a phase change or chemical
reaction. This is the first of several phase interaction terms that are identified and, for
ease of reference, the quantities IN are termed the mass interaction terms.
Clearly there is a continuity equation such as Eq. (1.21) for each phase or com-
ponent present in the flow. They are referred to as the individual phase continuity
equations (IPCE). However, because mass as a whole must be conserved whatever
phase changes or chemical reactions are happening, it follows that


IN = 0 (1.22)
N

and hence the sum of all the IPCEs results in a combined phase continuity equation
(CPCE) that does not involve IN as follows:

∂
∂

ρN αN + ρN jNi =0 (1.23)
∂t N
∂ xi N

or, using Eqs. (1.4) and (1.8),

∂ρ ∂

+ ρN αN u Ni = 0. (1.24)
∂t ∂ xi N

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 10 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

Notice that only under the conditions of zero relative velocity in which u Ni = u i does
this reduce to the mixture continuity equation (MCE), which is identical to that for an
equivalent single-phase flow of density ρ as follows:
∂ρ ∂
+ (ρu i ) = 0. (1.25)
∂t ∂ xi
We also record that for one-dimensional duct flow the individual phase continuity
equation [Eq. (1.21)] becomes the following:
∂ 1 ∂
(ρN αN ) + (AρN αN u N ) = IN , (1.26)
∂t A ∂x
where x is measured along the duct; A(x) is the cross-sectional area; u N , αN are cross-
sectionally averaged quantities, and AIN is the rate of transfer of mass to the phase
N per unit length of the duct. The sum over the constituents yields the following
combined phase continuity equation
∂p 1 ∂

+ A ρN αN u n = 0. (1.27)
∂t A ∂x N

When all the phases travel at the same speed, u N = u, this reduces to the following:
∂ρ 1 ∂
+ (ρ Au) = 0. (1.28)
∂t A ∂x
Finally, we should make note of the form of the equations when the two components
or species are intermingled rather than separated because we analyze several situations
with gases diffusing through one another. Then both components occupy the entire
volume and the void fractions are effectively unity so that the continuity equation
[Eq. (1.21)] becomes the following:
∂ρN ∂(ρN u Ni )
+ = IN . (1.29)
∂t ∂ xi

1.2.3 Disperse Phase Number Continuity

Complementary to the equations of conservation of mass are the equations governing

the conservation of the number of bubbles, drops, particles, and so on that constitute
a disperse phase. If no such particles are created or destroyed within the elemental
volume and if the number of particles of the disperse component, D, per unit total
volume is denoted by n D , it follows that
∂n D ∂
+ (n D u Di ) = 0. (1.30)
∂t ∂ xi
This is referred to as the disperse phase number equation (DPNE).
If the volume of the particles of component D is denoted by vD it follows that
αD = n D vD (1.31)

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 1.2 Equations of Motion 11

and substituting this into Eq. (1.21) one obtains the following:
∂ ∂
(n D ρD vD ) + (n D u Di ρD vD ) = ID . (1.32)
∂t ∂ xi
Expanding this equation using Eq. (1.30) leads to the following relation for ID :
 
∂(ρD vD ) ∂(ρD vD ) DD
ID = n D + u Di = nD (∂D vD ), (1.33)
∂t ∂ xi DD t
where DD /DD t denotes the Lagrangian derivative following the disperse phase. This
demonstrates a result that could, admittedly, be assumed a priori. Namely that the
rate of transfer of mass to the component D in each particle, ID /n D , is equal to the
Lagrangian rate of increase of mass, ρD vD , of each particle.
It is sometimes convenient in the study of bubbly flows to write the bubble number
conservation equation in terms of a population, η, of bubbles per unit liquid volume
rather than the number per unit total volume, n D . Note that if the bubble volume is v
and the volume fraction is α then
nD η v
η= ; nD = ; α=η (1.34)
(1 − α) (1 + ηv) (1 + ηv)
and the bubble number conservation equation can be written as follows:
 
∂u Di (1 + ηv) DD η
=− . (1.35)
∂ xi η DD t 1 + ηv
If the number population, η, is assumed uniform and constant (which requires neglect
of slip and the assumption of liquid incompressibility) then Eq. (1.35) can be written
as follows:
∂u Di η DD v
= . (1.36)
∂ xi 1 + ηv DD t
In other words, the divergence of the velocity field is directly related to the Lagrangian
rate of change in the volume of the bubbles.

1.2.4 Fick’s Law

We digress briefly to complete the kinematics of two interdiffusing gases. Equation

(1.29) represents the conservation of mass for the two gases in these circumstances.
The kinematics are then completed by a statement of Fick’s law that governs the
interdiffusion. For the gas, A, this law is as follows:
 
ρD ∂ ρA
u Ai = u i − , (1.37)
ρA ∂ xi ρ
where D is the diffusivity.

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 12 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

1.2.5 Continuum Equations for Conservation of Momentum

Continuing with the development of the differential equations, the next step is to
apply the momentum principle to the elemental volume. Prior to doing so we make
some minor modifications to that control volume to avoid some potential difficulties.
Specifically, we deform the bounding surfaces so that they never cut through disperse
phase particles but everywhere are within the continuous phase. Because it is already
assumed that the dimensions of the particles are very small compared with the di-
mensions of the control volume, the required modification is correspondingly small.
It is possible to proceed without this modification but several complications arise.
For example, if the boundaries cut through particles, it would then be necessary to
determine what fraction of the control volume surface is acted on by tractions within
each of the phases and to face the difficulty of determining the tractions within the par-
ticles. Moreover, we need to evaluate the interacting force between the phases within
the control volume and this is complicated by the issue of dealing with the parts of
particles intersected by the boundary.
Now proceeding to the application of the momentum theorem for either the disperse
(N = D) or continuous phase (N = C), the flux of momentum of the N component
in the k direction through a side perpendicular to the i direction is ρN jNi u Nk and
hence the net flux of momentum (in the k direction) out of the elemental volume is
∂(ρ N α N u N i u N k )/∂ xi . The rate of increase of momentum of component N in the k
direction within the elemental volume is ∂(ρN αN u Nk )/∂t. Thus using the momentum
conservation principle, the net force in the k direction acting on the component N in
the control volume (of unit volume), FNk T
, must be given by the following:
∂ ∂
FNk
T
= (ρN αN u Nk ) + (ρN αN u Ni u Nk ). (1.38)
∂t ∂ xi
It is more difficult to construct the forces, FNk
T
, to complete the equations of
motion. We must include body forces acting within the control volume, the force due
to the pressure and viscous stresses on the exterior of the control volume, and, most
particularly, the force that each component imposes on the other components within
the control volume.
The first contribution is that due to an external force field on the component N
within the control volume. In the case of gravitational forces, this is clearly given by
the following:

αN ρN gk , (1.39)

where gk is the component of the gravitational acceleration in the k direction (the

direction of g is considered vertically downward).
The second contribution, namely that due to the tractions on the control volume,
differs for the two phases because of the small deformation previously discussed. It
is zero for the disperse phase. For the continuous phase we define the stress tensor,

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 1.2 Equations of Motion 13

σCki , so that the contribution from the surface tractions to the force on that phase is as
follows:
∂σCki
. (1.40)
∂ xi
For future purposes it is also convenient to decompose σCki into a pressure, pC = p,
and a deviatoric stress, σCki
D
, as follows:

σCki = − pδki + σCki

D
, (1.41)

where δki is the Kronecker delta such that δki = 1 for k = i and δi j = 0 for k = i.
The third contribution to FNk T
is the force (per unit total volume) imposed on the
component N by the other components within the control volume. We write this as
F N k so that the individual phase momentum equation (IPME) becomes the following:
∂ ∂ ∂p ∂σ D
(ρN αN u Nk ) + (ρN αN u Ni u Nk ) = αN ρN gk + FNk − δN − Cki , (1.42)
∂t ∂ xi ∂ xk ∂ xi
where δD = 0 for the disperse phase and δC = 1 for the continuous phase.
Thus we identify the second of the interaction terms, namely the force interaction,
FNk . Note that, as in the case of the mass interaction IN , it must follow that


FNk = 0. (1.43)
N

In disperse flows it is often useful to separate FNk into two components, one due to


the pressure gradient in the continuous phase, −αD ∂ p/∂ xk , and the remainder, FDk ,
because of other effects such as the relative motion between the phases. Then we
obtain the following:
∂p

FDk = −FCk = −αD + FDk . (1.44)
∂ xk
The IPME [Eq. (1.42)] is frequently used in a form in which the terms on the
left-hand side are expanded and use is made of the continuity equation [Eq. (1.21)].
In single-phase flow this yields a Lagrangian time derivative of the velocity on the
left-hand side. In the present case the use of the continuity equation results in the
appearance of the mass interaction, I N . Specifically, one obtains the following:
∂u Nk ∂u Nk ∂p ∂σ D
ρN αN + u Ni = αN ρN gk + FNk − IN u Nk − δN − Cki .
∂t ∂ xi ∂ xk ∂ xi
(1.45)
Viewed from a Lagrangian perspective, the left-hand side is the normal rate of increase
of the momentum of the component N; the term IN u Nk is the rate of increase of the
momentum in the component N due to the gain of mass by that phase.
If the momentum equations [Eq. (1.42)] for each of the components are added
together, the resulting combined phase momentum equation (CPME) becomes the

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 14 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

following:
∂
∂
∂p ∂σ D
ρN αN u Nk + ρN αN u Ni u Nk = ρgk − + Cki . (1.46)
∂t N
∂ xi N
∂ xk ∂ xi
Note that this equation reduces to the equation of motion for a single-phase flow only
in the absence of relative motion, u Ck = u Dk . Note also that, in the absence of any
motion (when the deviatoric stress is zero), Eq. (1.46) yields the appropriate hydrostatic
pressure gradient ∂ p/∂ xk = ρgk based on the mixture density, ρ.
Another useful limit is the case of uniform and constant sedimentation of the dis-
perse component (volume fraction, αD = α = 1 − αC ) through the continuous phase
under the influence of gravity. Then Eq. (1.42) yields the following:
0 = αρD gk + FDk
∂σCki
0= + (1 − α)ρC gk + FCk . (1.47)
∂ xi
But FDk = −FCk and, in this case, the deviatoric part of the continuous phase stress
should be zero (because the flow is a simple uniform stream) so that σCk j = − p. It
follows from Eq. (1.47) that
FDk = −FCk = −αρD gk and ∂ p/∂ xk = ρgk (1.48)
or, in words, the pressure gradient is hydrostatic.
Finally, note that the equivalent one-dimensional or duct flow form of the IPME is
as follows:
∂ 1 ∂ ∂p Pτw
(ρN αN u N ) + (AρN αN u 2N ) = −δN + + αN ρN gx + FNx , (1.49)
∂t A ∂x ∂x A
where, in the usual pipe flow notation, P(x) is the perimeter of the cross section and τw
is the wall shear stress. In this equation, AFNx is the force imposed on the component
N in the x direction by the other components per unit length of the duct. A sum over
the constituents yields the combined phase momentum equation for duct flow, namely

∂
1 ∂
∂p Pτw
ρN αN u N + A ρN αN u 2N =− − + ρgx (1.50)
∂t N
A ∂x N
∂x A
and, when all phases travel at the same velocity, u = u N , this reduces to the following:
∂ 1 ∂ ∂p Pτw
(ρu) + (Aρu 2 ) = − − + ρgx . (1.51)
∂t A ∂x ∂x A

1.2.6 Disperse Phase Momentum Equation

At this point we should consider the relation between the equation of motion for an
individual particle of the disperse phase and the disperse phase momentum equation
(DPME) delineated in the last section. This relation is analogous to that between

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 1.2 Equations of Motion 15

the number continuity equation and the disperse phase continuity equation (DPCE).
The construction of the equation of motion for an individual particle in an infinite
fluid medium is discussed at some length in Chapter 2. It is sufficient at this point to
recognize that we may write Newton’s equation of motion for an individual particle
of volume vD in the following form:
DD
(ρD vD u Dk ) = Fk + ρD vD gk , (1.52)
DD t
where DD /DD t is the Lagrangian time derivative following the particle so that
DD ∂ ∂
≡ + u Di (1.53)
DD t ∂t ∂ xi
and Fk is the force that the surrounding continuous phase imparts to the particle in the
direction k. Note that Fk includes not only the force due to the velocity and acceleration
of the particle relative to the fluid but also the buoyancy forces due to pressure gradients
within the continuous phase. Expanding Eq. (1.52) and using Eq. (1.33) for the mass
interaction, ID , one obtains the following form of the DPME:
∂u Dk ∂u Dk ID
ρ D vD + u Di + u Dk = Fk + ρD vD gk . (1.54)
∂t ∂ xi nD
Now examine the implication of this relation when considered alongside the IPME
[Eq. (1.45)] for the disperse phase. Setting α D = n D v D in Eq. (1.45), expanding and
comparing the result with Eq. (1.54) (using the continuity equation [Eq. (1.21)] one
observes the following:
FDk = n D Fk . (1.55)
Hence the appropriate force interaction term in the disperse phase momentum equation
is simply the sum of the fluid forces acting on the individual particles in a unit volume,
namely n D Fk . As an example, note that the steady, uniform sedimentation interaction
force FDk given by Eq. (1.48), when substituted into Eq. (1.55), leads to the result
Fk = −ρD vD gk or, in words, a fluid force on an individual particle that precisely
balances the weight of the particle.

1.2.7 Comments on Disperse Phase Interaction

In Section 1.2.6 the relation between the force interaction term, FDk , and the force,
Fk , acting on an individual particle of the disperse phase was established. In Chapter 2
we include extensive discussions of the forces acting on a single particle moving
in an infinite fluid. Various forms of the fluid force, Fk , acting on the particle are
presented [for example, Eqs. (2.47), (2.49), (2.50), (2.67), (2.71), and (3.20)] in terms
of (a) the particle velocity, Vk = u Dk , (b) the fluid velocity Uk = u Ck that would have
existed at the center of the particle in the latter’s absence, and (c) the relative velocity
Wk = Vk − Uk .

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 16 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

Downstream of some disturbance that creates a relative velocity, Wk , the drag

will tend to reduce that difference. It is useful to characterize the rate of equalization
of the particle (mass, m p , and radius, R) and fluid velocities by defining a velocity
relaxation time, tu . For example, it is common in dealing with gas flows laden with
small droplets or particles to assume that the equation of motion can be approximated
by just two terms, namely the particle inertia and a Stokes drag, which for a spherical
particle is 6πµC RWk (see Section 2.2.2). It follows that the relative velocity decays
exponentially with a time constant, tu , given by the following:

tu = m p /6π RµC . (1.56)

This is known as the velocity relaxation time. A more complete treatment that includes
other parametric cases and other fluid mechanical effects is contained in Sections 2.4.1
and 2.4.2.
There are many issues with the equation of motion for the disperse phase that
have yet to be addressed. Many of these are delayed until Section 1.4 and others are
addressed later in the book, for example in Sections 2.3.2, 2.4.3, and 2.4.4.

1.2.8 Equations for Conservation of Energy

The third fundamental conservation principle that is utilized in developing the basic
equations of fluid mechanics is the principle of conservation of energy. Even in single-
phase flow the general statement of this principle is complicated when energy transfer
processes such as heat conduction and viscous dissipation are included in the analysis.
Fortunately it is frequently possible to show that some of these complexities have a
negligible effect on the results. For example, one almost always neglects viscous
and heat conduction effects in preliminary analyses of gas dynamic flows. In the
context of multiphase flows the complexities involved in a general statement of energy
conservation are so numerous that it is of little value to attempt such generality.
Thus we present only a simplified version that neglects, for example, viscous heating
and the global conduction of heat (though not the heat transfer from one phase to
another).
However, these limitations are often minor compared with other difficulties that
arise in constructing an energy equation for multiphase flows. In single-phase flows
it is usually adequate to assume that the fluid is in an equilibrium thermodynamic
state at all points in the flow and that an appropriate thermodynamic constraint (for
example, constant and locally uniform entropy or temperature) may be used to relate
the pressure, density, temperature, entropy, and so on. In many multiphase flows the
different phases and/or components are often not in equilibrium and consequently
thermodynamic equilibrium arguments that might be appropriate for single-phase
flows are no longer valid. Under those circumstances it is important to evaluate the heat
and mass transfer occurring between the phases and/or components; this is discussed
in Section 1.2.9.

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 1.2 Equations of Motion 17

In single-phase flow application of the principle of energy conservation to the

control volume (CV) uses the following statement of the first law of thermodynamics:
Rate of heat addition to the CV, Q
+ Rate of work done on the CV, W
=
Net flux of total internal energy out of CV
+ Rate of increase of total internal energy in CV.
In chemically nonreacting flows the total internal energy per unit mass, e∗ , is the sum
of the internal energy, e, the kinetic energy u i u i /2 (u i are the velocity components),
and the potential energy gz (where z is a coordinate measured in the vertically upward
direction) as follows:
1
e∗ = e + u i u i + gz. (1.57)
2
Consequently, the energy equation in single-phase flow becomes the following:
∂ ∂ ∂
(ρe∗ ) + (ρe∗ u i ) = Q + W − (u i σi j ), (1.58)
∂t ∂ xi ∂x j
where σi j is the stress tensor. Then, if there is no heat addition to (Q = 0) or external
work done on (W = 0) the CV and if the flow is steady with no viscous effects (no
deviatoric stresses), the energy equation for single-phase flow becomes the following:
 
∂ ∗ p ∂
ρu i e + = {ρu i h ∗ } = 0, (1.59)
∂ xi ρ ∂ xi
where h ∗ = e∗ + p/ρ is the total enthalpy per unit mass. Thus, when the total enthalpy
of the incoming flow is uniform, h ∗ is constant everywhere.
Now examine the task of constructing an energy equation for each of the compo-
nents or phases in a multiphase flow. First, it is necessary to define a total internal
energy density, eN∗ , for each component N such that
1
eN∗ = eN + u Ni u Ni + gz. (1.60)
2
Then an appropriate statement of the first law of thermodynamics for each phase (the
individual phase energy equation, IPEE) is as follows:
Rate of heat addition to N from outside CV, QN
+ Rate of work done to N by the exterior surroundings, WAN
+ Rate of heat transfer to N within the CV, QI N
+ Rate of work done to N by other components in CV, WI N
=
Rate of increase of total kinetic energy of N in CV
+ Net flux of total internal energy of N out of the CV,
where each of the terms is conveniently evaluated for a unit total volume.

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 18 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

First note that the last two terms can be written as follows:
∂ ∂
(ρN αN eN∗ ) + (ρN αN eN∗ u Ni ). (1.61)
∂t ∂ xi
Turning then to the upper part of the equation, the first term due to external heating
and to conduction of heat from the surroundings into the control volume is left as QN .
The second term contains two contributions: (1) minus the rate of work done by the
stresses acting on the component N on the surface of the control volume and (2) the
rate of external shaft work, WN , done on the component N. In evaluating the first of
these, we make the same modification to the control volume as was discussed in the
context of the momentum equation; specifically, we make small deformations to the
control volume so that its boundaries lie wholly within the continuous phase. Then
using the continuous phase stress tensor, σCi j , as defined in Eq. (1.41) the expressions
for WAN become the following:
∂
WAC = WC + (u Ci σCi j ) and WAD = WD . (1.62)
∂x j
The individual phase energy equation may then be written as follows:
∂ ∂ ∂
(ρN αN eN∗ ) + (ρN αN eN∗ u Ni ) = QN + WN + QI N + WI N + δN (u Ci σCi j ).
∂t ∂ xi ∂x j
(1.63)
Note that the two terms involving internal exchange of energy between the phases may
be combined into an energy interaction term given by EN = QI N + WI N . It follows
that




QI N = O and WI N = O and EN = O. (1.64)
N N N

Moreover, the work done terms, WI N , may clearly be related to the interaction forces,
FNk . In a two-phase system with one disperse phase we have the following:

QIC = −QI D and WI C = −WI D = −u Di FDi and EC = −ED . (1.65)

As with the continuity and momentum equations, the individual phase energy
equations can be summed to obtain the combined phase energy equation (CPEE).
Then, denoting the total rate of external heat added (per unit total volume) by Q and
the total rate of external shaft work done (per unite total volume) by W where



Q= QN and W = WN (1.66)
N N

the CPEE becomes the following:

∂
∂

ρN αN eN∗ + −u C j σCi j + ρN αN u Ni eN∗ = Q + W. (1.67)
∂t N
∂ xi N

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 1.2 Equations of Motion 19

When the left-hand sides of the individual or combined phase equations [Eqs. (1.63)
and (1.67)] are expanded and use is made of the continuity equation [Eq. (1.21)] and the
momentum equation [Eq. (1.42)] (in the absence of deviatoric stresses), the results are
known as the thermodynamic forms of the energy equations. Using equation Eq. (1.65)
and the relation

eN = cvN TN + constant (1.68)

between the internal energy, eN , the specific heat at constant volume, cvN , and the
temperature, TN , of each phase, the thermodynamic form of the IPEE can be written
as follows:
∂ TN ∂ TN ∂u Ci
ρN αN cvN + u Ni = δN σCi j + QN + WN + QI N
∂t ∂ xi ∂x j
+ FNi (u Di − u Ni ) − (eN∗ − u Ni u Ni )IN (1.69)
and, summing these, the thermodynamic form of the CPEE is

 
∂ TN ∂ TN ∂u Ci
ρN αN cvN + u Ni = σCi j − FDi (u Di − u Ci )
∂t ∂ xi ∂x j
N

− ID (eD∗ − eC∗ ) + u Ni u Ni IN . (1.70)
N

In Eqs. (1.69) and (1.70), it has been assumed that the specific heats, cvN , are constant
and uniform.
Finally, we note that the one-dimensional duct flow version of the IPEE, Eq. (1.63),
is as follows:
∂ 1 ∂ ∂
(ρN αN eN∗ ) + (AρN αN eN∗ u N ) = QN + WN + EN − δN ( pu C ), (1.71)
∂t A ∂x ∂x
where AQN is the rate of external heat addition to the component N per unit length of
the duct, AWN is the rate of external work done on component N per unit length of the
duct, AEN is the rate of energy transferred to the component N from the other phases
per unit length of the duct, and p is the pressure in the continuous phase neglecting
deviatoric stresses. The CPEE, Eq. (1.67), becomes the following:

∂
1 ∂
∂
ρN αN eN∗ + AρN αN eN∗ u N =Q+W − ( pu C ), (1.72)
∂t N
A ∂x N
∂x

where AQ is the total rate of external heat addition to the flow per unit length of the duct
and AW is the total rate of external work done on the flow per unit length of the duct.

1.2.9 Heat Transfer between Separated Phases

In the preceding section, the rate of heat transfer, QI N , to each phase, N, from the
other phases was left undefined. Now we address the functional form of this rate of

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 20 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

heat transfer in the illustrative case of a two-phase flow consisting of a disperse solid
particle or liquid droplet phase and a gaseous continuous phase.
In Section 1.2.7, we defined a relaxation time that typifies the natural attenuation of
velocity differences between the phases. In an analogous manner, the temperatures of
the phases might be different downstream of a flow disturbance and consequently there
would be a second relaxation time associated with the equilibration of temperatures
through the process of heat transfer between the phases. This temperature relaxation
time is denoted by tT and can be obtained by equating the rate of heat transfer from the
continuous phase to the particle with the rate of increase of heat stored in the particle.
The heat transfer to the particle can occur as a result of conduction, convection, or
radiation and there are practical flows in which each of these mechanisms is impor-
tant. For simplicity, we neglect the radiation component. Then, if the relative motion
between the particle and the gas is sufficiently small, the only contributing mechanism
is conduction and it will be limited by the thermal conductivity, kC , of the gas (because
the thermal conductivity of the particle is usually much greater). Then the rate of heat
transfer to a particle (radius R) is given approximately by 2π RkC (TC − TD ), where TC
and TD are representative temperatures of the gas and particle respectively.
Now we add in the component of heat transfer by the convection caused by relative
motion. To do so we define the Nusselt number, Nu, as twice the ratio of the rate of
heat transfer with convection to that without convection. Then the rate of heat transfer
becomes Nu times the above result for conduction. Typically, the Nusselt number is a
function of both the Reynolds number of the relative motion, Re = 2W R/νC [where W
is the typical magnitude of (u Di − u Ci )], and the Prandtl number, Pr = ρC νC c pC /kC .
One frequently used expression for Nu (see Ranz and Marshall 1952) is as follows:
1 1
Nu = 2 + 0.6Re 2 Pr 3 (1.73)
and, of course, this reduces to the pure conduction result, Nu = 2, when the second
term on the right-hand side is small.
Assuming that the particle temperature has a roughly uniform value of TD , it follows
that
DTD
QI D = 2π RkC Nu(TC − TD )n D = ρD αD csD , (1.74)
Dt
where the material derivative, D/Dt, follows the particle. This provides the equation
that must be solved for TD namely
DTD Nu (TC − TD )
= , (1.75)
Dt 2 tT
where
tT = csD ρD R 2 /3kC . (1.76)
Clearly tT represents a typical time for equilibration of the temperatures in the two
phases and is referred to as the temperature relaxation time.

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 1.3 Interaction with Turbulence 21

The preceding construction of the temperature relaxation time and the equation for
the particle temperature represents perhaps the simplest formulation that retains the
essential ingredients. Many other effects may become important and require modifi-
cation of the equations. Examples are the rarefied gas effects and turbulence effects.
Moreover, the preceding was based on a uniform particle temperature and steady-state
heat transfer correlations; in many flows heat transfer to the particles is highly transient
and a more accurate heat transfer model is required. For a discussion of these effects
the reader is referred to Rudinger (1969) and Crowe et al. (1998).

1.3 Interaction with Turbulence

1.3.1 Particles and Turbulence

Turbulent flows of a single Newtonian fluid, even those of quite simple external
geometry such as a fully developed pipe flow, are very complex and their solution
at high Reynolds numbers requires the use of empirical models to represent the un-
steady motions. It is self-evident that the addition of particles to such a flow will result
in the following:

1. Complex unsteady motions of the particles that may result in nonuniform spatial
distribution of the particles and, perhaps, particle segregation. It can also result in
particle agglomeration or in particle fission, especially if the particles are bubbles
or droplets.
2. Modifications of the turbulence itself caused by the presence and motions of the
particles. One can visualize that the turbulence could be damped by the presence
of particles, or it could be enhanced by the wakes and other flow disturbances that
the motion of the particles may introduce.

Since the mid-1970s, a start has been made in the understanding of these complicated
issues, though many aspects remain to be understood. The advent of laser Doppler
velocimetry resulted in the first measurements of these effects, and the development
of direct numerical simulation allowed the first calculations of these complex flows,
albeit at rather low Reynolds numbers. Here we are confined to a brief summary of
these complex issues. The reader is referred to the early review of Hetsroni (1989)
and the text by Crowe et al. (1998) for a summary of the current understanding.
To set the stage, recall that turbulence is conveniently characterized at any point
in the flow by the Kolmogorov length and time scales, λ and τ , given by
  14
ν3 ν  12
λ= and τ= (1.77)
 
where ν is the kinematic viscosity and  is the mean rate of dissipation per unit mass
of fluid. Because  is proportional to U 3 / , where U and are the typical velocity and

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 22 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

Figure 1.4. The percentage change in

the turbulence intensity as a function of
the ratio of particle size to turbulence
length scale, D/ t , from a wide range
of experiments. Adapted from Gore and
Crowe (1989).

dimension of the flow, it follows that

λ/ ∝ Re− 4 and U τ/ ∝ Re− 2

3 1
(1.78)

and the difficulties in resolving the flow either by measurement or by computation

increase as Re increases.
Gore and Crowe (1989) collected data from a wide range of turbulent pipe and
jet flows (all combinations of gas, liquid, and solid flows; volume fractions from
2.5 × 10−6 to 0.2; density ratios from 0.001 to 7500; and Reynolds numbers from
8000 to 100,000) and constructed Figure 1.4, which plots the fractional change in
the turbulence intensity (defined as the rms fluctuating velocity) as a result of the
introduction of the disperse phase against the ratio of the particle size to the turbulent
length scale, D/ t . They judge that the most appropriate turbulent length scale, t , is the
size of the most energetic eddy. Single-phase experiments indicate that t is about 0.2
times the radius in a pipe flow and 0.039 times the distance from the exit in a jet flow. To
explain Figure 1.4 Gore and Crowe argue that when the particles are small compared
with the turbulent length scale, they tend to follow the turbulent fluid motions and
in doing so absorb energy from them, thus reducing the turbulent energy. It appears
that the turbulence reduction is a strong function of Stokes number, St = m p /6π Rµτ ,
the ratio of the particle relaxation time, m p /6π Rµ, to the Kolmogorov time scale,
τ . A few experiments (Eaton 1994, Kulick et al. 1994) suggest that the maximum
reduction occurs at St values of the order of unity though other features of the flow
may also influence the effect. Of course, the change in the turbulence intensity also
depends on the particle concentration. Figure 1.5, from Paris and Eaton (2001), shows
one example of how the turbulent kinetic energy and the rate of viscous dissipation
depend on the mass fraction of particles for a case in which D/ t is small.

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 1.3 Interaction with Turbulence 23

Figure 1.5. The percentage change in the

turbulent kinetic energy and the rate of vis-
cous dissipation with mass fraction for a
channel flow of 150-µm glass spheres sus-
pended in air (from Paris and Eaton 2001).

Conversely, large particles do not follow the turbulent motions and the relative mo-
tion produces wakes that tend to add to the turbulence (see, for example, Parthasarathy
and Faeth 1990). Under these circumstances, when the response times of the particles
are comparable with or greater than the typical times associated with the fluid motion,
the turbulent flow with particles is more complex due to the effects of relative motion.
Particles in a gas tend to be centrifuged out of the more intense vortices and accu-
mulate in the shear zones in between. Figure 1.6 is a photograph of a turbulent flow
of a gas loaded with particles showing the accumulation of particles in shear zones
between strong vortices. Conversely, bubbles in a liquid flow tend to accumulate in
the center of the vortices.
Analyses of turbulent flows with particles or bubbles are currently the subject of
active research, and many issues remain. The literature includes a number of heuristic
and approximate quantitative analyses of the enhancement of turbulence due to particle
relative motion. Examples are the work of Yuan and Michaelides (1992) and Kenning

Figure 1.6. Image of the centerplane of a fully developed, turbulent channel flow of air loaded with 28-µm
particles. The area is 50 × 30 mm. Reproduced from Fessler et al. (1994) with the authors’ permission.

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 24 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

and Crowe (1997). The latter relate the percentage change in the turbulence intensity
due to the particle wakes; this yields a percentage change that is a function not only of
D/ t but also of the mean relative motion and the density ratio. They show qualitative
agreement with some of the data included in Figure 1.4.
An alternative to these heuristic methodologies is the use of direct numerical
simulations (DNS) to examine the details of the interaction between the turbulence and
the particles or bubbles. Such simulations have been carried out both for solid particles
(for example, Squires and Eaton 1990, Elghobashi and Truesdell 1993) and for bubbles
(for example, Pan and Banarejee 1997). Because each individual simulation is so time
consuming and leads to complex consequences, it is not yet possible to draw general
conclusions over a wide parameter range. However, the kinds of particle segregation
mentioned earlier are readily apparent in the simulations.

1.3.2 Effect on Turbulence Stability

The issue of whether particles promote or delay transition to turbulence is somewhat

distinct from their effect on developed turbulent flows. Saffman (1962) investigated the
effect of dust particles on the stability of parallel flows and showed theoretically that if
the relaxation time of the particles, tu , is small compared with /U , the characteristic
time of the flow, then the dust destablizes the flow. Conversely if tu  /U the dust
destablizes the flow.
In a somewhat similar investigation of the effect of bubbles on the stability of
parallel liquid flows, d’Agostino et al. (1997) found that the effect depends on the
relative magnitude of the most unstable frequency, ωm , and the natural frequency of the
bubbles, ωn (see Section 4.4.1). When the ratio, ωm /ωn  1, the primary effect of the
bubbles is to increase the effective compressibility of the fluid, and because increased
compressibility causes increased stability, the bubbles are stabilizing. Conversely, at or
near resonance, when ωm /ωn is of order unity, there are usually bands of frequencies
in which the flow is less stable and the bubbles are therefore destabilizing.
In summary, when the response times of the particles or bubbles (both the relaxation
time and the natural period of volume oscillation) are short compared with the typical
times associated with the fluid motion, the particles simply alter the effective properties
of the fluid, its effective density, viscosity, and compressibility. It follows that under
these circumstances the stability is governed by the effective Reynolds number and
effective Mach number. Saffman considered dusty gases at low volume concentrations,
α, and low Mach numbers; under those conditions the net effect of the dust is to change
the density by (1 + αρS /ρG ) and the viscosity by (1 + 2.5α). The effective Reynolds
number therefore varies like (1 + αρS /ρG )/(1 + 2.5α). Because ρs  ρG the effective
Reynolds number is increased and the dust is therefore destabilizing. In the case of
d’Agostino et al. the primary effect of the bubbles (when ωm  ωn ) is to change the
compressibility of the mixture. Because such a change is stabilizing in a single-phase
flow, the result is that the bubbles tend to stabilize the flow.

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 1.4 Comments on the Equations of Motion 25

Conversely, when the response times are comparable with or greater than the typical
times associated with the fluid motion, the particles do not follow the motions of the
continuous phase. The disturbances caused by this relative motion tend to generate
unsteady motions and promote instability in the continuous phase.

1.4 Comments on the Equations of Motion

In Sections 1.2.2 through 1.2.8 we assembled the basic form for the equations of
motion for a multiphase flow that would be used in a two-fluid model. However, these
only provide the initial framework; there are many additional complications that must
be addressed. The relative importance of these complications varies greatly from one
type of multiphase flow to another. Consequently the level of detail with which they
must be addressed varies enormously. In this general introduction we can indicate only
the various types of complications that can arise.

1.4.1 Averaging
As discussed in Section 1.2.1, when the ratio of the particle size, D, to the typical
dimension of the averaging volume (estimated as the typical length, , over which there
is significant change in the averaged flow properties) becomes significant, several
issues arise (see Hinze 1959, Vernier and Delhaye 1968, Nigmatulin 1979, Reeks
1992). The reader is referred to Slattery (1972) or Crowe et al. (1997) for a systematic
treatment of these issues; only a summary is presented here. Clearly an appropriate
volume average of a property, Q C , of the continuous phase is given by Q C where

1
QC = Q C d V, (1.79)
VC VC
where VC denotes the volume of the continuous phase within the control volume, V .
For present purposes, it is also convenient to define an average

1
QC = Q C d V = αC Q C (1.80)
V VC
over the whole of the control volume.
Because the conservation equations discussed in the preceding sections contain
derivatives in space and time and because the leading order set of equations we seek
are versions in which all the terms are averaged over some local volume, the equations
contain averages of spatial gradients and time derivatives. For these terms to be eval-
uated they must be converted to derivatives of the volume-averaged properties. Those
relations take the form (Crowe et al. 1997):

∂ QC ∂ QC 1
= − Q C n i d S, (1.81)
∂ xi ∂ xi V SD

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 26 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

where SD is the total surface area of the particles within the averaging volume. With
regard to the time derivatives, if the volume of the particles is not changing with time
then
∂ QC ∂ QC
= , (1.82)
∂t ∂t
but if the location of a point on the surface of a particle relative to its center is given
by ri and if ri is changing with time (for example, growing bubbles) then

∂ QC ∂ QC 1 Dri
= + QC d S. (1.83)
∂t ∂t V SD Dt
When the Eqs. (1.81) and (1.83) are employed in the development of appropriate
averaged conservation equations, the integrals over the surface of the disperse phase
introduce additional terms that might not have been anticipated (see Crowe et al.
1997 for specific forms of those equations). Here it is of value to observe that the
magnitude of the additional surface integral term in Eq. (1.81) is of the order of
(D/)2 . Consequently these additional terms are small as long as D/ is sufficiently
small.

1.4.2 Averaging Contributions to the Mean Motion

Thus far we have discussed only those additional terms introduced as a result of the fact
that the gradient of the average may differ from the average of the gradient. Inspection
of the form of the basic equations (for example, the continuity equation [Eq. (1.21)] or
the momentum equation [Eq. (1.42)]) readily demonstrates that additional averaging
terms are introduced because the average of a product is different from the product of
averages. In single-phase flows, the Reynolds stress terms in the averaged equations of
motion for turbulent flows are a prime example of this phenomenon. We use the name
quadratic rectification terms to refer to the appearance in the averaged equations of
motion of the mean of two fluctuating components of velocity and/or volume fraction.
Of course multiphase flows also exhibit conventional Reynolds stress terms when they
become turbulent (see Section 1.3 for more on the complicated subject of turbulence
in multiphase flows). But even multiphase flows that are not turbulent in the strictest
sense exhibit variations in the velocities due to the flows around particles, and these
variations yield quadratic rectification terms. These must be recognized and modeled
when considering the effects of locally nonuniform and unsteady velocities on the
equations of motion. Much more has to be learned of both the laminar and turbulent
quadratic rectification terms before these can be confidently incorporated in model
equations for multiphase flow. Both experiments and computer simulation are valuable
in this regard.
One simpler example in which the fluctuations in velocity have been measured and
considered is the case of concentrated granular flows in which direct particle/particle

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 1.4 Comments on the Equations of Motion 27

interactions create particle velocity fluctuations. These particle velocity fluctuations

and the energy associated with them (the so-called granular temperature) have been
studied both experimentally and computationally (see Chapter 13) and their role in the
effective continuum equations of motion is better understood than in more complex
multiphase flows.
With two interacting phases or components, the additional terms that emerge from
an averaging process can become extremely complex. In recent decades a number
of valiant efforts have been made to codify these issues and establish at least the
forms of the important terms that result from these interactions. For example, Wallis
(1991) has devoted considerable effort to identify the inertial coupling of spheres in
inviscid, locally irrotational flow. Arnold, Drew, and Lahey (1989) and Drew (1991)
have focused on the application of cell methods (see Section 2.4.3) to interacting
multiphase flows. Both these authors as well as Sangani and Didwania (1993) and
Zhang and Prosperetti (1994) have attempted to include the fluctuating motions of
the particles (as in granular flows) in the construction of equations of motion for the
multiphase flow; Zhang and Prosperetti also provide a useful comparative summary of
these various averaging efforts. However, it is also clear that these studies have some
distance to go before they can be incorporated into any real multiphase flow prediction
methodology.

1.4.3 Averaging in Pipe Flows

One specific example of a quadratic rectification term (in this case a discrepancy
between the product of an average and the average of a product) is that recognized
by Zuber and Findlay (1965). To account for the variations in velocity and volume
fraction over the cross section of a pipe in constructing the one-dimensional equations
of pipe flow, they found it necessary to introduce a distribution parameter, C0 , defined
by the following:

αj
C0 = , (1.84)
α j

where the overbar now represents an average over the cross section of the pipe. The
importance of C0 is best demonstrated by observing that it follows from Eq. (1.16)
that the cross-sectionally averaged volume fraction, αA , is now related to the volume
fluxes, jA and jB by the following:

1 jA
αA = . (1.85)
C0 ( jA + jB )

Values of C0 of the order of 1.13 (Zuber and Findlay 1965) or 1.25 (Wallis 1969)
appear necessary to match the experimental observations.

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 28 Introduction to Multiphase Flow

1.4.4 Modeling with the Combined Phase Equations

One of the simpler approaches is to begin by modeling the combined phase equations
[Eqs. (1.24), (1.46), and (1.67)] and hence avoid having to codify the mass, force, and
energy interaction terms. By defining mixture properties such as the density, ρ, and
the total volumetric flux, ji , one can begin to construct equations of motion in terms
of those properties. But none of the summation terms (equivalent to various weighted
averages) in the combined phase equations can be written accurately in terms of these
mixture properties. For example, the summations



ρN αN u Ni and ρN αN u Ni u Nk (1.86)
N N

are not necessarily given with any accuracy by ρ ji and ρ ji jk . Indeed, the discrepancies
are additional rectification terms that would require modeling in such an approach.
Thus any effort to avoid addressing the mass, force, and energy interaction terms by
focusing exclusively on the mixture equations of motion immediately faces difficult
modeling questions.

1.4.5 Mass, Force, and Energy Interaction Terms

Most multiphase flow modeling efforts concentrate on the individual phase equations
of motion and must therefore face the issues associated with construction of IN , the
mass interaction term, FNk , the force interaction term, and EN , the energy interaction
term. These represent the core of the problem in modeling multiphase flows and there
exist no universally applicable methodologies that are independent of the topology of
the flow, the flow pattern. Indeed, efforts to find systems of model equations that would
be applicable to a range of flow patterns would seem fruitless. Therein lies the main
problem for the user who may not be able to predict the flow pattern and therefore has
little hope of finding an accurate and reliable method to predict flow rates, pressure
drops, temperatures, and other flow properties.
The best that can be achieved with the present state of knowledge is to attempt to
construct heuristic models for IN , FNk , and EN given a particular flow pattern. Sub-
stantial efforts have been made in this direction particularly for dispersed flows; the
reader is directed to the excellent reviews by Hinze (1961), Drew (1983), Gidaspow
(1994), and Crowe et al. (1998) among others. Both direct experimentation and
computer simulation have been used to create data from which heuristic expressions
for the interaction terms could be generated. Computer simulations are particularly
useful not only because high-fidelity instrumentation for the desired experiments is
often very difficult to develop but also because one can selectively incorporate a range
of different effects and thereby evaluate the importance of each.
It is important to recognize that there are several constraints to which any math-
ematical model must adhere. Any violation of those constraints is likely to produce
strange and physically inappropriate results (see Garabedian 1964). Thus, the system

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 1.4 Comments on the Equations of Motion 29

of equations must have appropriate frame-indifference properties (see, for example,

Ryskin and Rallison 1980). It must also have real characteristics; Prosperetti and Jones
(1987) show that some models appearing in the literature do have real characteristics,
whereas others do not.
In this book Chapters 2, 3, and 4 review what is known of the behavior of individual
particles, bubbles, and drops, with a view to using this information to construct IN ,
FNk , and EN and therefore the equations of motion for particular forms of multiphase
flow.

https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511807169.002 Published online by Cambridge University Press