C12H11O4(NO3)6 9CO + 3N2 + 7H2O + 3CO2 (Cellulose nitrate)

4C3H3(NO3)3 12CO2 + 10H2O + 6N2 + O2(Glyceryl nitrate)

Possible Locations of Nitrates When Blackpowder and Smokeless Powder Explode

It will be noticed that nitrates are present in both gunpowder so that one will expect to find nitrates (NO4) in the
following:
1. Residue of the barrel of the gun.
2. In or around the wound.
3. 3On the clothing of the person fired upon at close range.
4. On the exposed surface of the hand of the person firing the gun.

Factors that Affect the Presence and Amount of Gunpowder Residues

1. Type and caliber of the ammunition. Different types of ammunition fired in the same weapon and from the
same distance may give different pattern.
2. Length of the barrel. A weapon with 2 inches barrel will deposit residues over a larger area than a weapon
having 5 inches barrel even though they are fired at the same distance and with the same type of ammunition.
3. Distance of the muzzle of the gun from the target.
4. Humidity. Affects the speed with which powder burns. Powder having lesser amount of moisture will burn
more rapidly and completely within a given time yielding greater amount of residue.
5. Wind Velocity and Direction. In higher winds the residue will be blown in the directions of the wind yielding a
scattered pattern.
6. Direction of Firing. Firing vertically slightly greater than firing horizontally from the same distance. Powder
residue have weight. When gun is fired downward or vertically, all the residue will fall on the target, but when
fired horizontally some of the residues are likely to fall short of the target.

Determination of Whether or Not a Person Fired a Gun with His Bared Hands
The burned residues are partially burned particles may escape around the much of a gun and implanted on
the exposed surface of the hand firing the gun or the presence of this particles serves as a basis for the
diphenylamine-paraffin test (DPA-Paraffin Test).
Theory upon Which the Diphenylamine Paraffin Test is Based
At the instance of discharge there is a certain number of gases and mixture of burned residues and partially
burned particles that escape from the breech of the gun. These particles strike the exposed surface of the hand
holding the weapon and became implanted into the skin.

1. The test is not specific for nitrates since the role of nitrate is simply an oxidizing agent. The test cannot
determine the source of nitrate.
2. There are other substances which contain nitrate oxidizing agents that are not in the ordinary course of like
fertilizers, explosives, tobacco urine cosmetics, firecrackers, and detergents. Diphenylamine Paraffin Test or
Dermal Nitrate Test or Lunge

Diphenylamine Test. A test to determine whether a person fired a gun or not with bare hands.

Procedure:
1. Paraffin Test. The taking of the cast to extract nitrates embedded or implanted in the skin.
2. Diphenylamine Test. The chemical aspect of the test. It determines the presence and distribution of nitrates

Reagent. Diphenylamine reagent (0.5gram diphenylamine crystals dissolved in 100 ml of sulfuric acid and 20 ml of
water).

Visible Result. Deep blue specks that develop when nitrates come in contact with the diphenylamine reagent.

Limitation of Diphenylamine-Paraffin Test

1. The test is not specific for nitrates since the role of nitrate is simply an oxidizing agent. The test cannot
determine the source of nitrate.
2. There are other substances which contain nitrate oxidizing agents that are not in the ordinary course of life
like fertilizers, explosives, tobacco, firecrackers, urine, cosmetics, and detergents.
3. In general persons do not have nitrates or other oxidants on their hands as a matter of common occurrence.
4. Hands contaminated with nitrates from other sources other than gunpowder or any oxidant one will expect to
find either a smear blue color or conglomeration of blue specks located at the different places of the hand both
dorsal and palmar aspects.

Possibilities that a Person May Be Found Positive for Nitrates Even He Did Not Actually Fire a Gun
1. It is possible that the gunpowder particles may have been blown on the hand directly from the barrel of the
gun being fired by another person.
2. An attempt to shield the body by raising the hand would in some instances result in the implanting of powder
particles on the hand of a person close to one firing a gun.

Possibilities that a Person May Be Found Negative for Nitrates Even If He Actually Fired a Gun

1. Use of automatic pistol 5. Use of gloves

2. Direction of the wind. 6. Knowledge of chemicals that will remove the
3. Wind velocity nitrates
4. Excessive precipitation

The leakage of the powder is apt to occur when the gun fired is old weapon where the mechanism is no longer
tightly tilted and when the gun used is of the revolver type.

In cases involving shooting incidents where paraffin tests is required, the person suspected to have fired a gun
should be subjected to diphenylamine-paraffin test immediately and in no case should it be postponed seventy-two
(72) hours after waxing. It is possible to detect nitrates as late as three (3) days even though the hands have been
washed. In the Philippines, it is reduced to two (2) days due to massive perspiration.

Determination of the Probable Gunshot Range or Distance the Firearm was Held from the Body of the Victim
at the Time of Discharged

The clothing of the victim with bullet perforation should be submitted for possible gunshot range.

How to Collect, Preserve, and Pack Clothing

Clothing removed from the victim should be carefully and cautiously handled to prevent powder residues for
becoming dislodged.
1. A large area as possible surrounding the gunshot hole should be made available for the test. If the condition
and appearance of the wound point to a contact shot at, all of the clothing in the path of the bullet should be
collected and submitted for examination.
2. Do not wad the specimen or pack it loosely for shipment. Secure the area to be tested between two layers of
heavy cardboard fastened together tightly to prevent the specimen from becoming jostled about in transit.
3. Each specimen should be wrapped separately.
4. Clothing heavily smeared with blood should be dried thoroughly before packing. If wet, they may become
mildew or stick together in such a way that they will be unsuitable for the test.

The letter of transmittal should contain all the information as to existing circumstances and conditions known to the
investigator which may become helpful in making the test.

How to Determine the Probable Gunshot Range

The clothing is examined microscopically for possible powder residue, singeing, burning, smudging, and
powder tattooing.
 Singeing – Slight burning.
 Smudging – Blackening of area around the bullet hole.
 Tattooing – Individual specks of nitrates around the bullet hole visible to the naked eye.
 It is a black coarsely peppered pattern.

Three (3) Zones of Distances from which a Firearm was Discharge

1. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held directly in contact with the body or practically so.
2. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held 2 inches to 36 inches away.
3. Those in which the muzzle of the gun was held beyond 36 inches.

Held Directly in Contact: The characteristic patterns observed are as follows:

1. Gaping hole where fabric is badly torn;
2. Smudging;
3. Singeing of the fibers at the entrance; and
4. Tattooing.

Presence of partially burned powdered residues around the entrance hole that may be embedded in the fabric.
This could be present originally but may have become dislodged by rough handling of the specimen or may have been
blown into the wound or may have been washed by bleeding.

Held from 2 inches to 8 inches (Maximum)

The smoke and soot from the burned powder will be deposited around the hole of entrance producing a dirty
grimy appearance (covered with soot, dirt adhering or embedded on the surface). More pronounced when the
ammunition used contains blackpowder. Smudging around the perforation will be found to diminish in size as the
muzzle of the gun is held a distance of eight (8) inches and all the blackening around the hole completely disappear
and few individual specks of tattooing will be visible with the naked eye. The size of the smudge depends upon the
caliber of the gun, type of powder used, length of the barrel, distance of the muzzle of the gun was held from the body.
The size of the area of the powder tattooing will also depend on the caliber, powder charge and distance of firing. A
close observation of the area surrounding the gunshot hole will show that greater bulk of them is deposited in one side
of the hole. This is due to the fact that when cartridge is fired, the bullet leaves the muzzle of the gun first, followed by
the ascending gases and the burning powder. This cause the gun to kick, throwing the muzzle off the target and this
kick is always towards the direction of the sights. The kick of the gun causes the smudge and powder tattooing to be
deposited more on one side of the hole than on the other, and the side of the greatest deposit indicates the side on
which the sights of the gun was mounted. This observation is helpful in determining whether the wound was due to
suicide or murder. If the gun was discharged from a position in which the victim could not easily have held himself, it
intends to indicate murder. The size of the area of powder tattooing will also depend on the caliber, powder charge and
the distance of firing.

Held from 8 inches to 36 inches

Tattooing is visible. The partially burned and unburned powder particles will be driven into the surface around
the gunshot hole producing a black coarsely peppered pattern called tattooing.
Held beyond 36 inches
Evidence of powder tattooing is seldom present.

Rifling characteristics on fired bullets Gunshot residue patterns

Chemical Test for Gunpowder Residue

There are two (2) methods of determining the presence of gunpowder residues around the gunshot hole:
1. A method pattern after diphenylamine-paraffin test.
Procedure: Coat a piece of clean gauze with a sufficient amount of paraffin to produce a layer of about 1/8 inch.
Press the layer of paraffin while still warm against the area to be examined.

2. Walker’s Test. It used if the powder particles are deeply embedded. It is based on the conversion of nitrates to a
dye.
Procedure:
i. Immerse the photographic paper in a new hypo solution for 15 minutes so that all the silver salts are
dissolved.
ii. The paper is washed in running water for one (1) hour.
iii. The desensitized paper is immersed in 5 to 10% aqueous solution of C-acid (2-napthylamine- 4, 8-disculfonic
acid) for ten (10) minutes then dry.
iv. Lay a clean towel on the table and the prepared C-paper is laid face up on this.
v. The fabric to be examined is then laid face-down on the photographic paper.
vi. Place a thin dry towel of cotton cloth moistened with 20 to 25% acetic acid.
vii. Place another layer of dry towel.
viii. Press the laminated arrangement with warm electric iron for ten (10) minutes.

Results: A number of orange-red spots are imprinted on the photographic paper.

Gunshot Range of Weapons Other Than Pistol and Revolver

Rifle. A weapon on high velocity projectile. Gunshot range is difficult to estimate due to high velocity of the projectile
and the wide variation produced in the wound of entrance. The tissue through which the bullet passed are usually
bruised in varying degree. As a general rule the size of the wound closely approximates the size of the bullet.

Shotgun or Sporting gun. The projectile is a collection of small shot consisting of lead pellets that vary in size with
types of cartridges.
1. The pellet disperses soon after their exit from the barrel and the dispersion increases with the range.
2. The shot discharged from the average cylinder sporting gun will cluster together and not separate to any
appreciable extent until the cluster has travelled approximately three (3) to four (4) feet from the muzzle of
weapon.
3. If a shot is fired closed to the body up to a few inches the shot enters as a mass and liberated gas and flame
lacerate the tissue around the hole and show evidence of burning, carbon deposit and powder tattooing.
4. When fired from three (3) feet from the body a more or less irregular circular wound about one and a half (1.5)
inches to two (2) inches in diameter will be produced. There will be scorching, carbon deposit and powder
tattooing.
5. At a range over a yard and up to about three (3) yards evidence of burning disappears and probably only faint
tattooing will be found.
6. Beyond a yard the entering shot produces an irregular wound and as a result of commencing dispersion of the
shots individual pellet holes may be detected.
Determination of the Probable Time the Gun has been Fired
In the determination of the approximate time of last discharge the specimen firearm is needed in the
examination.
At the Crime Laboratory, if the gun is examined immediately after the shooting the chemistry rely more on the
odor of the barrel. A characteristic smell will be presented that decreases in intensity with lapse of time, as smell of
hydrogen sulfide. If the gun is examined later presence of nitrates, nitrites, rust soot, and metallic fragments are
determined.

Procedure:
The barrel is swabbed with cotton with the aid of a barbecue stick and the presence of the following is
determined microscopically and chemically.
 Soot. A black substance that is formed by combustion, rises in fine particles and adheres to the side of the
barrel conveying the smoke.
 Metallic Fragment. Rust formation inside the barrel after the gun has been fired is a good indication for the
determination of the approximate time the gun has been fired.
 If a gun has not been fired at all, no rust can be detected inside the barrel of the gun.
 If a gun has been fired, iron salts are formed and are found inside the barrel. This iron salts are soon oxidized
resulting in the formation of rust.
Nitrite (NO2). Its presence is determined by the addition of diphenylamine reagent. If the color becomes blue, nitrites
are present and we may say that the firearm could have been fired recently.

Nitrates (NO3). Its presence is determined by the addition of diphenylamine reagent. If the color becomes yellow
green, nitrates are present and we may say that the firearm could have been fired but not recently.

What is explosive?

Explosives
The Crime Laboratory does not only examine explosives confiscated from some lawless elements of society
that they utilize for criminal purposes, but also explosives used in illegal fishing.

Explosive. Is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or combustion.
A material either a pure single substance or mixture of substances which is capable of producing an explosion by its
own energy. When exploded always accompanied with the liberation of heat and almost with the formation of gas.

Classification of Explosives
1. From the viewpoint of chemical composition.
2. With respect to the functioning characteristics

Classification of Explosives from the Viewpoint of Chemical Composition

1. Inorganic Compound

Examples: Lead azide Pb(N3)2; Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3

2. Organic Compound

Examples: Trininitrotoluene (TNT); picric acid (Trinitrophenol); Nitrocellulose; Mercury fulminate Hg (ONC)
3. Mixture of Oxidizable Materials and Oxidizing Agents that are not Explosives Separately Examples:
Blackpowder is used today mainly as igniter for nitrocellulose gun propellants
And also, in pyrotechniques.
Classification of Explosives with Respect to Functioning Characteristics
1) Propellants or Low Explosives. Are combustible materials containing within themselves all oxygen needed for
their combustion which burn but do not explode and function by producing gas which produces explosion.

Examples: Blackpowder, smokeless powder, firecrackers and pyrotechniques.

2) Primary Explosives or Indicators. Explode and detonate when they are heated or subjected to shock. They do
not burn. Sometimes they do not even contain the elements necessary for combustion. The materials themselves
explode and the explosion results whether they are confined or not.

Examples: Mercury fulminate Hg (ONC); and lead azide Pb(N3)2 .

3) High Explosives. Explode under the influence of shock of the explosion of a primary explosive. They do not
function by burning, in fact not all of them can be ignited by a flame and in small amount generally burn tranquilly
and can be extinguished easily. If heated to a high temperature by external heat or by their own combustion, they
sometimes explode.
Examples:
 Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3. Most readily available and cheapest salt of nitric acid. White compound u
used as solid oxidizer in explosive mixture.
 Dynamite. Made by mixing nitroglycerine with powder clay or sawdust.
 TNT or Trinitrotoluene. The most widely used explosive. Used mostly for military explosive. A safe safe
explosive. It will burn but does not explode if set on fire.
 Nitroglycerine. Widely used industrial explosives. Has been the main components in many dynamites. It
is a mixture of nitric acid, sulfuric acid and glycerine. Oily liquid that is very dangerous because the
slightest shake will cause it to explode.
 Plastic explosive. A military explosive that looks like an ordinary putty or molding clay. These are chiefly
solids or mixtures so formulated as to be solid at normal temperature of use.
 Picric acid. Also called trinitrophenol.

Other Explosives:
1. C-4. Often referred to as a plastic explosive. White and dough like in consistency. It is commonly encountered of
the RDX based explosive.
2. RDX. (1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5 triazacyclophexane). Also called hexogen or cyclonite, Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramite. A
plastic explosive and most important military explosives used today.
3. Chloroacetophenone (CN). The principal constituent in the filter used in tear gas solutions. Commonly used tear
gas.
4. Fire Bombs

a) Molotov cocktail. An incendiary device, not a bomb. Easily constructed of the most common materials.
Consists of frangible container like glass bottle filled with gasoline or any inflammable mixture and having a
piece of absorbent cloth for a wick or fuse. To function, the container is turned upside down and the wick
absorbs the flammable mixture, the wick lighted and thrown. On impact the bottle breaks scattering the
flammable mixture which is ignited by the burning wick.
b) Modern Molotov. Consist of 2/3 and 1/3 gas and sulfuric acid respectively. A blotter which has been saturated
in potassium chlorate and sugar is wrapped and secured to the bottle. A snowball consists of potassium
chlorate and sugar mixture embedded in a wax mold using a length of safety fuse for an ignitor.
c) Acids mixed with the gasoline and wicks attached to the outer bottle.
d) Mixture of alcohol and gasoline using a chrome oxide strip taped to the bottle which when thrown will burn
violently.

The Demolition and Fragmentation Explosives

1. Composition A: Mixture of RDX and beeswax. Semi plastic in nature.
2. Composition B: Mixture of RDX, TNT and beeswax.
3. Composition C: Sometimes referred to as plastic explosive, is RDX and inert plasticizer composition.
4. C-2: RDX and explosive plasticizer. Contains no tetryl.
5. C-3: RDX and an explosive plasticizer with tetryl substituted in part of RDX.
6. C-4: RDX and plastic explosive composition.