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Mechanical Operation

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Mechanical Operation

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Nomee Patel

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MECHANICAL OPERATION M

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©This book is protected by law under the Copyright Act of India. This book can only be used by the
student to whom the book was provided by Career Avenues GATE Coaching as a part of its GATE
course. Any other use of the book such as reselling, copying, photocopying, etc is a legal offense.

MECHANICAL OPERATIONS
CONTENTS
CHAPTER DESCRIPTION

PART A NOTES
SIZE SEPARATION

1SIZE
1.1 Particle Characteristics
1.2 Mean Particle Sizes
1.3 Screening
SEPARATION 1.4 Elutriation
1.5 Settling
1.6 Classification
1.6.1 Principles of Classification
1.6.2 Laws of Classification
1.6.3 Classification Equipments
1.6.3.1 Simple Classifier
1.6.3.2 Spitzkasten Chamber
1.7 Froth Floatation
1.7.1 Reagents
1.7.1.1 Collectors
1.7.1.2 Chemisorption
1.7.1.3 Physisorption
1.7.1.4 Nonionic Collectors
1.7.1.5 Anionic Collectors
1.8 Magnetic Separation
1.9 Electrostatic Separation
1.10 Centrifugal Separation
1.11 Size Enlargement

SIZE REDUCTION

2
SIZE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Size Reduction Equipments
2.2.1 Crushers
REDUCTION 2.2.2 Grinders
2.3 Power Requirements for Crushing
2.3.1 Crushing Efficiency
2.3.2 Laws of Crushing

MIXING AND AGITATION

3
MIXING
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Liquid Mixing
3.2.1 Axial Flow Impeller
AND 3.2.2 Radial Flow Impellers
AGITATION 3.3 Mixing Equipments
3.3.1 Liquid Mixers
3.3.2 Solid Mixers
3.3.3 Viscous Mixers

SOLID FLUID SEPARATION

4
SOLID
4.1 Sedimentation
4.1.1 Application of Sedimentation Process
4.1.2 Classification of Settling Behavior
FLUID 4.1.2.1 Sedimentation Class I – Unlimited Settling of
SEPARATION Discrete Particles
4.1.2.2 Sedimentation Class II – Settlement of
Flocculent Particles in dilute Suspension
4.1.2.3 Sedimentation class III – Hindered Settling and
Zone Settling and Sludge Blanket Clarifiers
4.1.2.4 Sedimentation Class IV – Compression Settling

4.1.3 Design of Sedimentation Tanks

4.1.3.1 Horizontal Flow Sedimentation Tank

4.1.3.2 Sludge Blanket Clarifiers

4.1.4 Factors Affecting Sedimentation
4.1.4.1 Particle size
4.1.4.2 Water Temperature
4.1.4.3 Currents
4.1.5 Sedimentation Basin Zones
4.1.5.1 Inlet Zone
4.1.5.2 Settling Zone
4.1.5.3 Sludge Zone
4.1.5.4 Outlet Zone
4.1.6 Selection of Basin
4.1.6.1 Rectangular Basins
4.1.6.2 Circular And Square Basins
4.1.7 Solid Contact Units
4.2 Filtration
4.2.1 Mechanisms of Filtration Process
4.2.2 Filtration Models
4.2.2.1 Cake Filtration
4.2.2.2 Blocking Filtration
4.2.2.3 Deep Bed Filtration
4.2.2.4 Cross Flow Filtration
4.2.3 Types of Filters
4.2.3.1 Rapid Sand Filters
4.2.3.2 Sand Filters
4.2.3.3 Wash water Troughs
4.2.3.4 High Rate Filters
4.2.3.5 Pressure Filters
4.2.4 Calculation For Pressure Drop
4.2.4.1 Cake Filtration
4.2.4.2 The Cake Filter Equation
4.2.4.3 Compressible Cake Filtration
4.3 Gas Solid Separation
4.3.1 Factors Affecting The Gas Solid Operation
4.3.2 Mechanisms of Gas Solid Operation
4.3.3 Gas Cleaning Equipments
4.3.3.1 Gravity Settling Chamber
4.3.3.2 Wet Scrubbers
4.3.3.3 Cyclone Separators

TRANSPORTATION OF SOLIDS

5
TRANSPORTATION
5.1 Transportation Equipments
5.2 Conveyors
5.2.1 Belt Conveyors
OF SOLIDS 5.2.2 Chain Conveyors
5.2.3 Screw Conveyors
5.3 Bucket Elevators

PART B MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

LEVEL 1

6 LEVEL 2

PART C ASSIGNMENT

7 UNSOLVED QUESTIONS

PART A: NOTES

CHAPTER1

SIZE SEPARATION

1.1 PARTICLE CHARACTERISTICS

The particle characteristics are defined by their size, shape and density.
The shape of an individual particle is expressed in terms of the sphericity
s . The equivalent diameter of a non-spherical particle is defined as the
diameter of a sphere having the same volume as the particle. The
sphericity s is the ratio of the surface area of the sphere, whose diameter
is equal to the equivalent diameter of the particle, to the actual surface
area of particle. The sphericity s is given by the relation

6
Dp
s  …(1)
Sp
Vp

Where Dp=equivalent diameter of the particle

Vp= Volume of a particle
Sp =Surface area of a particle
Particle sizes are usually expressed in different units based on the size
range involved. Coarse particles are measured in millimeters, fine particles
in terms of screen size, very fine particles in micrometers or nanometers.
Ultrafine particles are also described in terms of their surface area per unit
mass, usually in m2 / g.
If the total mass of uniform particles of diameter Dp, sphericity s and
density  p in a sample is m, the total surface area of particles is given by

6m
A …(2)
s  pDp

1.2 MEAN PARTICLE SIZES

There are many definitions for the average particle size for a mixture of
particles. These include:
 VOLUME – SURFACE MEAN DIAMETER
The volume – surface mean diameter defined as
n

N D i
3
pi
Ds  i 1
n
…(3)
N D
i 1
i
2
pi

If the number of particles in each fraction Ni is known, then it is given by

1
Ds  …(4)
n
 xi 
  D 
i 1  pi 

 ARITHMETIC MEAN DIAMETER

It can be defined as

   N D 
n n
Ni Dpi i pi
DN  i 1
n
 i 1
…(5)
NT
N
i 1
i

Where NT = total number of particles in entire sample

 MASS MEAN DIAMETER

It can be defined as

 
n
Dw   xi Dpi …(6)
i 1

 VOLUME MEAN DIAMETER

It can be defined as
1/ 3
 
 

DV  n
1  …(7)
 x  
 i 3 
 i 1  Dpi  

1.3 SCREENING
It is a method to separate the fine particles on the basis of their sizes. To
perform screen analysis following steps are used:
 A set of standard screens are arranged serially in a stack with the
smallest mesh at bottom and largest at top.
 The sample is placed on the top screen and then the stack is shaken
mechanically for a definite time, usually 20 minutes.
 The particles retained on each screen are removed and weighted and
the masses of the individual screen increments are converted to mass
fractions or mass % of the total sample.
 Any particles that pass the fines screen are caught in a pan at the
bottom of the stack.
 The results of a screen analysis are tabulated to show the mass
fraction of each increment as a fraction of the mesh size range of the
increment.
Here, the notation 14/20 mean “through 14 mesh and on 20 mesh.”
Mesh Screen Mass Average Cumulative
Opening Fraction Particle Fraction
Dpi, mm Retained Diameter Smaller Than
, xi in Dpi
Increment,
Dpi , mm

4 4.699 0.0000 - 1.0000

14 1.168 0.25701 1.409 0.2722
48 0.295 0.0102 0.356 0.0282
Pan - 0.0075 0.037 0.0000

It is one method to classify the particles by their sizes.

1.4 ELUTRIATION
Elutriation, also known as air classification, is a process for separating
lighter particles from heavier ones using a vertically-directed stream
of gas or liquid (usually upwards). This method is predominately used for
particles with size (>1μm). The smaller or lighter particles rise to the top
(overflow) because their terminal velocities are lower than the velocity of
the rising fluid. The terminal velocities of any particle in any media can be
calculated using Stokes' Law if the particle Reynolds number is below 2.
Elutriation is a materials separation method where smaller and larger
materials are forced apart with the use of a column of liquid or gas. It can
be used on the macro and micro level, from preparation of cell samples for
analysis to separation of single stream recycling. Equipment for use in
elutriation is available from a number of manufacturers and people can
order custom equipment for unique applications. Such equipment tends to
be more expensive than offerings on the conventional product lineup.
In elutriation, materials are fed into a rising column of separation
medium. This can be something like a buffer solution or a jet of air. Small,
light particles drift up in the column, while large, heavy particles sink
down. This creates a series of layers of different materials of different sizes.
In something like single stream recycling, large air jets are used for quick
and basic separation, allowing plastic containers to go to one side of a
processing facility, while glass lands on the other, for example, with metals
being separated earlier in the process with the use of magnets.

1.5 SETTLING
Settling is the process by which particulates settle to the bottom of a liquid
and form a sediment. Particles that experience a force, either due to
gravity or due to centrifugal motion will tend to move in a uniform manner
in the direction exerted by that force. For gravity settling, this means that
the particles will tend to fall to the bottom of the vessel, forming a slurry at
the vessel base.

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1.6 CLASSIFICATION
Classification is defined as the separation of a mixture of solid particles
into various fractions according to their size or density, which are allowed
or caused to settle through a fluid either in motion or at rest. The fluid in
question is generally water but it can also be air.
When the materials of the same density are separated according to their
sizes, the operation is known as sizing.
When the materials of the same equivalent size are separated according to
their densities, the operation is known as sorting.

1.6.1 PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION

When a solid particle falls through a vacuum under the influence of
gravity alone, its velocity increases continuously due to acceleration. But
when the same solid particle falls through a fluid such as air or water, its
velocity increases at a lower rate due to friction caused by the movement
of the particle in the fluid which cancels a part of the gravitational force.

This frictional force increases with the increase in the velocity of the
particle. And when the frictional force becomes equal to the gravitational
force, the velocity of a particle reaches a constant value, known as the
terminal settling velocity.
This velocity depends on the parameters such as the shape, size and
density of the solid particle and the density and viscosity of the fluid.

1.6.2 LAWS OF CLASSIFICATION

Some of the general laws of classification are the following:
(i) The coarse particles have a relatively faster settling velocity than the
fine particles of the same specific gravity and the same shape.
(ii) The heavy gravity particles have a relatively faster settling velocity
than light gravity particles of the same size and the same shape.
(iii) The regular particles like the spherical ones have a relatively faster
settling velocity than irregular particles of the same weight.
(iv) The settling velocity of solid particles decreases with the increase in
fluid density and viscosity.

1.6.3 CLASSIFICATION EQUIPMENTS

There are basically two major type of classifying equipments:

1.6.3.1 SIMPLE CLASSIFIER

In the simple classifier, the design is similar to that of the straight gravity
settling tank, except that the bottom half is divided into several equal
partitions. What happens is that instead of just falling into a big mess on
the bottom of the tank, the coarse particles get trapped in the first
chamber, the intermediates get trapped in the middle partitions, and the
fine particles, the dust, gets captured in the last section. Then, you can
drain the sections from the bottom and have segregated sediment.

1.6.3.2 SPITZKASTEN CHAMBER

The Spitzkasten chamber runs like this. A series of conical vessels of
increasing size is set up in the direction of flow. As the slurry enters the
first vessel, the coarse particles get trapped, and the overflow continues on
to the next, where more separation takes place. This particular settling
chamber is unique because you can adjust the flow rates in between each
vessel in order to provide the necessary degree of separation.

1.7 FROTH FLOATATION

Froth flotation is a highly versatile method for physically separating
particles based on differences in the ability of air bubbles to selectively
adhere to specific mineral surfaces in a mineral / water slurry. The

particles with attached air bubbles are then carried to the surface and
removed, while the particles that remain completely wetted stay in the
liquid phase. Froth flotation can be adapted to a broad range of mineral
separations, as it is possible to use chemical treatments to selectively alter
mineral surfaces so that they have the necessary properties for the
separation. It is currently in use for many diverse applications, with a few
examples being: separating sulfide minerals from silica gangue (and from
other sulfide minerals); separating potassium chloride (sylvite) from
sodium chloride (halite); separating coal from ash-forming minerals;
removing silicate minerals from iron ores; separating phosphate minerals
from silicates; and even non-mineral applications such as de-inking
recycled newsprint. It is particularly useful for processing fine-grained ores
that are not amenable to conventional gravity concentration

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1.7.1 REAGENTS
The properties of raw mineral mixtures suspended in plain water are
rarely suitable for froth flotation. Chemicals are needed both to control the
relative hydrophobic ties of the particles, and to maintain the proper froth
characteristics. There are therefore many different reagents involved in the
froth flotation process, with the selection of reagents depending on the
specific mineral mixtures being treated.

1.7.1.1 COLLECTORS
Collectors are reagents that are used to selectively adsorb onto the
surfaces of particles. They form a monolayer on the particle surface that
essentially makes a thin film of non-polar hydrophobic hydrocarbons. The
collectors greatly increase the contact angle so that bubbles will adhere to
the surface. Selection of the correct collector is critical for an effective
separation by froth flotation. Collectors can be generally classed depending
on their ionic charge: they can be nonionic, anionic, or cationic. The
nonionic collectors are simple hydrocarbon oils, while the anionic and
cationic collectors consist of a polar part that selectively attaches to the
mineral surfaces, and a non-polar part that projects out into the solution
and makes the surface hydrophobic. Collectors can either chemically bond
to the mineral surface (chemisorption), or be held on the surface by
physical forces (physical adsorption).

1.7.1.2 CHEMISORPTION
In chemisorption, ions or molecules from solution undergo a chemical
reaction with the surface, becoming irreversibly bonded. This permanently
changes the nature of the surface. Chemisorption of collectors is highly
selective, asthe chemical bonds are specific to particular atoms

1.7.1.3 PHYSISORPTION
In physisorption, ions or molecules from solution become reversibly
associated with the surface, attaching due to electrostatic attraction or van
der Waals bonding. The physisorbed substances can be desorbed from the
surface if conditions such as pH or composition of the solution changes.
Physisorption is much less selective than chemisorption, as collectors will
adsorb on any surface that has the correct electrical charge or degree of
natural hydrophobicity.

1.7.1.4 NONIONIC COLLECTORS

Hydrocarbon oils, and similar compounds, have an affinity for surfaces
that are already partially hydrophobic. They selectively adsorb on these

surfaces, and increase their hydrophobicity. The most commonly-floated

naturally-hydrophobic material is coal. Addition of collectors such as #2
fuel oil and kerosene significantly enhances the hydrophobicity of the coal
particles without affecting the surfaces of the associated ash-forming
minerals. This improves the recovery of the coal, and increases the
selectivity between coal particles and mineral matter. Fuel oil and
kerosene have the following advantages over specialized collectors for froth
flotation: 1) they have low enough viscosity to disperse in the slurry and
spread over the coal particles easily, and 2) they are very low-cost
compared to other compounds which can be used as coal collectors.
In addition to coal, it is also possible to float naturally-hydrophobic
minerals such as molybdenite, elemental sulfur, and talc with nonionic
collectors. Nonionic collectors can also be used as “extenders” for other
collectors. If another, more-expensive collector makes a surface partially
hydrophobic, adding non-polar oil will often increase the hydrophobicity
further at low cost.

1.7.1.5 ANIONIC COLLECTORS

Anionic collectors are weak acids or acid salts that ionize in water,
producing a collector that has a negatively-charged end that will attach to
the mineral surfaces, and a hydrocarbon chain that extends out into the
liquid, as shown in below figure.

1.8 MAGNETIC SEPARATION

It is the method to separate the solid – solid mixture with the help of their
magnetic properties. For this we use magnetic separator.
A magnetic separator is a device used to separate mixture of fine, dry
materials based upon their magnetic properties. The principles governing
this process are magnetism and the interaction between magnetic,
gravitational and centripetal forces. Magnetic properties of a material are
based upon atomic structure and magnetic field intensity. The principles
involved in a separation apparatus include: feed rate, velocity of the
particles and magnetic field strength. Magnetic separation has two general
applications, purification of feeds, and the magnetic removal impurities or
the collection of the magnetic components from the mixture.

1.9 ELECTROSTATIC SEPARATION

Electrostatic separation is a process that uses electrostatic charges to
separate crushed particles of material. An industrial process used to
separate large amounts of material particles, electrostatic separating is
most often used in the process of sorting mineral ore. This process can
help remove valuable material from ore, or it can help remove foreign
material to purify a substance. In mining, the process of crushing mining
ore into particles for the purpose of separating minerals is
called beneficiation.
An electrostatic separator is a device for separating particles by mass in a
low energy charged beam. It works on the principle of corona discharge,

where two plates are placed close together and high voltage is applied. this
high voltage is used to separate the ionized particles.
Usually these are used in power plants where the harmful gases coming
out of the chimneys are first treated using electrostatic separator. here the
two electrodes are oppositely charged, with a negative electrode the
positive ions gets attracted and thus results in a reddish flame whereas
the positive electrode is used to treat the negatively charged ions resulting
in a bluish white flame that is visible at nights.

1.10 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATION

A centrifugal separator is a machine that uses centrifugal, gravitational,
and inertial forces to divide two or more substances. This device can be
used to separate solutions, gas mixtures, or other matter that can be
physically parted. Centrifugal separation occurs when a mixture in the
machine's chamber is spun very quickly, and heavy materials typically
settle differently than lighter ones. Centrifugal separators have a wide
variety of applications, in many industries.
When a mixture enters the spinning chamber of a centrifugal separator,
distinct substances within it are affected differently by the force created by

the spinning. For example, gravitational force generally pulls heavier

particles down more quickly than lighter ones, and the force of inertia
affects the mixture as it spins. As the substances separate, they can be
collected in various ways. Sometimes, they are collected mechanically, but,
other times, they are physically separated. One method of this can be by
screening
Heavier solid particles are often allowed to settle as they slide down the
walls of the separator. They are then typically collected from the bottom.
Generally, a gas can be purified by spinning any particulate matter and
moisture out of it. The gas can then be collected, as it rises to the top and
through an exit opening in the centrifugal separator. Liquids of different
weights and viscosities may be divided into differing chambers of a
separator as it moves.
Some of the applications in which a centrifugal separator can be used
include dividing cream from milk, sand from gravel, and oil from water.
The food and beverage industries often use these machines in the making
of syrups, sugars, and malt liquors. Manufacturers of paints and varnish
also use these machines, as do pharmaceutical manufacturers, animal
feed makers, and the ceramics and abrasives industries.
A particular kind of machine, known as a centrifugal water separator, is
often used to remove water from compressed air. This is important
because water in the air can cause rust to occur in the metal components
of a compressor, and in any attached machines or tools that utilize the
compressed air. Typically, any condensate is spun out of the air by the
separator, and collected in bowls where it is then pumped out of the
compressor.
As the technology of the centrifugal separator has progressed, new
applications have been found for its use. There are devices known
as ultracentrifuges that are being used to separate larger molecules into
their components. This advancing technology is particularly useful in the
pharmaceutical industry.

1.11 SIZE ENLARGEMENT

In a size – enlargement operation, small particles are brought together
purposely to form larger ones, generally by some mechanical means. The
size – enlargement operations are many, namely, agglomeration,
granulation, compaction, encapsulation, pelletizing, sintering, etc. and the
agglomeration method is discussed here in brief.
Size – enlargement operations are followed in the process industries with a
wide variety of objectives, such as
 To improve storage and handling characteristics of materials
 To improve flowability and disability
 To minimize dusting or material losses
 To create a safe working environment
 To enhance appearance
 To control solubility and dispersibility

CHAPTER2

SIZE REDUCTION

2.1 SIZE REDUCTION

Size Reduction may refer to the operation in which we reduce the size of
coarse particles into fine or very fine particles. Reduction of particle size is
an important operation in many chemical and other industries. The
important reasons for size reduction are:
 Easy handling
 Increase in surface area per unit volume
 Separation of entrapped components
The operation is highly energy intensive; hence a variety of specialized
equipment is available for specific applications. The equipment may utilize
one or more of the following physical mechanisms for size reduction:
(i) Compression,
(ii) Impact,
(iii) Attrition,
(iv) Cutting.
Estimation of energy for the operation is important and is usually done by
empirical equations. Enormous quantities of energy are consumed in size
reduction operations. Size reduction is the most inefficient unit operations
in terms of energy, as 99% of the energy supplied goes to operating the
equipment and producing undesirable heat and noise, while less than 1%
goes in creating new interfacial area. Reduction to very fine sizes is much
more costly in terms of energy as compared to relatively coarse products.

2.2 SIZE REDUCTION EQUIPMENTS

Crushers do the heavy work of breaking large pieces of solid material into
small lumps. A primary crusher operates on run of mine material,
accepting anything that comes from the mine face and breaking it into 6 –
10 in. lumps. A secondary crusher reduces these lumps to particles

perhaps 6 mm in size. Grinders reduced crushed feed to powder. Size

reduction equipments is divided into following categories as follows:

2.2.1 CRUSHERS
A crusher is a machine designed to reduce coarse particles into fine
particles , gravel, or rock dust.
Crushers may be used to reduce the size, or change the form, of waste
materials so they can be more easily disposed of or recycled, or to reduce
the size of a solid mix of raw materials (as in rock ore), so that pieces of
different composition can be differentiated. Crushing is the process of
transferring a force amplified by mechanical advantage through a material
made of molecules that bond together more strongly, and resist
deformation more, than those in the material being crushed do. Crushing
devices hold material between two parallel or tangent solid surfaces, and
apply sufficient force to bring the surfaces together to generate enough
energy within the material being crushed so that its molecules separate
from (fracturing), or change alignment in relation to (deformation), each
other. The earliest crushers were hand-held stones, where the weight of
the stone provided a boost to muscle power, used against a stone
anvil. Querns and mortars are types of these crushing devices.

2.2.1.1 JAW CRUSHERS

A jaw or toggle crusher consists of a set of vertical jaws, one jaw being
fixed and the other being moved back and forth relative to it by a
cam or pitman mechanism, acting as a class II lever, like a nutcracker.
The jaws are farther apart at the top than at the bottom, forming a tapered
chute so that the material is crushed progressively smaller and smaller as
it travels downward until it is small enough to escape from the bottom
opening. The movement of the jaw can be quite small, since complete
crushing is not performed in one stroke. The inertia required to crush the
material is provided by a weighted flywheel that moves a shaft creating an
eccentric motion that causes the closing of the gap.

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Single and double toggle jaw crushers are constructed of heavy duty
fabricated plate frames with reinforcing ribs throughout. Manganese steel
is used for both fixed and movable jaw faces. Heavy flywheels allow
crushing peaks on tough materials. Double Toggle jaw crushers may
feature hydraulic toggle adjusting mechanisms.
There are 3 types of jaw crushers according to the place the movable plate
has been fixed around which position the rotates the movable jaw.
1. Blake crusher-fixed in the lower point
2. Dodge crusher-fixed in the upper point
3. Universal crusher-fixed in the midpoint

2.2.1.2 GYRATORY CRUSHERS

A gyratory crusher is similar in basic concept to a jaw crusher, consisting
of a concave surface and a conical head; both surfaces are typically lined
with manganese steel surfaces. The inner cone has a slight circular
movement, but does not rotate; the movement is generated by an
eccentric arrangement. As with the jaw crusher, material travels
downward between the two surfaces being progressively crushed until it is
small enough to fall out through the gap between the two surfaces.

A gyratory crusher is one of the main types of primary crushers in a mine

or ore processing plant. Gyratory crushers are designated in size either by
the gape and mantle diameter or by the size of the receiving opening.
Gyratory crushers can be used for primary or secondary crushing. The
crushing action is caused by the closing of the gap between the mantle
line (movable) mounted on the central vertical spindle and the concave
liners (fixed) mounted on the main frame of the crusher. The gap is opened
and closed by an eccentric on the bottom of the spindle that causes the
central vertical spindle to gyrate. The vertical spindle is free to rotate
around its own axis. The crusher illustrated is a short-shaft suspended
spindle type, meaning that the main shaft is suspended at the top and
that the eccentric is mounted above the gear. The short-shaft design has
superseded the long-shaft design in which the eccentric is mounted below
the gear.

2.2.1.3 ROLL CRUSHERS

The Roll Crushers are compression type crushers, and were once widely
used in mining. They have, within the last 10 or so years, fallen into dis-
favor among mining and processing companies. The probable reason is
because the large mines require very large crushed product output with
minimal cost, makes the roll crusher uncompetitive. The roll crushers are

not nearly as productive as cone crushers, with respect to volume, and

they do have a little higher maintenance associated with them. Roll
crushers do, however, give a very close product size distribution, and if the
ore is not too abrasive, they do not have high maintenance costs.

The particles are drawn into the gap between the rolls by their rotating
motion and a friction angle formed between the rolls and the particle,
called the nip angle. The two rolls force the particle between their rotating
surface into the ever smaller gap area, and it fractures from the
compressive forces presented by the rotating rolls. Some major advantages
of roll crushers are they give a very fine product size distribution and they
produce very little dust or fines. Rolls crushers are effectively used in
minerals crushing where the ores are not too abrasive and they are also
used in smaller scale production mining of more abrasive metal ores, such
as gold. Coal is probably the largest user of roll crushers, currently,
though. Coal plants will use roll crushers, either single roll or double roll,
as primary crushers, reducing the ROM coal. Usually, these crushers will
have teeth or raised forms on the face of the roll. (Roll crushers used for
minerals and metal ores have smooth faced rolls.)

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2.2.2 GRINDERS
Grinders are same as crushers but the only difference is that grinders
reduce the fine particles size into very fine (powder) form, whereas the
crushers reduced the coarse particle into fine particles.
There are following type of equipments used for grinding of fine particles:

2.2.2.1 HAMMER MILLS

The hammer mill comprises of a heavy duty mild steel fabricated body. The
grinding chamber of hammer mill is lined with serrated wear plates, which
protects the body from wear and tear. A rotor in hammer mill with a set of
swing hammers accelerates the grinding process. The screen classifier
forms the lower half of the grinding chamber of hammer mill. The blower
in super type hammer mill is driven on a separate shaft with the help of a
'V' belt adjustable driven from the rotor shaft and the blower fan is
mounted on same shaft of blower fan in economic type hammer mill. The
hammer mill is especially designed for the course, and medium fine size
reduction.

 OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF HAMMER MILL

The material to be crushed enters the hammer mill through gravity feed
hopper having an adjustable slide to control the feed material. The
material is crushed between the hammers and serrated liners. A powerful
blower in hammer mill continuously sucks the ground material through a
screen classifier and conveyed through the pipe into the cyclone for
bagging. The blower maintains constant airflow in the hammer mill
chamber in order to obtain a cool product and continuously cleans the
screens, thus increasing the output. Particle size of the ground material
can be varied over a large range by using sieves with the desired openings
of hammer mill.

2.2.2.2 BALL MILLS

A ball mill is a type of grinder used to grind materials into extremely fine
powder for use in mineral dressing processes, paints, pyrotechnics, and
ceramics.

 OPERATING PRINCIPLE
The principle of size reduction in ball mills is impact of balls, which fall
from the top of the shell on t the feed particles near the bottom of the
shell.

 CONSTRUCTION OF DEVICE
A ball mill is a horizontal cylinder partly filled with steel balls (or
occasionally other shapes) that rotates on its axis, imparting a tumbling
and cascading action to the balls. Material fed through the mill is crushed

by impact and ground by attrition between the balls. The grinding media
are usually made of high-chromium steel. The smaller grades are
occasionally cylindrical ("pebs") rather than spherical. There exists a speed
of rotation (the "critical speed") at which the contents of the mill would
simply ride over the roof of the mill due to centrifugal action.

The mill is usually divided into at least two chambers,(Depends upon feed
input size presently mill installed with Roller Press are mostly single
chambered), allowing the use of different sizes of grinding media. Large
balls are used at the inlet, to crush clinker nodules (which can be over
25 mm in diameter). Ball diameter here is in the range 60–80 mm. In a
two-chamber mill, the media in the second chamber are typically in the
range 15–40 mm, although media down to 5 mm are sometimes
encountered. As a general rule, the size of media has to match the size of
material being ground: large media can't produce the ultra-fine particles
required in the finished cement, but small media can't break large clinker
particles.
A current of air is passed through the mill. This helps keep the mill cool,
and sweeps out evaporated moisture which would otherwise cause
hydration and disrupt material flow. The dusty exhaust air is cleaned,
usually with bag filters.

 CRITICAL SPEED OF BALL MILL

The critical speed (rpm) is given by:

1 g
NC 
2 R  r 
Where R is the internal radius of shell in meters and r is the radius of
balls used in mill in meters.
Ball mills are normally operated at around 75% of critical speed, so a mill
with diameter 5 meters will turn at around ~14 rpm.
2.3 POWER REQUIREMENTS FOR CRUSHING
The particles of feed material in size reduction equipments are first
distorted and strained. The work needed to strained them is stored
temporarily in the solid as mechanical energy of stress. As additional force
is applied to the stressed particles, they are distorted beyond their
ultimate strength and suddenly rupture into fragments. New surface is
created. The creation of new surface requires work, which is supplied by
the release of energy of stress when the particle breaks. All energy of stress
in excess of the new surface energy created must appear as heat.

2.3.1 CRUSHING EFFICIENCY

Crushing efficiency can be defined as the ratio of the surface energy
created by crushing to the energy absorbed by the solid. It is denoted byc
.

es  Awb  Awa 
c 
Wn

Where, es =surface energy per unit area

Awb, Awa =area per unit mass of product and feed
Wn =energy absorbed by a unit mass of the feed material
The surface energy created by the fracture is small in comparison with the
total mechanical energy stored in the material at the time of rupture and
most of latter is converted into heat. Hence, crushing efficiencies are low.
(Typically ranges from 0.06 to 1 %)

2.3.2 LAWS OF CRUSHING

There are three laws have been proposed to correlate the power
requirement for crushing and grinding with the feed and product sizes. All
the three involve modeling of the energy required actually to break the
solids. The total energy required is expressed as a product of this
computed energy and an efficiency, which is assumed to be independent of
the size of the solids. These laws are as follows:

2.3.2.1 RITTINGER’S LAW

It states that the work required in crushing is proportional to the new
surface created. It is written as:
Career Avenues
P  1 1 
 Kr   

m  Dsb Dsa 
Where, Kr=Rittinger‟s Constant
Dsb , Dsa =Volume surface mean diameters of product and feed,
respectively
P
=power required per unit feed rate
m
This law assumes constant crushing efficiency which, for a given machine
and feed material, is independent of the sizes of feed and product, this law
also assumes equal sphericities of feed and product and constant
mechanical efficiency.

2.3.2.2 KICK’S LAW

It states that work required for crushing a given mass of material is
constant for the same reduction ratio, i.e., the ratio of the initial particle
size to the final particle size. This is written as:

P D
 K k ln sa

m Dsb

Where, Kk=Kick‟s law Constant

This law is based on stress analysis of plastic deformation within the

elastic limit.

2.3.2.3 BOND’S LAW

It states that the work required to form particles of size Dp from a very
large feed is proportional to the square root of the surface – to – volume
ratio of the product. This law is written as
P K
 b

m Dp

Where Kb=bond‟s constant and depends upon the type of machine and
on the material to be crushed.

 WORK INDEX (Wi)

The work index, Wi, is defined as the gross energy requirement in kWh per
ton of feed needed to reduce a very large feed to such a size that 80 % of
the product passes a 100  m screen. This definition of Wi has been used to
 in tons per hour, the
relate Kb and Wi, for Dp in mm, P in kW and m
relation between Kb and Wi is given by

Kb  100  103Wi  0.3162Wi

If 80 % product of the feed passes a mesh size of D pa mm and 80 % of the
product passes a mesh size of Dpb mm, then the above equations can be
reduced to

P  1 1  Career Avenues
 0.3162Wi   

m  Dpb Dpa 
 
The power given by above equation is gross power because the work index
includes the friction in the crusher. The work index, for dry crushing or
wet grinding is available for many materials in the literature. For dry
grinding, the power calculated from above equation is multiplied by 4/3.

CHAPTER3

MIXING AND AGITATION

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Dispersion of one component through the other is known as mixing, which
can be of different solid components, pastes and liquids. Mixing is an unit
operation in which a random distribution takes place between two or more
initially separate phases (miscible or immiscible) or the elements of a
single phase material with temperature or concentration gradients. It is
one of the important unit operations practised in solid – as well as liquid –
processing industries. Thus, the various mixing operations in chemical
industries can be classified into two categories: liquid mixing and solid
mixing.
The main objective of solid operation include
(i) Reduction in in–homogeneity in the properties of bulk materials
(ii) To promote heat or mass transfer
(iii) To promote chemical reaction

3.2 LIQUID MIXING

The objective of liquid mixing is to obtain a relatively uniform mixture from
two or more components, both miscible and immiscible. The degree of
uniformity obtained depends on the liquid characteristics. While it is
possible to obtain an almost completer homogeneity in case of the miscible
liquids, in case of the immiscible ones, the minor component is generally
present as the dispersed phase in a continuous phase of the major
component.
For high mixing, it is necessary to have an effective agitation of the
components in the containing vessel. Agitation refers to the induced
motion of a material in a specified manner, usually in the circulatory
pattern inside some form of container. Agitation is generally accomplished
by using mechanical impeller creates a flow pattern in the system, causing
the liquid to circulate through the vessel and return eventually to the
impeller.

The mechanical impellers broadly belong to two categories:

(i) Axial Flow Impeller
(ii) Radial Flow Impeller
3.2.1 AXIAL FLOW IMPELLERS
The blades of an axial flow impeller make an angle equal to or less than
900 to the driving shaft to produce currents in the liquid primarily parallel
to the impeller shaft. Propellers and fan turbines belong to this class.
Propellers are widely used for agitation liquids of low viscosity with speeds
varying from 400 to 1750 rpm.

3.2.2 RADIAL FLOW IMPELLERS

Radial flow impellers with blades parallel to the axis of the drive shaft
produce currents in radial or tangential direction in the liquid. Paddles
and turbines belong to this type of impeller. Normally, turbines have a
number of short blades and operate at high speed while paddles are large
slower – speed impellers with two or four blades.

3.3 MIXING EQUIPMENTS

Mixtures of solids and liquids are blended in different types of equipment
depending on the physical characteristics of the mixture. The mixing
equipment, hereafter mixers, are generally of three types: liquid mixers,
solid mixers and paste or viscous mixers. Pumpable suspensions with thin
consistency are normally handled in tanks agitated with an impeller or
fluid jet while non-flowing pastes are handled in slow speed non-
circulating mixers.

3.3.1 LIQUID MIXERS

Mixing of miscible liquids, dispersing immiscible liquids, heat transfer in
agitated liquid, suspension of solids in liquids, etc. are generally carried
out in agitated vessels by using mechanical impellers, which are broadly
classified into two types: axial and radial.
In axial flow impellers, the impeller blade makes an angle equal to or less
than 900 with the plane of impeller rotation. As a result, the locus of flow
occurs along the axis of the impeller (parallel to the impeller shaft), e.g.,
marine propellers and pitched blade turbine.
While in radial flow impellers, the impeller blade is parallel to the axis of
the impeller and as a result the radial flow impeller discharges flow along
the radius in distinct patterns, e.g., flat blade turbine, paddle and anchor.
A few impeller designs are as follows:

3.3.2 SOLID MIXERS

The mechanism of solid mixing, known as blending, is generally based on
diffusion and convection. Diffusion blending is characterized by small scale
random motion of solid particles, whereas, convection blending is
characterized by large scale motion of solid particles.

Diffusion blending occurs where the particles are distributed over a freshly
developed interface. Tumbler blenders like the V-blenders and double cone
blenders function by diffusion mixing. In convection blending, groups of
particles are rapidly moved from one position to another due to the action
of a rotating agitator or cascading of material within a tumbler blender.
The blending of solids in ribbon blenders and vertical cone screw blenders
is mainly due to convection mechanism.

3.3.3 VISCOUS MIXERS

Mixing of heavy pastes, dough, plastic masses and rubbery products
require heavy-duty machines, which involve stretching, folding and
compression of the masses many times before the final mixing is affected.
The popular viscous mixers are the kneading machines, known as
kneaders, which are slow – speed machines requiring high energy.

3.4 POWER CONSUMPTION

The power consumption in mixing of low viscosity, Newtonian fluids can be
given as:

P   NDi2 N 2 DV Wi 
 f  , , , ,... 
 N 3Di5   Di Di DV 

Where,

P  Power consumed, W
  Density of mixture, kg / m3
N  Speed of impeller, rps
Di  diameter of impeller, m
  viscosity of fluid mixture, Pa  s
DV  vessel diameter, m
Wi  vessel height, m
And
P
 NPo  Power number
 N 3Di5
 NDi2
 NRe  Reynolds number for mixing

N2
 NFr  Forude number
Di

CHAPTER4

SOLID FLUID SEPARATION

Solid – Fluid separation consists of separation of solids from liquids and

gases through various methods.
Solid – liquid separation is an important unit operation, used for the
recovery and processing of solids or for purification of liquids or for
separating the two phases for environmental reasons.

4.1 SEDIMENTATION
Sedimentation, also known as settling, may be defined as the removal of
solid particles from a suspension by settling under gravity.
Clarification is a similar term, which usually refers specifically to the
function of a sedimentation tank in removing suspended matter from the
water to give a clarified effluent. In a broader sense, clarification could
include flotation and filtration.
Thickening in sedimentation tanks is the process whereby the settled
impurities are concentrated and compacted on the floor of the tank and in
the sludge-collecting hoppers.
Concentrated impurities withdrawn from the bottom of sedimentation
tanks are called sludge, while material that floats to the top of the tank is
called scum.

4.1.1 APPLICATION OF SEDIMENTATION PROCESSES

In water treatment, sedimentation is commonly used to remove impurities
that have been rendered settle able by coagulation and flocculation, as
when removing turbidity and color. Precipitates formed in processes such
as water softening by chemical precipitation are also removed by
sedimentation.
In municipal wastewater treatment, sedimentation is the main process in
primary treatment, where it is responsible for removing 50 to 70% of the

suspended solids (containing 25-40 per cent of the BOD) from the
wastewater. After biological treatment, sedimentation is used to remove
the biological floc produced by microorganisms in these processes, so that
effluent quality will approach a standard suitable for discharge into inland
waterways. The removal of grit in the preliminary stage of treatment is
commonly carried out by means of a differential sedimentation process in
which heavy grit is permitted to settle while lighter organic matter is
retained in suspension. Further sedimentation after coagulation may be
used in tertiary treatment.
Sedimentation is also required where phosphorus removal is effected by
chemical precipitation separately from primary or secondary treatment.
Other less obvious applications of sedimentation are in the separation of
digested sludge from supernatant liquor within secondary (unstirred)
sludge digesters, and also in sludge lagoons.
An understanding of the principles governing the various forms of
sedimentation behavior is essential to the effective design and operation of
sedimentation tanks.

4.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SETTLING BEHAVIOR

Several cases of settling behaviour may be distinguished on the basis of
the nature of the particles to be removed and their concentration. Thus,
individual particles may be discrete (sand grains) or flocculent (most
organic materials and biological solids). Particle concentrations may vary
from very low through to high in which case adjacent particles are actually
in contact. Common classifications of settling behaviour are:

Class I - Unlimited settling of discrete particles

Class II - Settling of dilute suspensions of flocculent particles
Class III - Hindered settling and zone settling
Class IV - Compression settling (compaction).

4.1.2.1 SEDIMENTATION CLASS I - UNLIMITED SETTLING OF

DISCRETE PARTICLES
Sedimentation is removal of discrete particles in such low concentration
that each particle settles freely without interference from adjacent particles
(that is, unhindered settling).
When a particle settles in a fluid it accelerates until the drag force due to
its motion is equal to the submerged weight of the particle. At this point,
the particle will have reached its terminal velocity, Vp.
A diagram for settling of an idealized spherical particle is shown below in
Figure4.1). Vp is the particle settling velocity (m/s); D is the drag force; W
is the submerged weight of the particle; d is the diameter of the particle
(m); Ap is the projected area of the particle normal to the direction of
motion (m2); Vp is the volume of the particle (m3);  is the density of the
particle (kg/m3); p is the fluid density (kg/m3);  is the dynamic viscosity
of the fluid (N.s/m2); and CD is the drag coefficient.

Figure 4.1 Definition diagram for particle terminal settling velocity

An expression for Vp may be derived from the submerged weight of the
settling particle, W, and the fluid drag force, D.

The drag force on a particle is given by

D = CDAp vs2/2 …[4.1]

The submerged weight of the particle can be expressed as

W = ( - l)g Vp …[4.2]

Since D = W, the above, after substituting Ap and p for functions in

terms of particle diameter d and rearranging, results in the following
expression for vs.

4 (    l ) gd
Vs = …[4.3]
3 l CD
In practice, it is found that C D is a function of the Reynolds Number, Re,
and, for spherical particles, it can be represented by the following
expressions
24
Re< 1, CD =
Re
24
1 < Re< 103, CD = + 0.44
Re

103< Re< 105, CD 0.44

Substituting the above expression for Re< 1 (laminar flow) in Equation 2.3
and noting that
Re = lvsd/, results in the following equation, known as Stoke‟s Law:

g   l  2
Vs  d …[4.4]
18 
At high values of Re, where CD 0.4, the equivalent expression is

(   l )
Vs = 3.33 gd …[4.5]
l

The general conclusion, that Vs depends on a particular diameter, particle

density and, under some conditions, also on fluid viscosity and hence on
temperature, is important in understanding sedimentation behavior.

Furthermore, in practical sedimentation tanks, the terminal settling

velocity is quickly reached, so, for non-flocculent particles and uniform
fluid flow the settling velocity is constant throughout the settling time.
This fact can be usefully applied to a study of settling in an ideal
sedimentation tank to provide an important design principle for
sedimentation processes.
Idealized representations of three common types of sedimentation tanks
are shown in Fig 4.2: (a) rectangular horizontal flow, (b) circular radial
flow and (c) upflow tanks.
The ideal rectangular horizontal flow sedimentation tank is considered
divided into four zones (Fig 4.2a)
a Inlet zone - in which momentum is dissipated and flow is established
in a uniform forward direction
b Settling zone - where quiescent settling is assumed to occur as the
water flows towards the outlet
c Outlet zone - in which the flow converges upwards to the decanting
weirs or launders
d Sludge zone - where settled material collects and is moved towards
sludge hoppers for withdrawal. It is assumed that once a particle
reaches the sludge zone it is effectively removed from the flow.
The critical particle in the settling zone of an ideal rectangular
sedimentation tank, for design purposes, will be one that enters at the top
of the settling zone, at point A, and settles with a velocity just sufficient to
reach the sludge zone at the outlet end of the tank, at point B. The
velocity components of such a particle are Vh in the horizontal direction
and Vs, the terminal settling velocity, in the vertical direction.
From the geometry of the tank it is apparent that the time required for the
particle to settle, to, is given by
H
to = = L/vs
Vp

but, since Vs = Q/WH, then Vs = Q/WL, where Q is the rate of flow, and L,
W and H are the length, width and depth of the tank, respectively. Since
the surface area of the tank, A, is WL, then

Vs = Q/A
According to this relationship, the slowest-settling particles, which could
be expected to be completely removed in an ideal sedimentation tank
would have a settling velocity of Q/A. Hence this parameter, which is
called the surface loading rate or overflow rate, is a fundamental
parameter governing sedimentation tank performance.
This relationship also implies that sedimentation efficiency is independent
of tank depth - a condition that holds true only if the forward velocity is
low enough to ensure that the settled material is not scoured and re-
suspended from the tank floor.
A similar analysis of an ideal circular radial flow sedimentation tank is
summarized in Fig 4.2b from which it is seen that the same relationship,
Vs = Q/A, is obtained.
In an ideal upflow sedimentation tank (Fig 4.2c) it is apparent that a
particle will be removed only if its settling velocity exceeds the water
upflow velocity. In this case the minimum upflow velocity is given by the
flow rate divided by the surface area of the tank (Q/A), so once again the
minimum settling velocity for a particle to be removed is Vs = Q/A.
In an ideal sedimentation tank with a horizontal or radial flow pattern,
particles with settling velocities < Vs can still be removed partially, but not
in an ideal upflow tank.

Figure 4.2 Definition for ideal settling in sedimentation tanks

(a) rectangular horizontal flow tank,
(b) circular radial flow tank,
(c) upflow tank

4.1.2.2 SEDIMENTATION CLASS II - SETTLEMENT OF

FLOCCULENT PARTICLES IN DILUTE SUSPENSION
It should be recognized that particles do collide and that this benefits
flocculation and hence sedimentation. In a horizontal sedimentation tank,
this implies that some particles may move on a curved path while settling
faster as they grow rather than following the diagonal line in Figure 2.5a.
This favors a greater depth as the longer retention time allows more time
for particle growth and development of a higher ultimate settling velocity.
However, if the same retention time were spread over a longer, shallower
tank, the opportunity for collision would become even greater because the
horizontal flow rate would become more active in promoting collisions. In
practice, tanks need to have a certain depth to avoid hydraulic short-
circuiting and are made 3-6 m deep with retention times of a few hours.

The advantage of low depths is exploited in some settling tanks by

introducing baffles or tubes. These are installed at an angle, which
permits the settled sludge to slide down to the bottom of the settler, even
though any angle effectively increases the vertical displacement between
two plates.
4.1.2.3 SEDIMENTATION CLASS III - HINDERED SETTLING AND
ZONE SETTLING AND SLUDGE BLANKET CLARIFIERS
As the concentration of particles in a suspension is increased, a point is
reached where particles are so close together that they no longer settle
independently of one another and the velocity fields of the fluid displaced
by adjacent particles, overlap. There is also a net upward flow of liquid
displaced by the settling particles. This results in a reduced particle-
settling velocity and the effect is known as hindered settling.
The most commonly encountered form of hindered settling occurs in the
extreme case where particle concentration is so high that the whole
suspension tends to settle as a „blanket‟. This is termed zone settling,
because it is possible to distinguish several distinct zones, separated by
concentration discontinuities. Fig 2.6 represents a typical batch-settling
column test on a suspension exhibiting zone-settling characteristics. Soon
after leaving such a suspension to stand in a settling column, there forms
near the top of the column a clear interface separating the settling sludge
mass from the clarified supernatant. This interface moves downwards as
the suspension settles. Similarly, there is an interface near the bottom
between that portion of the suspension, which has settled and the
suspended blanket. This interface moves upwards until it meets the
upper interface, at which point settling of the suspensions is complete.
It is apparent that the slope of the settling curve at any point represents
the settling velocity of the interface between the suspension and the
clarified supernatant. This once again leads to the conclusion that in
designing clarifiers for treating concentrated suspensions (Class III), the
surface loading rate is a major constraint to be considered; unless the
surface loading rate adopted is less than the zone-settling velocity (vsz) of
the influent suspension, solids will be carried over in the effluent.

Figure 4.3 Settling column test for a suspension exhibiting zone-settling

behavior

An important application of zone settling is the final design of

sedimentation tanks of activated sludge processes.
Hindered settling is also important in upflow clarifiers in water treatment.
These units often operate with a high concentration of solids (consisting of
chemically-formed floc and impurities) in suspension. By simple
comparison with the ideal upflow sedimentation tank in Fig 2.5c, it may be
seen that a suspension will be retained in an upflow clarifier only if the
settling velocity of the suspension interface, vi, is equal to the upflow
velocity of the water, vu. This is important because many practical settling
tanks are designed to maintain a high concentration of solids in
suspension in order to take advantage of the increased opportunity for

particles to collide and agglomerate. This assists in removing many of the

very fine particles that might otherwise be carried over in the effluent.
In both these cases involving hindered settling of concentrated
suspensions, the settling velocity of the suspension, vp is dependent on its
concentration; as this increases, vp decreases.
The relationship between the velocity of settling vp and the volumetric
concentration of the particles in the suspension has not yet been
determined analytically for hindered settling situations. It is therefore
necessary to use empirical equations to define an approximate
relationship.
Many equations for this relationship have been proposed. The combined
advantages of mathematical simplicity and reasonable accuracy over a
wide range of concentrations are features of the empirical equation
proposed by Richardson:
vp = vs·n …[4.6]
where  = (1 – c), the porosity of the suspension; c is the proportion of the
total suspension volume occupied by particles; and n is an index
depending on the Reynolds number and the size and shape of the
particles.
For smooth spheres, the value of n varies from 4.65, for fully laminar flow
conditions, to about 2.5 for turbulent flow conditions around the particles.
For irregular particles, it is impracticable to determine volumetric
concentration. The relationship may be modified to
vp = vs (1 – kc‟) …[4.7]
where c‟ is the concentration in mass units; k and n are parameters so
chosen that the resulting formula closely approximates the performance of
the particular suspension.
Suitable values of k and n may be selected by plotting experimental values
of log vp against values of log (1 - kc‟) for different selected values of k until
a value is found to give approximation to a straight line over an
appropriate range. The corresponding value of n may be calculated from
the slope of the line. The value of vs is given by the extrapolated value of V

when c = 0. Computer techniques can be useful in selecting (or fitting)

appropriate values of k and n to give a least-squares best fit.

4.1.2.4 SEDIMENTATION CLASS IV - COMPRESSION SETTLING

(COMPACTION)
Very high particle concentrations can arise as the settling particles
approach the floor of the sedimentation tanks and adjacent particles are
actually in contact. Further settling can occur only by adjustments within
the matrix, and so it takes place at a reducing rate. This is known as
compression settling or consolidation and is illustrated by the lower region
of the zone-settling diagram (Fig. 2.6). Compression settling occurs as the
settled solids are compressed under the weight of overlying solids, the void
spaces are gradually diminished and water is squeezed out of the matrix.
Compression settling is important in gravity thickening processes. It is
also particularly important in activated-sludge final settling tanks, where
the activated sludge must be thickened for recycling to the aeration tanks
and for disposal of a fraction of the sludge.

4.1.3 DESIGN OF SEDIMENTATION TANKS

Sedimentation theory, predicts that, in the case of ideal settling, the main
design parameter to be considered is surface loading rate, Q/A, because it
represents the critical particle settling velocity for complete removal.
Practical Class II settling likewise requires that adequate depth, H, or
detention time, t, be provided in order to allow flocculation to take place.
Uniform flow distribution cannot always be assumed in practice owing to
density currents, inadequate dissipation of momentum at the tank inlet
and drawdown effects at the effluent weirs. As a result of all these effects,
surface loadings and detention times derived from theory should be
multiplied by a suitable safety factor, typically 1.7 to 2.5, for practical
design.
These considerations apply to all three types of tank commonly used for
Class II sedimentation, namely rectangular horizontal flow tanks, circular
radial flow tanks and square upflow tanks.

In the case of Class III sedimentation, it was also shown that the surface
loading rate is the major parameter to be considered in design. Most of
the following development of theory therefore applies to the design of both
Class II and Class III sedimentation tanks.
The design of sedimentation tanks for a given flow rate Q, involves the
selection of the surface loading rate, Q/A, from which the required tank
surface area may be calculated, and either tank depth, H, or detention
time, t. The relationships between the various parameters concerned can
be expressed as shown below.
For Q in m3/h and A in m2, the particle settling velocity, Vp (m/h) is given
by
Vp = Q/A …[4.8]
Detention time (hours) is
AH
, where H is depth (m) …[4.9]
Q

The task of proportioning the tank, once values of the major parameters
are chosen, can be simplified by using a simple design chart (Fig 2.7)
based on the above equations. Alternative designs may be quickly
compared using this diagram, and effects of flow variations on critical
loading parameters be determined.
The forward velocity must also be considered in rectangular tanks, as
excessive velocity may result in the scouring and re-suspension of settled
sludge. This requirement influences the choice of length-to-width ratio for
such tanks.
Forward velocity, Vh (m/h), is given by
Q
Vh = , where W is width of tank (m)
WH

or,
L
Vh = , where L is length of tank …[4.10]
t

Where L = length of tank (m)

t = detention time (hours)
This expression is represented in the upper left-hand quadrant of Fig 4.7
and, when read in conjunction with the lower left-hand quadrant, gives

the relationship between Vh and L:W ratio for rectangular tanks. Values of
L/W in practice range from 3 to 6, with a value of 4 being common. For
1000
conversion, m/h x = mm/s.
3600

Weir loading rate, Q/Lw, is important in rectangular tanks. A single weir

across the end of these tanks is considered too short to prevent the
influence of the approach current generated by the weir from extending
upstream into the settling zone, with possible disruption of the flow
pattern through the tank. The length of the weir can be doubled by
placing a collection trough in the tank at the surface just before the end of
the tank so that the water can flow into the trough from both sides. If this
is still insufficient for larger tanks, the weir length can be increased by
providing multiple suspended weir troughs, designed to limit the
maximum weir loading rate to about 12 m3/m.h (4 - 8 more typical). The
troughs usually take the shape of square fingers, projecting into the tank
for a short distance in the direction facing the oncoming water flow. Water
can then flow into the troughs from all perimeters and the length of the
trough is greatly extended by these so-called "fingers". The fingers all
connect to an end trough or the final end weir, from where the water flows
to the sand filters..
In circular radial flow tanks, the weir loading rate on a single perimeter
weir, is usually within the normal range of values, so that suspended weirs
are not necessary for small circular tanks. The water then runs over the
weir into a collection trough all along the whole perimeter of the tank.
From there, it would run into one or more pipes or channels to take the
water to the sand filters. In larger radial tanks, the trough is placed
within the tank, a little distance from the outer edge. It is placed at such a
depth as to then make both sides of the trough overflow weirs into the
trough. This almost doubles the length of the weir compared with a single,
peripheral weir.
Precautions must be taken with outlet weirs in large tanks because the
very small depth of the of flow over the weir under low flow conditions may
be completely biased towards one end of the settling tank due to slight
construction inaccuracies (1mm can be significant) or even wind

pressures. These problems can be counteracted by having a sawtooth

pattern on the weir to increase local depth, without affecting overall weir
loading rates and possible scouring of sediments.
Inlets should be designed to dissipate the momentum and accurately
distribute the incoming flow in such a way as to establish the required
flow pattern in the tank.
The diverging flow which occurs in circular outward flow tanks is
inherently less stable than the uniform forward flow in rectangular tanks,
so that the design of the inlet stilling box is important in circular tanks.
Excessive turbulence must be avoided in the inlet region, since the sludge
collection hopper in most types of tank is located immediately beneath the
inlet.
Sludge scrapers must be provided in modern rectangular and large
circular sedimentation tanks, since it is not practicable to slope the floor
sufficiently for gravitational self-cleaning.
One of the distinctive features of square hopper-bottomed tanks is that
their sides are steeply sloped so that they are self-cleaning. Sludge moves
down the walls by gravity to collect at the bottom of the hopper, from
where it can be drawn off under hydrostatic head. The operating
simplicity and lack of mechanical parts, which are features of these tanks
have led to their widespread use in small treatment plants. They are not
generally economical for larger plants, however, because of the rapid
increase in hopper depth and the corresponding cost increases which large
tanks entail.

4.1.3.1 HORIZONTAL FLOW SEDIMENTATION TANK

Some practical design data are provided for based on practical
experiences. Various features must be incorporated into the design to
obtain an efficient sedimentation process. The inlet to the tank must
provide uniform distribution of flow across the tank. If more than one
tank exists, the inlet must provide equal flow to each tank. Baffle walls
are often placed at the inlet to distribute even flow, by use of 100-200 mm

diameter holes evenly spaced across the width of the wall. Table 2.1 lists
typical values.

Table 4.1 Horizontal flow sedimentation tanks

Parameter Design value
Surface loading rate (m3/m2.d) 20-60
Mean horizontal velocity (m/min) 0.15-0.90
Water depth (m) 3-5
Detention time (min) 120-240
Weir loading rate (m3/m-d) 100-200

4.1.3.2 SLUDGE BLANKET CLARIFIERS

The SBC is quite flexible and can be adopted for use in almost all site
conditions. Figure 2.9 shows an interesting SBC system with plate settler
arrangement. Here the usual clariflocculator is also equipped with plate
settler, thereby facilitating the solid removal. The plate settler sits on top
of the clariflocculator. Therefore, in most situations, this unit does not
need a subsequent filter unit.

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Figure 4.9 Sludge blanket clarifiers

There are other forms of the SBC such as a combined slurry recirculation
type with paddle flocculator or a SBC with plate settlers. SBCs with
flocculator are also sometimes called “clariflocculator” or other brand
names. Another variation is where pulsed flow is used to induce the
required velocity gradients in the clarifier to aid flocculation and such
clarifiers are then called “pulsator” or “superpulsator” clarifiers.
The clariflocculator seems to have some clear advantages, even though it
looks slightly sophisticated. It is the complicated theory that is
sophisticated, but not the reactor itself. Some established detail designs of
the SBC are available and could easily be incorporated into any new
designs. There are modified versions incorporating a plate settler and
filter to achieve entire solid-liquid separation in the same unit itself. Most
of these modifications are made to suit the need of developing nations. Its
use is highly recommended in developing countries - especially in small
community water supply schemes - because of its flexibility in capacity
and its ability to take up widely varying turbidity loads. It is highly
suitable for package treatment plants, which are useful in remote areas as
well as in congested urban areas.
Example 4.1 Design a sedimentation tank for a flow (Q) of 1000 m 3/d.
Determine the dimensions of the tank and the outflow weir
length. Assume suitable design criteria.
Solution: Assume an overflow rate (OFR) of 20 m3/m2.d as a typical
value.
Q 1000
Area = = = 50 m2
OFR 20

Assuming a detention time (DT) of 2 h,

2
Volume = Q x DT = 1000 x = 83.3 m3
24
V 83.3
Depth = = = 1.7 m
A 50
If width (W) to length (L) ratio is 1:3, then
A = 3W2 = 50
W = 4.1 m
L = 3W = 12.3 m

Assuming a weir loading rate (WLR) of 160 m3/m.d,

Q 1000
Minimum weir length = = = 6.3 m
WLR 160
In order to accommodate this required weir length, a double trough at the
end of the tank would suffice, having a length of 8m.

Example 4.2 Design a coagulation sedimentation tank with a continuous flow

for treating water for a population of 45,000 persons with an
average daily consumption of 135 L/person. Assume a surface
loading rate of 0.9 m3m-2h-1 and that the weir loading rate is
within acceptable limits.
Solution:
Average consumption = 135 x 45,000 = 6,075,000 L/d.
Allow 1.8 times for maximum daily consumption:
maximum daily consumption = 1.8 x 6,075,000 = 10,935m3/d.
Therefore, required surface area of the tank = (10,935/24)/0.9
= 506 m2.
Assume minimum depth of tank = 3.5 m.
Therefore, (settling) volume of the tank = 506 x 3.5 = 1772 m3.
Assume a length to width ratio of the tank of 3.5:1. Therefore
the width would be = 506/3.5w2 m = 12m
Therefore, length of tank = 3.5 x 12 = 42 m.
Assuming a bottom slope of 1 in 60.
Depth of the deep end (at the influent end) = 3.5 + (1/60) x 42 =
4.2 m.
A floc chamber should be provided, at the entry to the tank, the
capacity of which is assumed to be 1/16 of the settling
chamber, i.e. = 1772/16 = 110.8 m3.
If the depth of floc chamber is 2.5 m, then
the area of the floc chamber = 110.8/2.5 = 44.3 m2.
The flocculation chamber also has a width equal to the
sedimentation chamber, ie 12m. Therefore, length of floc
chamber = 45.562/12  3.8m.

It should be considered to add this length to the settling tank as it would

otherwise reduce the settling volume by 3.8/42 = 9%. However,
considering that we have already provided amply for maximum flow
conditions, we could still fit the flocculation unit within the tank.

4.1.4 FACTORS AFFECTING SEDIMENTATION

Several factors affect the separation of settle able solids from water. Some
of the more common types of factors to consider are:

4.1.4.1 PARTICLESIZE
The size and type of particles to be removed have a significant effect on the
operation of the sedimentation tank. Because of their density, sand or silt
can be removed very easily. The velocity of the water-flow channel can be
slowed to less than one foot per second, and most of the gravel and grit
will be removed by simple gravitational forces. In contrast, colloidal
material, small particles that stay in suspension and make the water seem
cloudy, will not settle until the material is coagulated and flocculated by
the addition of a chemical, such as an iron salt or aluminum sulfate.
The shape of the particle also affects its settling characteristics. A round
particle, for example, will settle much more readily than a particle that has
ragged or irregular edges.
All particles tend to have a slight electrical charge. Particles with the same
charge tend to repel each other. This repelling action keeps the particles
from congregating into flocs and settling.

4.1.4.2 WATER TEMPERATURE

Another factor to consider in the operation of a sedimentation basin is the
temperature of the water being treated. When the temperature decreases,
the rate of settling becomes slower. The result is that as the water cools,
the detention time in the sedimentation tanks must increase. As the
temperature decreases, the operator must make changes to the coagulant
dosage to compensate for the decreased settling rate. In most cases
temperature does not have a significant effect on treatment. A water

treatment plant has the highest flow demand in the summer when the
temperatures are the highest and the settling rates the best. When the
water is colder, the flow in the plant is at its lowest and, in most cases; the
detention time in the plant is increased so the floc has time to settle out in
the sedimentation basins.

4.1.4.3 CURRENTS
Several types of water currents may occur in the sedimentation basin:
 Density currents caused by the weight of the solids in the tank, the
concentration of solids and temperature of the water in the tank.
 Eddy currents produced by the flow of the water coming into the tank
and leaving the tank.
The currents can be beneficial in that they promote flocculation ofthe
particles. However, water currents also tend to distribute the floc unevenly
throughout the tank; as a result, it does not settle out at an even rate.
Some of the water current problems can be reduced by the proper design
of the tank. Installation of baffles helps prevent currents from short
circuiting the tank.

4.1.5 SEDIMENTATION BASIN ZONES

Under ideal conditions, the sedimentation tank would be filled with the
water that has been coagulated, and the floc would be allowed to settle
before any additional water is added. That is not possible for most types of
water treatment plants.
Most sedimentation tanks are divided into these separate zones:

4.1.5.1 INLET ZONE

The inlet or influent zone should provide a smooth transition from the
flocculation zone and should distribute the flow uniformly across the inlet
to the tank. The normal design includes baffles that gently spread the flow
across the total inlet of the tank and prevent short circuiting in the tank.
(Short circuiting is the term used for a situation in which part of the

influent water exits the tank too quickly, sometimes by flowing across the
top or along the bottom of the tank.) The baffle could include a wall across
the inlet, perforated with holes across the width of the tank.

4.1.5.2 SETTLING ZONE

The settling zone is the largest portion of the sedimentation basin. This
zone provides the calm area necessary for the suspended particles to
settle.
4.1.5.3 SLUDGE ZONE
The sludge zone, located at the bottom of the tank, provides a storage area
for the sludge before it is removed for additional treatment or disposal.
Basin inlets should be designed to minimize high flow velocities near the
bottom of the tank. If high flow velocities are allowed to enter the sludge
zone, the sludge could be swept up and out of the tank.
Sludge is removed for further treatment from the sludge zone by scraper or
vacuum devices which move along the bottom.

4.1.5.4 OUTLET ZONE

The basin outlet zone or launder should provide a smooth transition from
the sedimentation zone to the outlet from the tank. This area of the tank
also controls the depth of water in the basin. Weirs set at the end of the
tank control the overflow rate and prevent the solids from rising to the
weirs and leaving the tank before they settle out. The tank needs enough
weir length to control the overflow rate, which should not exceed 20,000
gallons per day per foot of weir.

4.1.6 SELECTION OF BASIN

There are many sedimentation basin shapes. They can be rectangular,
circular, and square

4.1.6.1 RECTANGULAR BASINS

Rectangular basins are commonly found in large-scale water treatment
plants. Rectangular tanks are popular as they tend to have:
 High tolerance to shock overload
 Predictable performance
 Cost effectiveness due to lower construction cost
 Lower maintenance
 Minimal short circuiting

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4.1.6.2 CIRCULAR AND SQUARE BASINS

Circular basins are frequently referred to as clarifiers. These basins share
some of the performance advantages of the rectangular basins, but are
generally more prone to short circuiting and particle removal problems.
For square tanks the design engineer must be certain that some type of
sludge removal equipment for the corners is installed.

4.1.7 SOLIDS CONTACT UNITS

A solids contact unit combines the coagulation, flocculation, and
sedimentation basin in one unit. These units are also called up flow
clarifiers or sludge-blanket clarifiers. The solids contact unit is used
primarily in the lime-soda ash process to settle out the floc formed during
water softening. Flow is usually in an upward direction through a sludge
blanket or slurry of flocculated suspended solids.

4.2 FILTRATION
Filtration is the separation of solid particles or liquid ones (droplets) from
liquids and gases with the help of a filter medium also called a septum,
which is essentially permeable to only the fluid phase of the mixture being
separated. In earlier times, this process was carried out with felts, and the
word “filter” has a common derivation with “felt”. Often however,
purification of a liquid or gas is called filtration even when no semi-
permeable medium is involved (as in electro-kinetic filtration).
The liquid more or less thoroughly separated from the solids is called the
filtrate, effluent, permeate or, more rarely, clean water. As in other
separation processes, the separation of phases is never complete: Liquid
adheres to the separated solids (cake with residual moisture) and the
filtrate often contains some solids (solids content in the filtrate or
turbidity).

4.2.1 MECHANISM OF FILTRATION PROCESS

Filtration is effected by application of vacuum, pressure, or of centrifugal
force (as shown in figure given below).Vacuum filtration requires a vacuum
pump. The pump evacuates the gas from a filtrate receiver, where the
filtrate is separated from the gas. The filtrate is drained either by a
barometric leg of at least 8 to 10mor by a pump that is able to “run on
snore” (i.e. with a deficiency of feed liquid so that it tends to draw in air).
Pressure filtration typically only requires a pump for delivering of the
suspension and the filter is placed within a pressure vessel, hence less
easily accessible. Centrifugal filtration is done in perforated centrifuge
rotors (→Centrifuges, Filtering).

Vacuum filters have the great advantage that the cake is freely accessible.
This facilitates automatic cake handling. However, vacuum filters cannot
handle hot liquids, or solvents with high vapor pressure. The pressure
difference across vacuum filters is very limited, and the residual moisture
of the filter cake is higher than with pressure filters. Pressure filters in
turn are preferred when the product must be kept in a closed system for
safety reasons, or if the residual moisture content is important. The
handling of the filter cake is obviously more difficult in a pressure filter.
Filtration by centrifugal force requires more technical equipment, but as a

general rule it yields solids with lower residual moisture (→Centrifuges,

Filtering).

4.2.2 FILTRATION MODELS

Various models can describe the physical process of filtration. There are
four idealized filtration models as depicted in given figure.

4.2.2.1 CAKE FILTRATION

Cake filtration is the most frequently used model. Here it is assumed that
the solids are deposited on a filter medium as a homogeneous porous layer
with a constant permeability. Thus, if the flow rate dV/dt is constant, the
pressure drop will increase lin-early, proportional to the quantity of solid
deposited. This model can be applied particularly well for all hard,
particulate solids.

4.2.2.2 BLOCKING FILTRATION

The pressure drop is caused by solid particles blocking pores. Soft,
gelatinous particles retained by a sieve exhibit such a behavior. If the flow
rate dV/dt is constant, the pressure drop increases exponentially with the
quantity filtered, the number of open pores asymptotically approaching
zero. The pores may belong to a filter medium (screen or filter layer) or it
may be pores within a filter cake of coarse particles, which are blocked by
migrating fine particles.

4.2.2.3 DEEP BED OR DEPTH FILTRATION

Solid particles are retained in a deep filter layer. This takes place for
example in sand filters for clarification of drinking water, which retain
even colloidal particles. The typical effect of deep bed filtration is adhesion
of solids to the grains of the filter layer, comparable to char-coal
adsorption. Only rather big particles are retained by the screening effect.
When the filter bed has been saturated with solids, the solids
concentration in the filtrate leaving the bed progressively approaches that
of the in-coming suspension.

4.2.2.4 CROSS-FLOW FILTRATION

In cross-flow filtration the suspension flows with high speed tangentially to
the filter surface, preventing the formation of a cake. Only a small flow of
liquid passes through the filter medium. A certain layer of solids
accumulates in the boundary layer on the filter surface, and reduces the
flow of filtrate. After an initial period, a dynamic equilibrium is established
between convective transport of solids to the filter surface and removal of
solids by turbulence and by diffusion.

 SURFACE FILTRATION
Surface filtration is the antonym todepth filtration. The solids are retained
on the surface of a filter medium. Generally the models of cake filtration or
of blocking filtration can be applied.

 SCREENING
Screening designates a classification process, which retains the particles
below a certain size and let‟s passes the smaller ones (→Screening). Often
the term screening filtration is also used to designate a surface filtration
with a screen as a filter medium. Its mode of action resembles screening
(or straining) as long as the filter medium is clean, but it is clearly a cake
filtration as soon as a layer of solids has formed.

4.2.3 TYPES OF FILTERS

Several types of filters are used for water treatment. The earliest ones
developed were the slow sand filters. They typically have filter rates of
around 0.05 gpm/ft2 of surface area. This type of filter requires large filter
areas. The top several inches of the sand has to be removed regularly--
usually by hand--due to the mass of growing material (“schmutzdecke")
that collects in the filter. The sand removed is usually washed and
returned to the filter. They may also be used as a final step in wastewater
treatment.

Most filters are classified by filtration rate, type of filter media, or type of
operation into:
 Gravity Filters
 Rapid Sand Filters
 High Rate Filters
 Dual media
 Multi-media
 Pressure Filters
 Sand or Multi-media

4.2.3.1 RAPID SAND FILTERS

Rapid sand filters can accommodate filter rates 40 times those of slow
sand filters. The major parts of a rapid sand filter are:

Filter tank or filter box Filter sand or mixed-media Gravel support bed
under drain system Wash water troughs Filter bed agitators
The filter tank is generally constructed of concrete and is most often
rectangular. Filters in large plants are usually constructed next to each
other in a row, allowing the piping from the sedimentation basins to feed
the filters from a central pipe gallery. Some smaller plants are designed

with the filters forming a square of four filters with a central pipe gallery
feeding the filters from a center well.

4.2.3.2 SAND FILTERS

The filter sand used in rapids and filters is manufactured specifically for
the purpose of water filtration. Most rapid sand filters contain 24-30
inches of sand, but some newer filters are deeper. The sand used is
generally 0.4 to 0.6 mm in diameter. This is larger than the sand used in
slow rate filtration. The coarser sand in the rapid filters has larger voids
that do not fill as easily.

4.2.3.3 WASHWATER TROUGHS

Wash water troughs placed above the filter media collect the backwash
water and carry it to the drain system. Proper placement of these troughs
is very important to ensure that the filter media is not carried into the
troughs during the backwash and removed from the filter. The wash
troughs must be installed at the same elevation so that they remove the
backwash evenly from the filter and so that an even head is maintained
across the entire filter. These backwash troughs are constructed from
concrete, plastic, fiberglass, or other corrosion-resistant materials.

 SURFACE WASH
During the operation of a filter, the upper six-to-ten inches of the filter
media remove most of the suspended material from the water. It is
important that this layer be thoroughly cleaned during the backwash
cycle. Normal backwashing does not, in most cases, clean this layer
completely; therefore, some method of agitation is needed to break up the
top layers of the filter and to help the backwash water remove any material
caught there.

The surface wash system consists of a series of pipes installed in the filter
that introduce high velocity water or air jet action into the upper layer of
the filter. This jet action will generally be supplied by rotating arms that
are activated during the backwashing of the filter.

A newer design of surface wash uses compressed air to mix the upper
layer and loosen the particles from the sand so that the backwash water
can remove the particles more easily. This air wash generally is turned on
before the backwash cycle. If both are used at the same time, some sand
may be washed away. The compressed air rate can be two-to-five cubic feet
per minute per square foot (cfm / ft2) of filter surface, depending on the
design of the filter.

4.2.3.4 HIGH RATE FILTERS

High rate filters, which operate at a rate three-to-four times that of rapid
sand filters, use a combination of different filter media, not just sand. The
combinations vary with the application, but generally they are sand and
anthracite coal. Multi-media or mixed-media filters use three or four
different materials, generally sand, anthracite coal, and garnet.
In rapid sand filters, finer sand grains are at the top of the sand layer with
larger grains farther down into the filter. As a result, the filter removes
more suspended material in the first few inches of the filter. In the high
rate filter, the media size decreases. The top layers consist of a coarse
material with the finer material farther down, allowing the suspended
material to penetrate deeper into the filter.
The material in a filter bed forms layers in the filter, depending on their
weight and specific gravities. In the coarse layer at the top, the larger
suspended particles are removed first, followed by the finer materials. This
allows for longer filter runs at higher rates than is possible with rapid sand
filters.

The type of filter media used in a high rate filter depends on many factors,
including the raw-water quality, raw-water variations, and the chemical
treatment used. Pilot studies help the operator evaluate which material, or
combination of materials, will give the best result.

4.2.3.5 PRESSURE FILTERS

Pressure filters fall into two categories: pressure sand and diatomite filters.

 PRESSURE SAND FILTERS

This type of filter is used extensively in iron and manganese removal
plants.
A pressure sand filter is contained under pressure in a steel tank, which
may be vertical or horizontal, depending on the space available. As with
gravity filters, the media is usually sand or a combination of media.
Filtration rates are similar to gravity filters.
These filters are commonly used for iron and manganese removal from
groundwater, which is first aerated to oxidize the iron or manganese

present, then pumped through the filter to remove the suspended

material.

Because the water is under pressure, air binding will not occur in the
filter. However, pressure filters have a major disadvantage in that the
backwash cannot be observed; in addition, cracking of the filter bed can
occur quite easily, allowing the iron and manganese particles to go straight
through the filter. When using pressure filters for iron and manganese
removal, the operator must regularly measure the iron and manganese
concentration of the filter effluent and backwash the filter before
breakthrough occurs. Because of these limitations, pressure filters must
not be used to treat surface water.

 DIATOMACEOUS EARTH FILTER

This type of filter is commonly used for the treatment of swimming pools.
The process was developed by the military during World War II to remove
microorganisms that cause amoebic dysentery from water used in the
field.

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4.2.4 CALCULATION FOR PRESSURE DROP

4.2.4.1 CAKE FILTRATION
The resistance to flow of a filter cake can be de-scribed by Darcy‟s law (as
shown in figure given below). Consider a liquid flowing through a filter
cake (or a stream of water percolating through soil as considered by
Darcy). The pressure drop ∆p of this flow is proportional to:
1) The flow rate per unit area V/A
2) The cake thickness H
3) The viscosity η of the liquid
4) A constant αH describing the “specific filter resistance” of the cake:

…(1)
The SI units are:

The unit of αH must thereforebem−2inorder to satisfy the Darcy equation

(1). The reciprocal of the filter resistance αH is also called permeability k of
the filter cake:

... (2)
Sometimes it is more convenient to define cake thickness in terms of solid
mass per unit area (unit kg/m2). This leads to a slightly different definition
of filter resistance, the factors being:
1) The flow rate per unit area V/A
2) The cake thickness m/A
3) The viscosity η of the liquid
4) A constant αm with the unit m/kg describing the resistance of the
cake.
Then the following expression is obtained in-stead of Equation (1)

... (3)
For practical reasons the viscosity η is very often not measured separately.
Then it is legitimate to include it in a term αHη (unit mPa·s/m2) or αmη
(unit mPa·s·m/kg), respectively.
Using this latter term αHη or αmη filter resistances lie between 1011
mPa·s/m2 (filtering very rapidly) and 1016 mPa·s/m2 (nearly un-filterable),
or between 108 and 1013 mPa·s·m/kg, respectively.

4.2.4.2 THE CAKE FILTER EQUATION

The pressure drop in a filter is composed of a pressure drop ∆p1 across
the cake according to Equation (1) and a pressure drop ∆ p2 across the
filter medium, which can be written as:

…(4)
Where b (unit m−1) is the resistance of the filter medium.
The total pressure drop is therefore:

…(5)
Or

…(6)
If the suspension is homogeneously mixed, the cake height H (or m / A)
will be proportional to the quantity of filtrate. The concentration is de-
scribed by a factor K:

... (7)
Or

... (8)
This gives

... (9)
Or

... (10)

Equations (9) and (10) are identical under the generalization αH·KH =
αm·Km. Nevertheless the distinction between both equations is useful for
clarity.
The differential Equations (9) and (10) can be integrated either for constant
flow rate or for constant pressure. Integration for constant flow rate dV /
dt =const gives the trivial solution:

... (11)
Or

... (12)
For ∆p = constant, the integration yields:

... (12)

... (12)
Or

... (12)

4.2.4.3 COMPRESSIBLE CAKE FILTRATION

Most filter cakes are compressible, which means that their resistance
increases with growing pressure. An x-fold increase in filtration pressure
therefore normally gives rise to a less than x-fold increase in flow rate. The
compression of the cake is caused by the compressive stress ps on the
solids which is caused by the drag of the flowing liquid (see below figure).
The loss in liquid pressure pL translates into solids pressure pS, the sum of
both being constant:

... (13)

... (14)
The local filter resistance αloc in the cake is a function of the local
compressive stress pS and it is therefore low at the surface of the cake and
high near the interface with the filter medium. This αloc =f(pS) can be
measured in the Compression Permeability cell (CP cell), where a sample of
the cake is subject to a known compressive stress.
However, only the average resistance αav of a filter cake, all layers
combined, is important for practical scale-up purposes. It can be
calculated from αloc measured in the CP-cell.

... (15)
Normally however it is much easier to measure αav directly with filtration
experiments in a pressure filter. The uneven distribution of local porosity
and filter resistance is then ignored.
The dependence of filter resistance α av or αloc on pressure can be
approximated over a limited pressure range by

... (16)
From the differential form of filtration equation, we know that

... (17)
Where α0 is the resistance at unit pressure drop and n is a compressibility
index (equal to zero for incompressible cakes). Both parameters can be
determined easily from a logarithmic plot α = f(pS), where the slope
indicates the compressibility factor n. Introducing αloc according to this
approximation into Equation (17), it can be shown that for 0 < n < 1.

... (18)

... (19)
Thus the approximation Equation (17) has the advantage that it applies to
both the local and the average resistance. However, such an
approximation is valid only for a limited range of pressures and Equations
(18) and (19) are restricted to 0 < n < 1.

4.3 GAS SOLID SEPARATION

Gas – Solid separation is an unit operation used to control air pollution
and to prevent loss of materials. Gas – solid separation can be achieved by
the application of the principles of electrostatic effects, gravitational
settling, filtration, wet scrubbing or centrifugation.
The removal of dust from gas, termed gas cleaning, is often necessary for a
number of reasons:
(i) To control air pollution
(ii) To prevent dust from entering a machine
(iii) To prevent wastage of valuable materials
(iv) To reduce the maintenance of equipments

4.3.1 FACTORS AFFECTING THE GAS SOLID OPERATION

During gas- solid separation, the factors which affect this operation are:
(i) The properties of solid particles
(ii) The quality of dust to be handled
(iii) The moisture content of gas and dust
(iv) The temperature of the gas – solid system

4.3.2 MECHANISMS OF GAS SOLID OPERATION

The principal separation mechanisms which are involved in gas – solid
separation are
(i) Gravitational settling
(ii) Inertial separation
(iii) Washing with a liquid (Scrubbing)
(iv) Electrostatic deposition
(v) Centrifugal separation

4.3.3 GAS CLEANING EQUIPMENTS

Gas cleaning equipments, also known as gas collectors, vary widely in
design, operation, effectiveness, space requirement, construction and
capital and operating and up – keep costs. The selection of a dust collector
depends on the following factors:
(i) Dust concentration and particle size
(ii) Air / gas stream characteristics
(iii) Dust characteristics
(iv) Degree of dust removal desired
(v) Method of dust disposal

4.3.3.1 GRAVITY SETTLING CHAMBER

This is the simplest of all separation equipment. You have a big box, with
the inlet and outlet streams way up at the top, and as the fluid flows
through, the particles fall out. If the box is long enough, then all the
particles should fall out. This brings us back to the settling velocity; if the

flow rate through is too fast for the size of the box you are using, then not
all the particles, if any, are going to settle.

Despite their simple design and economical mode of operation, these units
re seldom used because of their large space requirements and low
efficiency.

4.3.3.2 WET SCRUBBERS

Wet scrubbers, commonly known as wet collectors, are a class of gas
cleaning devices in which a scrubbing liquid (usually water) is used for the
separation of dust particles from the gas stream. The separation efficiency
largely depends on the degree of contact between the gas and the liquid
streams. There are very large variety of wet scrubbers available and one

such design is the venturi scrubber, which is also the most widely used
type of wet scrubber.
Venturi scrubbers are high – energy type of wet scrubbers and work on the
principle that the energy from the inlet gas stream is being utilized to
atomize the scrubbing liquid.
Venturi scrubbers consist of a venturi-shaped inlet and separator. The
dust-laden gases venturi scrubbers enter through the venturi and are
accelerated to speeds between 12,000 and 36,000 ft/min (60.97-
182.83 m/s). These high-gas velocities immediately atomize the coarse
water spray, which is injected radially into the venturi throat, into fine
droplets. High energy and extreme turbulence promote collision between
water droplets and dust particulates in the throat. The agglomeration
process between particle and droplet continues in the diverging section of
the venturi. The large agglomerates formed in the venturi are then
removed by an inertial separator.
Venturi scrubbers achieve very high collection efficiencies for respirable
dust. Since efficiency of a venturi scrubber depends on pressure drop,
some manufacturers supply a variable-throat venturi to maintain pressure
drop with varying gas flows.

4.3.3.3 CYCLONE SEPARATORS

Cyclonic separation is a method of removing particulates from an air, gas
or liquid stream, without the use of filters, through vortex
separation. Rotational effects and gravity are used to separate mixtures of
solids and fluids. The method can also be used to separate fine droplets of
liquid from a gaseous stream.
A high speed rotating (air)flow is established within a cylindrical or conical
container called a cyclone. Air flows in a helical pattern, beginning at the
top (wide end) of the cyclone and ending at the bottom (narrow) end before
exiting the cyclone in a straight stream through the center of the cyclone
and out the top. Larger (denser) particles in the rotating stream have too
much inertia to follow the tight curve of the stream, and strike the outside
wall, then falling to the bottom of the cyclone where they can be removed.

In a conical system, as the rotating flow moves towards the narrow end of
the cyclone, the rotational radius of the stream is reduced, thus separating
smaller and smaller particles. The cyclone geometry, together with flow
rate, defines the cut point of the cyclone. This is the size of particle that
will be removed from the stream with 50% efficiency. Particles larger than
the cut point will be removed with a greater efficiency and smaller particles
with a lower efficiency.

a. The real trajectory of gas and particles is difficult to analyze. The

particles laden gas enters the cyclone from the sideway (see top view)
at a high flow rate and moves downward in a swirling/ spiral path.
b. Solid particles are thrown outward radially due to centrifugal force.
They strike the walls of cyclone and settle down. Gas, on the other
hand, will move radially inward, then upward through the least
hydrodynamically resistance – path to the exit.
c. Gas moving in spiral reaches the apex of the cone, then moves
upward in a smaller spiral (~ do / 2 ) path to the exit at the top, as the
opening at the bottom is filled with solid particles. For the gas, the
least resistance – path is the exit at the top. For the particles, the
least resistance- path is the exit at the bottom.

d. Mechanistically, if the centrifugal force acting on the particles is larger

than the drag (inward) by the gas, the particles will strike the walls
and settle down, else they will move inward along with the gas. At a
radius r, where these two forces are equal, particle will rotate in
equilibrium and move downward till they hit the slant walls and are
collected. Gas on the other hand has a very high upward flow rate at
the center, typically in the core-diameter of do / 2.
Any particle in the zone will be carried upward.

Theoretical „cut-size' of a cyclone is the particle size above which all

particles will be collected. A theoretical expression considering drag and
centrifugal forces on a particle, has been obtained to estimate the „cut size'
of cyclone. The calculation takes into account the experimental
observation that the equilibrium rotation-radius of all captured particles in
1  do 
cyclone is    or 0.25do, where do is the diameter of the nozzle at the
2 2 
top of the cyclone though which the gas exits.
 The settling velocity of captured particles,

0.25  do  G  g
vo 
  Z  Dc   f  Uto2 Career Avenues

Where
do = diameter of gas exit at nozzle, m
G = gas flow rate, m3 / s
G = gravity, m2 / s
Z = height of cyclone, m
Dc = cyclone diameter, m
ρf = gas density, kg / m3
Uto = G / ρAi, m / s
Ai = cross sectional area of inlet pipe, m2
Form vo, the theoretical cut–diameter, dp is determined from the settling
velocity equation:
dp2g  g   f 
vo 
18  f

Let assumed that particles settle in Stoke's regime.

 All particles having diameter < dp will have equilibrium radius within
0.5 do so that they will be carried away with the gas.
 All particles having diameter > dp will be captured in cyclone.
 Cyclones are very effective in removing particles from gas.
Disadvantages are large flow rate required and large pressure–drop
because of the tortuous path of the gas.
vc2
 p  8  f , where vc = gas velocity at the inlet
2
 Separation factor of a cyclone, s is defined as
mv 2 2
FC r v
S 
Fg mg rg
 Cyclones are effective typically for particle size>5 μm
 Efficiency (capturing) of cyclone, C

mass of collected particles of diameter, dp

C 
mass of particles of diameter dp in the incoming gas

Design graphs are available to calculate the efficiency.

CHAPTER5

TRANSPORTATION OF SOLIDS

5.1 TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENTS

The handling of solids and their transportation is also a very important
part of any chemical industry. For the solids transportation within the
industry, there are many methods and techniques but some of the useful
and important techniques are as follows:

5.2 CONVEYORS
A conveyor system is a common piece of mechanical handling equipment
that moves materials from one location to another. Conveyors are
especially useful in applications involving the transportation of heavy or
bulky materials. Conveyor systems allow quick and efficient transportation
for a wide variety of materials, which make them very popular in
the material handling and packaging industries. Many kinds of conveying
systems are available, and are used according to the various needs of
different industries. There are chain conveyors, belt conveyors, screw
conveyors and roller conveyors.

5.2.1 BELT CONVEYORS

A conveyor belt (or belt conveyor) consists of two or more pulleys, with a
continuous loop of material - the conveyor belt - that rotates about them.
One or both of the pulleys are powered, moving the belt and the material
on the belt forward. The powered pulley is called the drive pulley while the
unpowered pulley is called the idler. There are two main industrial classes
of belt conveyors; those in general material handling such as those moving
boxes along inside a factory and bulk material handling such as those
used to transport industrial and agricultural materials, such as grain,
coal, ores, etc. generally in outdoor locations. Generally companies
providing general material handling type belt conveyors do not provide the

conveyors for bulk material handling. In addition there are a number of

commercial applications of belt conveyors such as those in grocery stores.
The belt consists of one or more layers of material. They can be made out
of rubber. Many belts in general material handling have two layers. An
under layer of material to provide linear strength and shape called a
carcass and an over layer called the cover. The carcass is often a woven
fabric having a warp & weft. The most common carcass materials are
polyester, nylon and cotton. The cover is often various rubber or plastic
compounds specified by use of the belt. Covers can be made from more
exotic materials for unusual applications such as silicone for heat or gum
rubber when traction is essential.

Belt conveyors are the most commonly used powered conveyors because
they are the most versatile and the least expensive. Product is conveyed
directly on the belt so both regular and irregular shaped objects, large or
small, light and heavy, can be transported successfully. These conveyors
should use only the highest quality premium belting products, which
reduces belt stretch and results in less maintenance for tension
adjustments. Belt conveyors can be used to transport product in a straight
line or through changes in elevation or direction. In certain applications
they can also be used for static accumulation or cartons.

5.2.2 CHAIN CONVEYOR

A chain conveyor is a type of conveyor system for moving material through
production lines.

Chain conveyors utilize a powered continuous chain arrangement,

carrying a series of single pendants. The chain arrangement is driven by
a motor, and the material suspended on the pendants is conveyed. Chain
conveyors are used for moving products down an assembly and / or
around a manufacturing or warehousing facility.
Chain conveyors are primarily used to transport heavy unit loads, e.g.
pallets, grid boxes, and industrial containers. These conveyors can be
single or double chain strand in configuration. The load is positioned on
the chains; the friction pulls the load forward. Chain conveyors are
generally easy to install and have very minimum maintenance for users.
Many industry sectors use chain conveyor technology in their production
lines. The automotive industry commonly use chain conveyor systems to
convey car parts through paint plants. Chain conveyors also have
widespread use in the white and brown goods, metal finishing and
distribution industries. Chain conveyors are also used in the painting and
coating industry, this allows for easier paint application. The products are
attached to an above head chain conveyor, keeping products off of the floor
allows for higher productivity levels.

5.2.3 SCREW CONVEYOR

A screw conveyor or auger conveyor is a mechanism that uses a rotating
helical screw blade, called a "flighting", usually within a tube, to move
liquid or granular materials. They are used in many bulk handling
industries. Screw conveyors in modern industry are often used
horizontally or at a slight incline as an efficient way to move semi-solid
materials, including food waste, wood chips, aggregates, cereal grains,
animal feed, boiler ash, meat and bone meal, municipal solid waste, and

many others. The first type of screw conveyor was the Archimedes' screw,
used since ancient times to pump irrigation water.

They usually consist of a trough or tube containing either a spiral blade

coiled around a shaft, driven at one end and held at the other, or a "shaft
less spiral", driven at one end and free at the other. The rate of volume
transfer is proportional to the rotation rate of the shaft. In industrial
control applications the device is often used as a variable rate feeder by
varying the rotation rate of the shaft to deliver a measured rate or quantity
of material into a process.
Screw conveyors can be operated with the flow of material inclined
upward. When space allows, this is a very economical method of elevating
and conveying. As the angle of inclination increases, the capacity of a
given unit rapidly decreases.
The rotating part of the conveyor is sometimes called simply an auger.

5.3 BUCKET ELEVATORS

A bucket elevator, also called a grain leg, is a mechanism for hauling
solids or flow-able bulk materials (most often grain or fertilizer) vertically.
It consists of:
1. Buckets to contain the material;
2. A belt to carry the buckets and transmit the pull;
3. Means to drive the belt;
4. Accessories for loading the buckets or picking up the material, for
receiving the discharged material, for maintaining the belt tension and
for enclosing and protecting the elevator.
A bucket elevator can elevate a variety of bulk materials from light to
heavy and from fine to large lumps.

A centrifugal discharge elevator may be vertical or inclined. Vertical

elevators depend entirely on the action of centrifugal force to get the
material into the discharge chute and must be run at speeds relatively
high. Inclined elevators with buckets spaced apart or set close together
may have the discharge chute set partly under the head pulley. Since they
don't depend entirely on the centrifugal force to put the material into the
chute, the speed may be relatively lower.
Nearly all centrifugal discharge elevators have spaced buckets with
rounded bottoms. They pick up their load from a boot, a pit, or a pile of
material at the foot pulley.
The buckets can be also triangular in cross section and set close to on the
belt with little or no clearance between them. This is a continuous bucket
elevator. Its main use is to carry difficult materials at slow speed.
Early bucket elevators used a flat chain with small, steel buckets attached
every few inches. Current construction uses a rubber belt with plastic
buckets. Pulleys several feet in diameter are used at the top and bottom.
The top pulley is driven by an electric motor.

PART B: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

CHAPTER6

LEVEL 1

1. Width and speed of a conveyor belt. Depends open the……….of the

material
(a) Lump size
(b) Bulk density
(c) Both (a) & (b)
(d) Neither (a) nor (b)
2. The filtrate flow rate in constant pressure filtration
(a) Continuously increases
(b) Continuously decreases
(c) Remains constant throughout
(d) The pressure
3. During filtration operation, the filtrate encounters the resistance of the
(a) Filter medium
(b) Cake
(c) Channel carrying the slurry to the upstream side of the cake and
filtrate away from the filter medium
(d) All (a), (b) and (c)
4. The specific cake resistance for compressible sludge is a function of the
pressure drop
(a) Over cake
(b) Over medium
(c) Overall
(d) None of these
5. The controlling resistance in a rotary drum vacuum filter is
the……….resistance
(a) Piping
(b) Cake
(c) Filter medium

(d) None of these

6. The cake resistance increases steadily with the time of filtration in plate
and frame filter employing constant……….filtration
(a) Rate
(b) Pressure
(c) Both (a) & (b)
(d) Neither (a) nor (b)
7. Vibrating screens have capacity in the range of tons/ft2 mm mesh size
(a) 0.2 to 0.8
(b) 4 to 25
(c) 50 to 100
(d) 100 to 250
8. Addition of filter aid to the slurry before filtration is done to………. Of the
cake
(a) Increase the porosity
(b) Increases the compressibility co-efficient
(c) Decrease the porosity
(d) Decrease the compressibility co-efficient
9. Sphericity for a non spherical particle is given by
6.V
(a)
D.S
V
(b)
6D.S Career Avenues
D.S
(c)
V
V
(d) D.S
10. Maximum size reduction in a ball mill is done by the……….action
(a) Attrition
(b) Compression
(c) Impact
(d) Cutting

11. Sphericity of cubical particle, when its equivalent diameter is taken as the
height of the cube, is
(a) 0.5
(b) 1

(a) M D
(b) M  D2
(c) M  D3
(d) M D
13. For a non spherical particles, the sphericity
(a) Is defined as he ratio of surface area of a sphere having the same
volume as the particle to the actual surface area of the particle
(b) Has the dimension of length
(c) Is always less than 1
(d) Is the ratio of volume of a sphere having the same surface area as the
particle to the actual volume of the particle?
14. The inlet pressure in a constant rate filtration
(a) Increases continuously
(b) Decreases gradually
(c) Remains constant
(d) None of these
15. 200 mesh screen means 200 openings per
(a) cm2
(b) inch
(c) cm
(d) inch2

16. A straight line is obtained on plotting reciprocal of filtration rate vs,. the
volume of filtrate for……….flow of filtrate
(a) Compressible cakes and laminar
(b) Incompressible cake and laminar
(c) Compressible cake and turbulent
(d) Incompressible cake and turbulent
17. Flow of filtrate through the cake in plate and frame filter press is best
described by the……….equation
(a) Cozney Karman
(b) Hagen poiseuille‟s
(c) Fanning‟s
(d) Kremser .
18. Apron conveyors are used for
(a) Heavy loads & short runs
(b) Small loads & long runs
(c) Heavy loads & long runs
(d) None of these
19. Cyclones are used primarily for separating
(a) Solids
(b) Solids from fluids
(c) Liquids
(d) Solids from solids
20. The capacity of a belt conveyor depends upon two factors. If one is the
cross section of the load the other is the……….of the belt
(a) Speed
(b) Thickness
(c) Length
(d) None of these

21. Moore filter is a……….filter

(a) Leaf
(b) Press
(c) Rotary
(d) Sand
22. Mesh indicates the number of holes per
(a) Square inch
(b) Square foot
(c) Linear inch
(d) Linear foot
23. For the transportation of ultrafine particles the equipment used is
a……….conveyor
(a) Belt
(b) Pneumatic
(c) Screw
(d) None of these
24. Which of the following may prove unsuitable for filtering volatile liquid?
(a) Pressure filter
(b) gravity filter
(c) Centrifugal filter
(d) Vacuum filter
25. Helical screw agitator is used for
(a) Mixing highly viscous pastes
(b) Blending immiscible liquids
(c) Mixing liquids at very high temperature
(d) None of these

26. A propeller agitator

(a) Produces mainly axial flow
(b) Is used for mixing high viscosity pastes
(c) Runs at very slow speed (2rpm)
(d) All (a), (b) and (c)
27. Highly viscous liquids & pastes are agitated by
(a) Propellers
(b) Turbine agitators
(c) Multiple blade paddles
(d) None of these
28. Washabiliy curve based on float and sink test enables an assessment to be
made of the possibility of cleaning a coal fraction based on the
(a) Density separation
(b) Differential wettability
(c) Size
(d) Volatile matter content
29. Float and sink test determines the possibility of cleaning of coal by a
process based on the
(a) Gravity separation
(b) Wet ability
(c) Particle shape \
(d) None of these
30. Colloidal mills are used for……….grinding
(a) Coarse
(b) Intermediate
(c) Fine
(d) Ultrafine

31. Which of the following conveyors cannot be recommended for

transportation of abrasive materials?
(a) Belt conveyor
(b) Apron conveyor
(c) Flight conveyor
(d) Chain conveyor
32. For sizing of the materials, he most suitable equipment is a
(a) Trammel
(b) Grizzly
(c) Shaking screen
(d) Vibrating screen
33. Which of the following can be most effectively used for clarification of lube
oil and printing ink?
(a) Sparkler filter
(b) Precoat filter
(c) Disc-bowl centrifuge
(d) Sharples super-centrifuge
34. Ore concentration by jigging is based on the difference in the……….of the
particles
(a) Specific gravities
(b) Wett ability
(c) Shape
(d) None of these
35. Traces of liquid tar fog present in coke oven gas is separated using
(a) Electrostatic precipitator
(b) Cyclone separator
(c) Strainer
(d) None of these

36. In case of a revolving mill, wet grinding compared to dry grinding

(a) Requires more energy
(b) Has less capacity
(c) Complicates handing & classification of the product
(d) None of these
37. Froth floatation is the most suitable for treating
(a) Iron ores
(b) Sulphide ores
(c) Quartzite
(d) None of these
38. For beneficiation of iron are, the most commonly used method is
(a) Flocculation
(b) Froth floatation
(c) Jigging & tabling
(d) None of these
39. Screen capacity is expressed in terms of
(a) Tons/hr
(b) Tons/ft2
(c) Both (a) & (b)
(d) Tons/hr-ft2
40. The energy consumed by a ball mill depends on
(a) Its speed
(b) Density
(c) Wettability
(d) Electrical & magnetic properties
41. Ultrafine grinders operate principally by
(a) Slow compression
(b) Impact
Career Avenues
(c) Attrition
(d) Cutting action

42. Size measurement of ultrafine particles can be best expressed in terms of

(a) Centimeter
(b) Screen size
(c) Micron
(d) Surface area per unit mass
43. A screen is said to be blinded, when the
(a) Oversized are present in undersize fraction
(b) Undersized are retained in oversize fraction
(c) Screen is plugged with solid particles
(d) Screen capacity is abruptly increased
44. As particle size is reduced
(a) Screening becomes progressively more difficult
(b) Screening becomes progressively easier
(c) Capacity and effectiveness of the screen is increased
(d) None of these
45. The speed of a rotary drum vacuum fitter may be about……….rpm
(a) 1
(b) 50
(c) 100
(d) 500
46. The most common filter aid is
(a) Diatomaceous earth
(b) Calcium silicate
(c) Sodium carbonate
(d) Silica gel
47. Mixture can be removed from lubricating oil using
(a) Tubular centrifuge
(b) Clarifier
(c) Sparkler filter
(d) Vacuum leaf filter

48. For separation of sugar solution form settled out mud, we use a……….fiter
(a) Sparkler
(b) Plate and frame
(c) Centrifugal
(d) Rotary drum vacuum
49. Compressibility co-efficient for an absolutely compressibility cake is
(a) 0
(b) 1
(c) 0 to 1
(d) 
50. The porosity of a compressible cake is
(a) Minimum at the filter medium
(b) Minimum at the upstream face
(c) Maximum at the filter medium
(d) Same throughout the thickness of cake
ANSWER KEY
1 (c) 11 (b) 21 (a) 31 (c) 41 (c)
2 (b) 12 (c) 22 (b) 32 (d) 42 (d)
3 (d) 13 (a) 23 (b) 33 (d) 43 (c)
4 (a) 14 (a) 24 (d) 34 (a) 44 (a)
5 (b) 15 (c) 25 (a) 35 (a) 45 (a)
6 (c) 16 (b) 26 (a) 36 (d) 46 (a)
7 (a) 17 (a) 27 (c) 37 (b) 47 (a)
8 (a) 18 (a) 28 (a) 38 (c) 48 (c)
9 (a) 19 (b) 29 (a) 39 (d) 49 (b)
10 (c) 20 (a) 30 (d) 40 (d) 50 (a)

CHAPTER7

LEVEL 2
1. Under otherwise uniform conditions the shape of a tank (baffled as well as
un-baffled) has ……….on power number.
(a) A very great effect
(b) Relatively little effect
(c) No effect at all
(d) None of these
2. Under otherwise uniform conditions two closely spaced turbines on the
same shaft draw
(a) The same power as that by a single turbine
(b) Approximately 2.4 times the power drawn by a single turbine
(c) Approximately 5 times the power drawn by a single turbine
(d) Approximately 9.6 times the power drawn by a single turbine
3. Consider agitation of a liquid in a baffled vessel by a turbine agitators
having six flat blades the power number for this case is practically
constant for Reynolds number greater than
(a) 1
(b) 100
(c) 1000
(d) 10000
4. For a baffled vessel fitted with a six – blade agitation,
(a) The influence of Reynolds number on low Reynolds number values
(b) The influence both Reynolds number and Froude number on power
number becomes negligible at high Reynolds number values (greater
than 10000)
(c) The influence of both Reynolds number and Froude number on power
number becomes extremely important at high Reynolds number
values (greater than 10000)
(d) None of these

MECHANICAL OPERATION

5. Power number is proportional to the ratio of

(a) Drag force acting on a unit area of impeller to the inertial stress
(b) Gravity force acting on a unit area of impeller to the inertial stress
(c) The inertial stress to the gravitational force per unit area acting on the
fluid
(d) None of these
6. It can be shown by dimensional analysis that the power dissipated by an
agitator can be correlated with two dimensionless number (characteristics
of the system considered) the dimensionless number are
(a) Reynolds number and Weber number
(b) Weber number and Froude number
(c) Reynolds number and Schmidt number
(d) Reynolds number and Froude number
7. In which type of impeller used in liquid agitation, flow is coaxial?
(a) Turbine
(b) Propeller
(c) Paddle
(d) None of these
8. If a mass of solid particles is paced by vibrating, the bulk density of the
mass
(a) Deceases
(b) Increases
(c) Remain unchanged
(d) Cannot be predicted, more information required
9. For a mass which is not homogeneous
(a) Angle of repose > angle of internal friction
(b) Angle of repose < angle of internal friction
(c) Angle of repose = angle of internal friction
(d) Angle of repose is low when the particles

MECHANICAL OPERATION

10. Which of the following is the correct angle of repose

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)
11. For theoretical analysis of removal of dust methods, a dimensionless
number called separation number is defined. Which one of the following is
the separation number?
Pg c
(a)
 n 3D 5
U 02
(b)
gL
UtU0
(c)
g Db
t
(d)
r2

MECHANICAL OPERATION

12. Cyclones are usually employed to separate

(a) Solid form gases
(b) Solids of two different substances
(c) Solids form liquids
(d) All (a) (b) & (c)
13. The sharpness of separation of substances by differential settling method is
improved if the density of the liquid medium
(a) Increased
(b) Reduced
(c) Such that it is less than of either substances
(d) None of these
14. Particles of diameter d1 and d2 of two different substances having densities
 1 and  2 , respectively, are being separated by differential settling method;
the density of the liquid medium is  m and settling occurs in the stokes
law range. Which of the following relation is then correct?
d1 2  m
(a) 
d2 1  m

d1 2  m
(b) 
d2 1

d1  2  m 
(c)  
d2  1  m 

d1 ( 2  m )
(d) 
d2 ( 1  m )
15. Under otherwise uniform conditions hindered settling is……….free settling
in separation of substances
(a) More effective than
(b) Less effective than
(c) As effective as
(d) None of these

MECHANICAL OPERATION

16. The liquid used as sorting medium in the differential setting method
should have a density
(a) Higher than that of either substance
(b) Lower than that of either substance
(c) Which is intermediate between densities of the light and heavy
substance
(d) Equal to 4 gm/cc and densities of the substance to be have nothing to
do with the selection of the liquid
17. A Filter press is
(a) A batch fitter.
(b) Not suitable, if the liquid is the main product.
(c) Having prohibitively high maintenance cost.
(d) Not suitable for wide range of materials under varying operating
conditions of cake thickness and pressure.
18. A “100 mesh” screen that
(a) There are 100 apertures per inch
(b) Each aperture of the screen has a diameter of 1/100 inch
(c) Each aperture has a diameter of 1/100
(d) None of these
19. Pick out the wrong statement pertaining to the turbine agitator
(a) Recommended peripheral speed for the turbine agitator is 200 –
250metres/minute.
(b) Pitched blade turbine agitator gives only radial flow with complete
absences of the axial flow
(c) Generally, the diameter of the agitator is kept between 1/3 rd to 1/6th
of the tank diameter while the blade length is 1/4th of agitator
diameter (with central disc, it is 1/8 of the agitator diameter).
(d) Turbine agitator should be located at a height not less than one
agitator diameter length from the bottom. If the depth of liquid in the
tank is more than twice the agitator diameter, two agitators should be
used.

MECHANICAL OPERATION

20. Cleaning of coal by removal of impure substances present in it is done by

sink and float method. The liquid employed as sorting medium for coal
cleaning is
(a) Sodium chloride solution
(b) Petroleum ether
(c) Ortho xylene
(d) Calcium chloride solution
21. Rittinger number which designates the new surface produced per unit of
mechanical energy absorbed by the material being crushed, depends on
the
(a) State or manner of application of the crushing force.
(b) Ultimate strength of the material.
(c) Elastic constant of the material.
(d) All (a), (b) and (c)
22. Match the following pulverisers as per their characteristics
List I List II
P. It combines the action of I. Buhrstone mill
hammer & attrition mills and
is used for grinding plastic
materials liable to the
softened under warm mill
conditions.
Q. It is a tumbling will II. Ball mill
comprising of a cylinder
divided into two or more
section by perforated
partitions, in which
preliminary grinding at the
discharge end.
R. it is an attrition mill with III. Compartment mill
hard circular used for
grinding special cereals and
grains.
S. This mill, in which the IV. Turbo pulveriser
journals carrying the

MECHANICAL OPERATION

grinding rollers are

stationary while the grinding
ring rotates, is used for
palavering coal for boiler
firing.
(a) P – I, Q – II, R – III, S – IV
(b) P – IV, Q – III, R – I, S – II
(c) P – II, Q – I, R – IV, S – III
(d) P – II, Q – III, R – I, S – IV
23. A pebble mill
(a) Is a ball mill.
(b) Employs flints or ceramic pebbles as he grinding medium.
(c) Is a tube mill lined with ceramic or other non metallic liner.
(d) Both (b) and (c).
24. Pick out the wrong statement.
(a) Close circuit grinding is more economical than open circuit girding
(b) Cod oil, beef tallow or aluminum stearates are used as grinding aids
in cement industries
(c) The equipment used for the removal of traces of solids form a liquid is
called a classifier.
(d) Size enlargement is a mechanical operation exemplified by medicinal
tablet making
25. Grinding characteristic of a material is given its
(a) HGI
(b) Angle of repose
Career Avenues
(c) Shatter index
(d) Abrasion index.
26. Pick out the wrong statement
(a) More commonly used jaw crusher between dodge jaw crusher and
blake jaw crusher is the later one
(b) There are only four methods namely compression, impact, attrition
and cutting, which the size reduction equipments employ

MECHANICAL OPERATION

(c) Cutting machines mainly employ attrition for size reduction of solids.
(d) Operating principles of dodge and Blake jaw crushers are combined in
the working of universal jaw crushers.
P Ds
27. General crushing equation is given by d    K n Bond‟s crushing law is
m Ds
obtained by solving this equation for n = ……….and feed of infinite size.
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 1.5
(d) 2.5
28. Pick out the correct statement.
(a) Angle of repose is always greater than the angle of slide.
(b) A hopper is a small bin with a sloping bottom
(c) A silo is a short height vessel of very large diameter used for the
storage of high volatile matter coal.
(d) Pine oil used as a modifying agent for activating or depressing the
adsorption of filming agents) in forth floatation process.
29. The capacity of a classifier in „tons of solid/hr‟ is given by
(a) 3.6 A.V.S. 
(b) 3.6 A.V. 
(c) 3.6 A.S. 
(d) 3.6 A.V.S / 
30. Pick out the correct statement
(a) The capacity and the effectiveness of a screen are the same
(b) The capacity and the effectiveness of screen are opposing factors
(c) The screening surface of a „reel‟ (a revolving screen used in flour mills)
is made of silk bolting cloth supported by wire mesh.
(b) Both (a) and (c)
31. During size reduction by a jaw crusher, the energy consumed decreases
with the
(a) Decreasing size of product at constant size of feed

MECHANICAL OPERATION

(b) Deceasing machine capacity

(c) Increasing size of feed at constant reduction ratio
(d) None of these
32. What is the reduction ratio in a fine crushing operation having following
feed and product sizes?
Parameters Units Maximum Minimum
Feed size Mm 20 10
Product size mm 10 5

(a) 0.5
(b) 2
(c) 5
(c) 10
33. Gyratory crushers compared to the reciprocating jaw crushers
(a) Have greater capacity per unit of discharge area.
(b) Crush intermittently
(c) Are less suitable for coarse materials
(d) Have less steady power consumption
34. Pick out the wrong statement
(a) Cumulative analysis for determining surface area is preferred over
differential analysis, because of the assumption that all particles in a
simple fraction equal in size is not needed for cumulative analysis
unlike differential analyses
(b) A gate diagram is a plot of cumulative percent by weight undersize vs.
the reciprocal of diameter, in which the area beneath the curve
represents the surface
(c) Capacity of crusher in choke feeding is increased
(d) Rolling of pebbles/balls from top to bottom of the heap in tumbling
mills is called „cascading‟ and throwing of the balls through the air to
the toe of the heap is called „cataracting‟.

MECHANICAL OPERATION

35. Which of the following mechanical conveyors does not come under the
division carriers?
(a) Belt conveyor
(b) Bucket elevator
(c) Screw conveyor
(d) Apron conveyor
36. Separation of soling suspended in liquid into a supernatant clear liquid
and a denser slurry employs‟ a process termed as he
(a) Coagulation
(b) Flocculation
(c) Sedimentation
(d) Clarification
37. Pick out the wrong statement.
(a) Recycled coarse material to grinder by a classifier is termed as
circulating load
(b) Wear and tear in wet crushing is more than that in dry crushing of
material
(c) Size enlargement (opposite of size reduction is not a mechanical
operation
(d) A „dust catcher‟ is simply an enlargement in a pipeline which permits
the solids to settle down due to reduction in velocity of the dust laden
gas
38. In a grinding operation, the limiting particle size is the size of
the……….particle in the sample
(a) Smallest
(b) Largest
(c) Either (a) or (b)
(d) Neither (a) nor (b)

MECHANICAL OPERATION

39. About 2-3 hp, power per gallon of a thin liquid provides vigorous agitation
in an agitator. Power number in agitation is given by
P.gc
(a)
n 3 .D 2 
p.g c .
(b)
2
n 3 .D 3 .
(c)
P.gc

p.gc
(d)
n .D 2 , 
2

40. Solid particles separation based on the difference in their flow velocities
through fluids is termed as he
(a) Clarification
(b) Classification
(c) Elutriation
(d) Sedimentation
41. Cake resistance is
(a) Important in the beginning of filtration
(b) Decreased with the time of filtration
(c) Independent of pressure drop
(d) None of these
42. Filter medium resistance is important during the……….of filtration
(a) Early stage
(b) Final stages
(c) Entire process
(d) None of these
43. Filter aid is used to
(a) Act as a support base for the septum
(b) Decrease the pressure drop
(c) Increase the porosity of the cake
(d) Increase the rate of filtration

MECHANICAL OPERATION

44. Traces of solids are removed from liquid in a

(a) Classifier
(b) Clarifier
(c) Sparkler filter
(d) Rotary vacuum filter
45. Screen efficiency
(a) Recovery/rejection
(b) Recovery
(c) Rejection
(d) None of these
46. As the product becomes finer, the energy required for grinding
(a) Decreases
(b) Increases
(c) Is same as for coarser grinding
(d) Is 1.5 times that for coarser grinding
47. Fibrous material is broken by a
(a) Roll crusher
(b) Squirrel cage disintegrator
(c) Ball mill
(d) Tube mill
48. Molten ammonium nitrate is mixed with ground limestone in fertilizer
plant in a
(a) Pug mill
(b) Mixer extruder
(c) Banbury mixer
(d) Muller mixer
49. Mixer used for rubber compounding is
(a) Mixer-extruder
(b) Bandury internal mixer
(c) Muller mixer
(d) Pug mill

MECHANICAL OPERATION

50. Crushing efficiency is the ratio of the

(a) Surface energy created by crushing to the energy absorbed by he solid
(b) Energy absorbed by the solid to that fed to the machine
(c) Energy fed to the machine to the surface energy created by crushing
(d) Energy absorbed by the solid to the surface energy created by
crushing
ANSWER KEY

1 (b) 11 (c) 21 (d) 31 (c) 41 (d)

2 (b) 12 (a) 22 (b) 32 (b) 42 (a)
3 (d) 13 (a) 23 (d) 33 (a) 43 (c)
4 (b) 14 (d) 24 (c) 34 (c) 44 (b)
5 (a) 15 (a) 25 (a) 35 (c) 45 (d)
6 (d) 16 (b) 26 (c) 36 (c) 46 (b)
7 (b) 17 (a) 27 (b) 37 (c) 47 (b)
8 (b) 18 (a) 28 (b) 38 (c) 48 (a)
9 (b) 19 (b) 29 (a) 39 (a) 49 (b)
10 (b) 20 (d) 30 (d) 40 (b) 50 (a)

MECHANICAL OPERATION

PART C: ASSIGNMENT

MECHANICAL OPERATION

CHAPTER8

UNSOLVED QUESTIONS

1. Find the sphericity of a cube of dimension a x a x a.

2. Particles of the average feed size of 50 x 10-4 m are crushed to an average
product size of 10 x 10-4 m at the rate of 20 tons / h. at this rate; the
crusher consumes 40 kW of power of which 5 kW are required for running
the mill empty. Calculate the power consumption if 12 tons / h of this
product is further crushed to 5 x 10-4 m size in the same mill? Assume
that Rittinger‟s law is applicable.
3. 270 kW of power is required to crush 150 tons / h of a material. If 80 % of
the feed passes through a 50 mm screen and 801 % of the product passes
through a 3 mm screen, calculate the work index of the material. And
what wil be the power required for the same feed at 150 tons / h to be
crushed to a product such that 80 % is to pass through a 1.5 mm screen?
4. In a ball mill of 2000 mm diameter, 100 mm diameter steel balls are being
used for grinding. Presently for the material being ground, the mill is
running at 15 rpm. At what speed will the mill have to run if the 100 mm
balls are replaced with 50 mm balls, all the other conditions are remaining
same.
5. A sand mixture was screened through a standard 12 mesh screen. The
mass fraction of the oversize material in feed, overflow and underflow were
found to be 0.4, 0.8 and 0.2 respectively. Calculate the screen
effectiveness based on the oversize particles.
6. A certain set of crushing rolls has rolls of 1000 mm diameter by 375 mm
width of the face. They are set so that the crushing surfaces are 12 mm
apart at the narrowest point. They are employed to crush a feed rock
having sp. Gravity of 2.35 and angle of nip as 30o. What is the maximum
permissible size of feed?
7. A material is crushed in Blake jaw crusher and the average size of
particles is reduced from 5 cm to 1.3 cm, with consumption of 37 Wh /
(metric tons). What will be the consumption of energy necessary to crush
the same material of average size 8 cm to an average size of 3 cm? The

MECHANICAL OPERATION

mechanical efficiency is to be remains same. Do the calculation by Kick‟s

Law.
8. A leaf filter filtering a slurry, gave a total of 8 m3 filtrate in 30 min.
filtration was continued till 11.3 m 3 of filtrate was collected. Estimate the
washing time in min, if 11.3 m3 of wash water are used. The resistance of
the cloth can be neglected and a constant pressure is used throughout.
9. A binary mixture of 100 μm size having densities of 2 g/c.c. and 4 g/c.c. is
to be classified by elutriation technique using water. Estimate the range of
velocities that can do the job and recommended a suitable value.
10. Calculate the sphericity of a cylindrical particle of a diameter 1 cm and
height 3 cm.
ANSWERS

1 0.81 6 47.72 mm

2 26.25 kW 7 26.94 Wh/ metric-tons

3 Wi = 13.06 kWh / tons 8 119.7 min

P = 418.16 kW

4 14.77 rpm 9 5.45 x 10 –3 to 16.35 x 10 –3 m/s

5 59.26 % 10 0.779

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