R.M.

Notes
Module 1
Research methodology:
 Research method + ology It is a branch in which we study different research methods
by which we can proceed our research. The learning of the various techniques that can
be used in the conduct of research (in the conduct of tests, experiments, surveys etc.).
Research methodology aims at the employment of the correct procedures to find out
solutions.
 Research means “search of searched, to elicit some facts out of known things.
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical
sense.
 According to Clifford Woody, research comprises of defining and redefining
problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and
evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully
testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
 Research methods are the methods that can be used to collect and analyze data.
Research methods involve conduct of experiments, tests, surveys etc. They aim at
finding solutions to research problems.

RESEARCH
Research is a systematic process of solving a problem or finding answers to an inquiry. It is
an organized method of finding a relatively new ideas from the existing body of knowledge
with the help of useful tool for the purpose of improving the quality of life.
It is a movement from known to unknown i.e. We start from that side which we already know
to that side which we want to know.
E.g.- Effects of stress on mental and physical health of youth. A study of causes of stress and
stress management among youth.
It can be scientific and non- scientific.

Scientific research acquires knowledge and truths about the data or information using
techniques that follow the scientific methods.

Steps in research process

Select a topic, define a problem, review the literature, formulate the hypothesis, choose a
research method, collect your data, analyse your data, disseminate your findings.

1. Formulating the research problem: There are two types of research problems,
viz., those which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between
variables. The formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem constitutes the
first step in a scientific enquiry. Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research
problem, viz., understanding the problem thoroughly, and rephrasing the same into
meaningful terms from an analytical point of view.
2. Extensive literature survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it
should be written down. At this juncture the researcher should undertake extensive literature
survey connected with the problem.
3. Development of working hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher
should state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is
tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has
to be tested.
4. Preparing the research design: The research problem having been formulated in
clear cut terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have
to state the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation
of such a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information. Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii)
Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
5. Determining sample design: All the items under consideration in any field of
inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all
the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained.
6. Collecting the data: In dealing with any real life problem, it is often found that data at
hand are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate.
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context
of money costs, time, and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
(i) By observation
(ii) Through personal interview
(iii) Through telephone interviews
(iv) By mailing of questionnaires
(v) Through schedules
7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the
research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be
collected would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is
executed in a systematic manner and in time.
8. Analysis of data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analyzing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher
should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories.
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analyzing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a
position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the
hypotheses, or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be
answered while testing hypotheses. Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no hypotheses to start with, generalizations
established on the basis of data may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent
research in times to come.
10. Generalizations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory.
As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain
generalizations. If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his
findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
 interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further
research.
11. Preparation of the report or the thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the
report of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping
in view the following:
1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.

Non-scientific method-Is acquiring knowledge and truths about the world using
techniques that do not follow the scientific method that means there can't be any standard
/established recognized method.
These works will be claimed as research, but they will lack genuine evidence /experiments
etc. .and can't be replicated to get the similar results under similar conditions. E.g.-Internet
based study where source itself doubtful can be considered as non-scientific research.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific
purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).

Significance of research:
1. For researchers: Research may mean a way to attain high position in society.
2. For Professionals: Research may mean source of livelihood.
3. For philosophers and thinkers: Research may mean outlet for new ideas.
4. For youngsters: Research may mean development of new styles and behavior.
5. For analyst: Research may mean development of new theories.
Criteria for good research:

 Good research should be systematic.

 It should be logical.
 It is empirical.
 It is replicable.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
Application based – pure research and applied research.
Objective- exploratory, descriptive, correlational, explanatory
types of information sought- quantitative and qualitative.
Types of Research
Pure research /Basic research –
 These researches are done due to curiosity.
 Analytical in nature
 New knowledge from existing knowledge
 These researches are primarily concerned with developing and formulating theories
.Eg Newton's law of gravitation, Maslow’s hierarchy of need
Applied Research/ Practical research –
 Practical implementation of scienceexperiment
Eg-Implementation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs for the betterment of organization. How
can cyber security be improved.
Applied vs. Fundamental:
 Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to basic or pure)
research.
 Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society
or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly
concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory. “Gathering
knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”4 Research
concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are examples of
fundamental research.
 The central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that
has a broad base of applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body
of scientific knowledge

Difference between Pure Research and Applied Research

Pure Research
 Theoretical
 scientific
 Only concept (When new concepts drawn from existing concepts)
 Generalization
 Basis of other research
Applied Research
 Problem solving
 Technological application
 Action oriented
 Real life application of natural science
 Can be used to make social, economic, and educational policies.
Action Research- Is useful in solving an immediate problem.
The difference between the applied and action research is that the applied
research may be taken by the researcher to find the result for a problem being faced by a third
party, whereas action research is being undertaken by a researcher to improve upon his own
practices.
Steps of action research-
 Identifying the problem
 Developing & Implementing an action research
 Collecting & Analyzing data
 Using & sharing
Objective based
Exploratory/Feasibility/Pilot study (derived from word explore)
 When problem is not clearly known
 To increase the understanding of problem
 When a study is carried out to determine that the work would be feasible or not.
 Exploring area in which researcher has less knowledge
 Used to create, not to test hypothesis
Descriptive Research (Describe)
 Is defined as a research method that describes the characteristics of the population or
phenomenon being taken place.
 No control of variables i.e.. Variable cannot be manipulated.
 Descriptive research generates data both quantitative and qualitative to define the
nature of incident at a point of time.
 To do descriptive research, observation is required
Eg Descriptive research can describe any process, event, personality, object and place.
Descriptive vs. Analytical:
 Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds. The major
purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs as it exists at present. In
social science and business research we quite often use the term Ex post facto research for
descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has
no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. The
methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of all kinds, including
comparative and correlational methods.
 In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

Correlational research
 It is carried out to find out the relationship between 2 or more variables.
 Range of correlation from -1 to +1
 Sample size should be at least 30
 Variable must be Quantifiable
 No manipulation in variable
Explanatory research/ Causal research
These research attempt to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two aspects of
a situation. It is conducted in order to identify the extent and nature of cause-and-effect
relationship.
Eg- The effect of yoga on stress and anxiety of employees.
Quantitative Research (Quantity)
 Quantitative research is based on measurement of quantity or amount.
 Quantitative methods emphasise objective measurements and statistical, mathematical
or numerical analysis of data collected through Questionnaire, interview, online polls
etc.
 In quantitative research there is high possibility of generalisation of outcome.
 Quantitative research can be used for Descriptive, correlational and experimental
research.
 Time consuming
Data can be collected in the form of -
 Questionnaires with closed ended questions.
 Structured Interview
 Structured Observation- in structured observation, the researchers rather than
observing everything focus only on very specific behaviors of interest. It allows them
to quantify the behaviours.
Ethnographic research is the most in - depth observational method that studies people
in their naturally occurring environment. This research design aims to understand the
cultures, challenges and settings that occur instead of relying on interviews and discussions
you experience the natural settings.
This type of research method can last from few days to few years, as it involves in depth
observation and collecting data on those grounds. It is a challenging and time-consuming
method and solely depends on the expertise of the researcher to be able to analyze, observe
and infer data.
Case study method
Case study method can be used as quantitative as well as qualitative research. If it includes
quantifiable evidence than it is quantitative case study. By using multiple sources of data
(both qualitative and quantitative) researchers may attain the richest possible understanding
of a case.
In this method in depth descriptive information about specific entities or cases is collected,
organized, interpreted and presented in narrative format. If using some numerical analysis
than quantitative otherwise qualitative.
Quantitative Research
 Based on philosophy that human being achieve knowledge because of their capacity
to reason.
 It is objective analysis that quantifies data.
 Typical data include measurable quantities such as length, size, weight, mass and
many more.
 Approach to inquiry is structured & predetermined methodology.
 Emphasis on greater sample size.
 Hypothesis being tested to give future predictions.
 Data analyzed through numerical comparison and statistical inferences.
 Data are reported through statistical analysis.
 Data are collected through experiments, clinical trials, surveys, interviews and
questionnaires that collect numerical information or count data by using close ended
questions.
Qualitative Research
 Based on the philosophy that the only knowledge that human being acquire is from
sensory experiences.
  It is a subjective analysis that is more concerned with non-statistical data, that cannot
be computed.
 Typical data include color, gender, nationality, religion and many more.
 Approach to inquiry is unstructured, flexible, open methodology.
 Emphasis on fewer cases.
 Interprets and understand social interactions.
 Data are analyzed by theme from description by informants.
 Data are reported in the language of the information.
 Data are collected through unstructured interviews, case studies, open ended
questionnaire etc.
Quantitative vs. Qualitative:
 Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is
applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
 Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon,
i.e., phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. Qualitative research is
especially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover the
underlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the
various factors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which
make people like or dislike a particular thing.
Conceptual vs. Empirical:
 Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory. It is generally
used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to reinterpret existing
ones.
 On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment. We
can also call it as experimental type of research.
 In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts
(data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets up experimental designs
which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring
forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterised by the
experimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation
of one of them to study its effects.
 Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect
other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical
studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given
hypothesis.

RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES

 Research aims and objectives determine the scope, depth and overall direction of the
research.
 Research question is the central question of the study that has to be answered on the
basis of research findings.
 Achievement of research aim provides answer to the research question.
 Research objectives divide research aim into several parts and address each part
separately.
 Research aim specifies WHAT needs to be studied and research objectives includes
no. of steps showing HOW research aim will be achieved.
RESEARCH FIELD> RESEARCH AREA>RESEARCH TOPIC >RESEARCH
PROBLEM> RESEARCH QUESTION>
RESEARCH QUESTION> RESEARCH AIM> RESEARCH OBJ 1> OBJ 2> OBJ 3
Aims of Research:
1)Verification of existing knowledge
-Proving/ verifying the veracity of existing theories or knowledge.
2)acquisition of new knowledge
-brings forth new ideas regarding a theory or even creates a totally new theory
3)application of new knowledge
-utilize and translate to something useful to humankind
4) advancement of the researcher's experience
-gain relevant experience that enhances and deepen their knowledge and skills in the area of
their investigations
Nature/ Characteristics of research-
 Research is purposive it deals with a well-defined significant problem. It improves
quality of life rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge’s sake.
 A research disclose new knowledge and it brings unexplored and unexplained
phenomenon in front of all.
 Research involves collection of primary data from firsthand sources or involves use of
existing data (secondary data) for a new purpose.
 Research activities are carefully detailed and clearly outlined through a research
design. These activities are defined by carefully designed procedures and analysis
tools.
 Research requires a degree of expertise and skill.
 Research should be objective and logical-The findings should be free from bias and
the results should be carefully verified.
 Every process, term and tool used in the research should be carefully documented and
reported.
 The research should target towards the discovery of general principles or theories,
Research can find application to a wide range of problem in present and future
context.
 Research should be replicable i.e. verification of result can be done by replication and
thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
Limitations of Research
 Lack of previous research studies on the topic
 Time constraints
 Money constraints
 Issue with sample and selection
 Insufficient sample size for statistical measurement
Research Methods versus Methodology
 It seems appropriate at this juncture to explain the difference between research
methods and research methodology.
 Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used
for conduction of research. Research methods or techniques*, thus, refer to the
methods the researchers *At times, a distinction is also made between research
techniques and research methods.
 Research techniques refer to the behavior and instruments we use in performing
research operations such as making observations, recording data, techniques of
processing data and the like.
 Research methods refer to the behavior and instruments used in selecting and
constructing research technique.
MEASUREMENT
 Test is used to gather information that information is presented in the form of
measurement, that measurement is then used to make evaluation.
 Test is an instrument or technique that measures attribute of interest.
 Measurement is the assignment of numerical value to an attribute of an object.
 It helps to quantify individual’s achievement, personality, attitudes, habits and skills.
 Tyler (1963) defines measurement as “Assignment of numerals according to rules”.
Scope of Measurement
Three main function are-
 Descriptive function/Research function
 Diagnostic function
 Predictive function
Descriptive function/Research function-
Descriptive Statistics corresponds to measures and charts that are derived from sample and
are intended to provide information about the population being studied.
Diagnosis Function
 Diagnostic is the next step in measurement after a descriptive measurement.
 A diagnostic measurement helps in understanding of how something happened.
 When analytics compare results over time, they begin to notice trends and attribute
outcomes to specific actions.
 Remedial instruction prepared on the basis of research
Prognosis /Predictive Function
 Predictive measures allow to take what descriptive and diagnostic measurement
disclosed to help in decision making for the future.
 Tells differences among people’s performance.
 Guidance & counseling service based on prognosis function of measurement.
 Effectiveness of method, instruction & treatment are evaluated on the basis of
individuals achievement.
ASSESSMENT
 Assessment is a process by which information is obtained relative to some known
objective or goal.
 Assessment is a broad term that includes testing.
 Test is a product that measures ability and assessment is a process to observe the
ability.
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
Assessment can be divided into-
Formative Assessment-It can be as informal as observing the learner or formal as small
written test. It is the most powerful type of assessment for improving understanding and
performance of the learner. Assessment can be on daily basis with immediate feedback to the
learner. Eg- A very interactive class discussion, on the spot quiz etc.
Interim Assessment- It tend to be more formal using tools such as projects, written
assignments and tests. It takes place occasionally. Feedback to the learner is still quick but
may not be immediate. Assessments can help teachers identify gaps in learners understanding
and instruction and ideally teachers address these before moving on or by weaving remedies
into upcoming instruction and activities. Eg- Chapter test, Assignment, Project.
Summative Assessment- It tends to have the least impact on improving an individual’s
understanding and performance. It is end of the year assessment; result may take time to
return to the learner. Feedback to the learner is usually limited and learners usually have no
opportunity to be reassessed. Eg- End of the session exams.

Module 2:
MEASUREMENT AND SCALING
  Measurement involves assignment of numerals to the characteristics pertaining to an
object, event, person etc.
 The number that is used to measure the characteristics, attitude or property could be
just a symbol like 1,2,3...or I, II, III which may not have any quantitative purpose. It
could only be performing the function of identifying or labeling an object. On the
other hand, it may have some quantitative meaning associated with it.
 Scaling involves creating a continuum and placing the respondents on a continuum.
 E.g.- if through test we measured different IQ of 30 individuals.ie
80,90,100,110,120,90,70,100 and so on after putting those value on scaling
continuum be come to know who have normal, below normal or above normal IQ.
Below normal- Below 80. Normal -80 to 120. Above normal- above 120.
 A measurement scale is used to qualify or quantify data variables in statistics. It
determines the kind of techniques to be used for statistical analysis. There are
different kinds of measurement scales, and the type of data being collected determines
the kind of measurement scale to be used for statistical measurement.
 Measurement is a process of mapping aspects of a domain onto other aspects of a range
according to some rule of correspondence. In measuring, we devise some form of scale in the
range (in terms of set theory, range may refer to some set) and then transform or map the
properties of objects from the domain (in terms of set theory, domain may refer to some other
set) onto this scale. For example, in case we are to find the male to female attendance ratio
while conducting a study of persons who attend some show, then we may tabulate those who
come to the show according to sex.

Measurement scales
Stanley Smith Stevens (1951) identifies four scales of measurement-
1. Nominal scale
2. Ordinal scale
3. Interval scale
4. Ratio scale
These scales are based on three important characteristics of number system-
Order- Numbers are placed in a logical sequence and sequence has some meaning.
Distance- The differences between the numbers are ordered.
Origin-The number system has a unique origin indicated by number zero.

Nominal scale / Nominal data:

 The word nominal comes from the Latin word “nomen” which means “in name”. In
the research, addition, subtraction, multiplication and divisions are not possible.
 It is used for labelling without any quantitative value. Number assigned to the object
serves as tags or labels to categorize or arrange objects in class, it does not define the
characteristics related to the object.
 The Nominal scale is simply a system of assigning number symbols to events in order
to label them.
  E.g.-Number on the t-shirt of football players have nothing to do with the ability of
players, they can help to just identify the players.
o Classification based on gender- 1-Male, 2-Female.
o Classification based on country-1-Indian, 2-Japenese, 3-American and so on.
 Nominal scales provide convenient ways of keeping track of people, objects and events.
 COUNTING of the members in each group is the only possible arithmetic operation
when a nominal scale is employed.
 It is least powerful of all the four scale. Despite all this, it is still very useful and are
widely used in surveys.
 Basic empirical operation involved is Classification.

ORDINAL SCALE-
 Ordinal scale introduces the concept of order. This scale thus ranks objects or
individuals along the continuum of the attribute being scaled from first to last or
largest to smallest and so on but the differences between each one is not really known.
 The use of Ordinal scale implies a ‘greater than’ or ‘less than’ relationship between
objects being measured without stating the degree of greater or less.
 Eg-A respondent is asked to rank three books on the content matter. He may give the
following rank. Books Rank Book A- II Book B -III Book C- I
 It doesn't show the differences between adjacent ranks and does not have absolute
values.
 Basic empirical operation involved is determining the ranking of items.
Interval scale –
 Interval itself means “space in between”. This data has all the characteristics of
nominal and ordinal data.
 The salient feature of the interval measurement is that numerically equal distances on
the scale indicate equal distances in the properties of the objects being measured.
 The primary limitation of the interval scale is the lack of a true zero. Zero doesn’t
mean the absence of value but is another number used on the scale, negative numbers
also have meaning.
 Without a true zero it is impossible to compute ratios. With interval data, we can add
and subtract but cannot multiply or divide. E.g. the temperature of four cities are: -
City Shimla 15° Delhi 30°
 Bangalore 22°
 Jaipur 37° It can be said that the difference in the temperature of Delhi and Shimla is
the same as difference in the temperature of Jaipur and Bangalore. However, we
cannot say that Delhi is two times warmer than Shimla. As Interval scale does not
have an arithmetic origin rather, they possess arbitrary origin.
 Basic empirical operation involved is Determination of equality or intervals.
Ratio Scale-
 It is the highest level of measurement and has all the properties of Nominal, Ordinal
and Interval scales plus an absolute or true zero point.
  It is the most powerful of the four scales as it has true zero point of origin which
means we can easily divide and multiply the categories of ratio level variables. Eg-
Height, Weight, Income etc are examples of ratio data. The income of 100 rupees
means double of 50rs and half of 200rs.
 Basic empirical operation Determination of equality of ratios.

 Measuring sensations is very difficult i.e. to measure how much pain someone feeling
or how bright you are feeling to a light to be, sometimes you are very tired, and you
feel that volume of T.V. is very loud whereas it is same as you are using every day.
So, this is that subjective experience which we want to measure in psychophysics.
 Psychophysics is the study of quantitative relations between psychological events and
physical events or more specifically between sensation and the stimuli that produce
them.
 Psychophysics is a branch of psychology deals with the scientific study of the
relationship between stimuli (specified in physical terms) and sensations and
perceptions evoked by these stimuli.
 Psychophysical relates to the relationship between one’s internal (psychic) and
external (physical) world.
 Psychophysics is the exact science of functional relation or relations of dependency
between body & mind.

Basic terms
Sensation -The ability to detect a stimulus.
Perception – The act of giving meaning to a detected sensation.
Threshold-Finding the limits of what can be perceived.
Absolute threshold-The absolute threshold is the minimum intensity of some stimulus that a
person can notice with their senses. It is defined by Ernst Weber as the minimum or lowest
intensity that a person will detect on at least half the trials in a test of the senses.
How it is measured:
A person is exposed to a stimulus at varying intensities and then asked to state
if they can detect the stimulus or not in each case. The lowest or minimum intensity
that a person can detect at least 50% of the time is then the absolute threshold value.

Difference threshold/Just noticeable difference (JND)-The minimum change in intensity

required to produce a detectable change in sensory experience.
Point of subjective equality (P.S.E)- Is any of the point along a stimulus dimension at which
a variable stimulus is judged by an observer to be equal to a standard stimulus.

Aesthesiometer:
 An esthesiometer (British spelling aesthesiometer) is a device for measuring
the tactile sensitivity of the skin (or mouth, or eye, etc.). The measure of the degree of
 tactile sensitivity is called esthesiometry. The device was invented by Edward Henry
Sieveking. There are different types of aesthesiometers depending on their particular
function.
 The simplest is a manual tool with adjustable points similar to a caliper. It can
determine how short a distance between two impressions on the skin can be
distinguished. To differentiate between two points and one point of equal area (the
sum of the areas of the two points equals the area of the third point), Dr. Sidney
Weinstein created the three-point esthesiometer. A scale on the instrument gives
readings in millimeter gradients.

Psychophysical Scaling:
There are three methods that are traditionally used in psychophysical scaling. They are –
1) Method of limit
2) Method of constant stimuli
3) Method of average error

METHOD OF LIMIT-
 The first type of testing is method of limits which is used in psychophysical research
in order to measure a subject’s perception of stimuli by determining at what level a
stimulus is perceived by a subject.
 A stimulus is presented and increased or decreased until it is perceivable by the
subject. An ascending method of limits study is when the stimulus is presented
initially at a very low level and gradually increased until the subject can perceive it.
 The opposite of this is descending order and that is when the stimulus is present at a
high level and gradually decreased until the subject can no longer perceive it.
Ascending and descending trials are typically used in conjunction with each other in
method of limits testing.
 It can determine how short a distance between two impressions on the skin can be
distinguished. Issues with this type of testing is that subjects can predict or sometimes
respond too early and also habituation (decreasing sensitivity to the stimulus)
Method of constant stimuli-
 Method of constant stimuli is a psychophysical procedure for determining the sensory
threshold by presenting the observer with a set of stimuli of which some are above the
threshold and some are below the threshold presented in a random order. This method
differs from the method of limits where stimuli are presented in fixed order.
 This method prevents the observer from being able to predict or anticipate what the
next stimulus will be.
 Although absolute threshold may be calculated by this method, but this method is
most popular for calculating Differential threshold.
 Base of this method is a comparative judgement.
  In the present method we select a standard stimulus (Ss) near the center of a range is
paired off with each of the several variable stimuli(Sv). For e.g.- We select (Ss)
standard weight of 200 gm. Where weight range from 185 gm to 215 gm. Judgements
may be under three categories- greater, lesser, equal or doubtful. These six size &
weight illusion experiments is a very popular traditional experiment.

Method of average Error/ Method of adjustment / Method of equivalent stimuli/

Method of reproduction-
 The main purpose of this method is to determine equal (equivalent) stimulus by active
adjustment by the observer. When observer (O) is provided with the standard stimulus
(Ss). The observer is also provided with variable stimulus (Sv) which is obviously
different from (Ss) being greater or lesser in quantity in some define respect.
 has to adjust Sv equal to Ss represented on the scale.
 As O is attempting a given stimulus it is often called the method of reproduction. Its
unique feature among psychological methods is that O actively controls a comparison
method, that is why it is called the method of adjustment. The popular name of this
method is method of average error, in spite of the fact that this refers to the process of
treating results rather than the process of obtaining results.

Muller Lyer Illusion:

 The Muller lyer illusion is named after its creator Franz Carl Muller Lyer (1857-
1916). A German psychiatrist and sociologist. The method of average error was
concerned about the amount of distortion of the line length in the well-known Muller
Lyre Illusion.
 The Müller-Lyer illusion is an optical illusion consisting of three stylized arrows.
When viewers are asked to place a mark on the figure at the midpoint, they invariably
place it more towards the "tail" end.
 Feather head is overestimated to its real length. Arrowhead is underestimated to its
real length.
Ss Standard stimulus cm
<----------- > Arrowhead
Sv Variable stimulus
> -------------< Feather head
Point of subjective equality Illusion = Ss-Sv
= 10cm- Average of total trial 50% of trials are conducted by right hand 50% 0f trials are
conducted by left hand
In this way 50% trial are towards the Ss means inward direction 50% trial away from Ss
means outward direction
So, there are four types of trials they're Right hand outward – R0(Mean of all trial) Right
hand inward – R1 (Mean of all trial)
Left hand outward – L0(Mean of all trial) Left hand inward- L1 (Mean of all trial)
Total Mean = R0+R1+L0+L1/4 = Point of subjective equality = PSE
Illusion= Ss-PSE
Constant error= PSE-Ss= + Over estimation of stimulus
PSE-Ss= - Under estimation of stimulus

Scaling:
Scaling describes the procedures of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude
and other concepts. This can be done in two ways viz.,
o making a judgement about some characteristic of an individual and then
placing him directly on a scale that has been defined in terms of that
characteristic and,
o constructing questionnaires in such a way that the score of individual’s
responses assigns him a place on a scale. It may be stated here that a scale is a
continuum, consisting of the highest point (in terms of some characteristic
e.g., preference, favourableness, etc.) and the lowest point along with several
intermediate points between these two extreme points.

Scaling Technique:
Scaling technique is a method of placing respondents in continuation of gradual change in the
pre-assigned values, symbols or numbers based on the features of a particular object as per
the defined rules. All the scaling techniques are based on four pillars, i.e., order, description,
distance and origin.

Types of scaling techniques:

 Comparative scaling techniques involve the direct comparison of stimulus objects.
Comparative scale data must be interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or
rank order properties.
 In non-comparative scaling techniques, each object is scaled independently of the
others in the stimulus set. The resulting data are generally assumed to be interval or
ratio scaled.
 A Ordinal scale is a scale that depicts answer options in an ordered manner.
 If a researcher can establish equal distance between ordinal numbers, they can be
measured on interval scale.

Comparative scaling techniques:

Paired comparison:
  A respondent is presented with two objects and asked to select one according to some
criterion.
 The number of comparisons to be done is given by the formula:
o N=n(n-1)/2
Where N = NO.Of judgements required n=no. Of stimuli or items to be
judged
 For example: If the respondent is asked to rank five brands of shampoo then it will
require 10 judgements to be made. The greater the number of stimuli the more are the
judgements to be made. If 10 suggestions are to be compared, it would result in the
researcher making 45 paired comparisons. If lot of items are to be compared, then
ranking order technique is better than paired comparison method.
 Under the assumption of transitivity (if A is better than B and B is better than C, then
A is better than C), it is possible to convert paired comparison data to a rank order.

Rank order:
 Respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or
rank them according to some criterion.
 This method is easier and faster than the method of paired comparison. E.g. With 10
items it takes 45 pair comparisons to complete the task, whereas the method of rank
order simply requires ranking of 10 items only.
 Limitations of this method are:
o Firstly, data obtained through this method is ordinal data and hence rank
ordering is an ordinal scale with all its limitations.
o Secondly there may be the problem of respondents becoming careless in
assigning ranks particularly when there are many items (usually more than 10
items).
Constant sum scaling technique:
 In this technique respondents are required to divide a specific number of points as part
of total fixed sum. This fixed sum is usually taken as 100, but it could be other value
also. Points assigned to attributes reflect their comparative importance. If an attribute
is unimportant, the respondent can assign zero points for it.
 E.g., Importance of cold cream attributes using a constant sum scale.

Non comparative scaling techniques

Continuous rating or graphic rating techniques:
 In graphic rating scale various points are usually put along the line to form a
continuum and the rater indicates his rating by simply making a mark (such as √) at a
appropriate point on a line that runs from one extreme to the other.
 Ordinal scale
 Eg.Five points graphic rating scale given below-
 Limitation of this technique is that the meanings of the terms like “very much” and
“somewhat” might create confusion for the respondents while responding.
Itemized rating scaling technique:
 A scale having numbers or brief descriptions of each category is provided. Categories
are ordered in terms of scale positions. The respondents are asked to select one of the
categories that best describes the stimulus object being rated. Commonly used
itemized rating scales are-
 Likert Scales-
o Is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree or disagree with
statements usually on a 5-point scale (3 or 7 may also be used).
o Interval scale
A Semantic Differential rating scale:
 A semantic differential rating scale in which bipolar adjectives are placed at both
ends (or poles) of the scale, and response options are expressed as“semantic”space.
 Interval scale
 Example:
o Please rate car model A on each of the following dimensions: Durable ---:-
X-:---:---:---:---:--- Not durable
o Low fuel consumption ---: ---: ---: ---:---:-X-: --- High fuel consumption
Difference between Likert and Semantic differential scale
With the Likert scale, people state how much they agree or disagree with a particular
statement; with the semantic differential scale, people filling in the questionnaire decide
how much of a trait or quality the item has.

Stapel scaling technique:

 Stapel Scale is a unipolar (one adjective) rating scale designed to measure the
respondent's attitude towards the object or event. The scale is comprised of 10
categories ranging from –5 to +5 ( or -3 to +3) without any neutral point (zero).
 Interval scale.

Module 3
Research process:

 Identifying the research problem

 Literature review
 Formulate hypothesis
 Research Design & Sample Design
 Collection of data
 Analysis of data
 Generalization & Interpretation
 Report Preparation

Research topic & Research problem:

 A topic is a broad general area expected to investigate. It is broad idea or concept
from which many problems may be formed, whereas a problem is something to solve
or framed as a question that must be answered.
 A research problem is a statement about
• a condition to be improved.
• a difficulty to be eliminated.
• or a troubling question that is needed for meaningful understanding and
deliberate investigation. In some social science disciplines the research
problem is typically posed in the form of a question.
• The terms “research question” and “research problem” are often used
interchangeably.
 Some researchers think in terms of a single research problem and a number of
research questions that arise from it.
 According to Kerlinger – “A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that
asks what relation exists between two or more variable. The answer to the question
will provide what is having sought in research”.
 A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences in the
context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the
same.
 5 W’s + 1 H of Research Problem:
 There are 6 distinct components of research problem I.e.
• Who, Why, What, When, Where, How?
• Why- This means why there is a need of carrying out this study. Objective or
aim of problem to be explored.
• What - The topic or theme which needs to be investigated.
• When – The time dimension, when the research to be performed?
• Where – The area or location where the study is to be conducted or where we
need to conduct the study.
• Who – Population or universe from whom the data needs to be gathered?
• How – Method used to proceed study, how do we do it? Why use this method?

NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM

  Quite often we all hear that a problem clearly stated is a problem half solved. This
statement signifies the need for defining a research problem. The problem to be
investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help to discriminate relevant
data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research problem will enable the
researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data are
relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored. What techniques
are to be used for the purpose? and similar other questions crop up in the mind of the
researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only
when the research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem
properly is a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance.

Identification or formulation of research problem:

 Selecting of a research area
 Selecting the research topic
 Delimiting the research topic
 Problem distillation
 Formulating the final statement of research problem

Selection of Research Area & Research Topic

Formulation of a research problem begins with selection of a broad research topic from
broader research area. The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected.

Delimiting the research topic

According to Whitney “To define a problem means to put fence around it, to separate it by a
careful distinction from like questions found in related situation of need”.
 Identify research questions
 Determining the relationship among different variables
 Identifying the population and sample

The Research Question

 The foundation of the research process
 It all begins with a question
 Developing the research question is therefore the first step - and one of the most
important
 Research question refers to the questions you will ask yourself in order to obtain
answers to the problem you want to solve at the end of the study.

Sources of a Research Question

 Interest & Curiosity
 Literature Review
 Information Gaps
  Knowledge
 Experience
 Conferences and Sem

Types of Research Questions

Conceptualize that a research study can ask three types of questions:
 Descriptive question (pertains to issues which need studying)
 Relationship question (research questions which focus on the relationship between
two or more factors)
 Causal question (question that look at cause and effect relationship)
 This general classification scheme helps not only with the design of the study, but
also in choosing the type of data analysis procedure.
 E.g.- TOPIC - Depression
 If you want to find out the types of services available to patients with depression the
type of research would be descriptive and qualitative.
 If you want to find out the extent of use of depression services (how many people are
availing the services, how many of them get benefitted by services) then type of
research would be quantitative.

Problem Distillation
• The process of refining the question or idea into a problem and making it sufficiently
specific so that it can be investigated.
• This process should lead to the development of a “statement of the problem” that is clear,
concise, and definitive.

Formulating the final statement of research problem

One of the most important goals of any problem statement is to define the problem being
addressed in a way that's clear and precise. It usually identifies the key variables as well as
give some information about the scope of the study.
The problem can be stated in two ways-
a) As an interrogative statement, or
b) As a declarative statement
Declarative Problem Statements can be like -
 “The problem of this study is to ...”
“This study is concerned with ...”
“This study is designed to ...”
“The purpose of this investigation is to ...”
Interrogative problem statement can be like-
 What is the impact of....
 What effect does...
E.g.,
Declarative statement
The purpose of this study is to find out the effect of job satisfaction on the motivation of
employees.
Interrogative statement
What is the effect of job satisfaction on the motivation of employees?
Research aim and objectives:
 Research aims and objectives determine the scope, depth and overall direction of the
research. Research question is the central question of the study that has to be
answered based on research findings.
 Achievement of research aim provides answer to the research question.
 Research objectives divide research aim into several parts and address each part
separately.
 Research aim specifies WHAT needs to be studied and research objectives includes
no. of steps showing HOW research aim will be achieved.
Research question à Research aims àResearch objective 1 à Research objective 2à Research
objective 3

Characteristics of good research problem

 It should be original.
 The Problem Can Be Stated Clearly and Concisely, i.e., it has a clear concept and
lacks the presence of any of the unambiguous terms e.g.- ‘Studying the relationship
between family conditions and performance of students’ is poorly stated problem. In
this problem the term ‘Family condition’ is very vague and does not specify the
meaning of family conditions.
 It should be interesting and full of curiosity.
 Sufficient amount of literature should be available.
 It should be feasible based on time and cost.
 It should be testable, flexible, and open-ended.
 Module 4
Hypothesis:
Inductive method
 Particular to general
 Simple to complex
 Example to theory
 Aims at developing a theory
 Stages are a) Observation b)Observe a pattern c) Develop a theory
 In Inductive conclusion can be logically true but not definitely true
Deductive method
 General to particular
 Complex to simple
 Theory to example
 Aims at testing an existing theory.
 Stages are:
o a) Start with an existing theory
o b) Formulate a hypothesis based on existing theory
o c) Collect data to test the hypothesis
o d) Analyze the result: does the data approve or disapprove the hypothesis
 In Deductive reasoning conclusion is definitely true.
Difference between inductive and deductive reasoning:
 The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive
reasoning aims at developing a theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an
existing theory.
 Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broad generalizations, and
deductive reasoning the other way around.
 Example of inductive: You observe 1000 flights from low-cost airlines. All of them
experience a delay, which is in line with your theory. However, you can never prove
that flight 1001 will also be delayed. Still, the larger your dataset, the more reliable
the conclusion.
 Example of deductive: All dogs have fleas (premise)
o Benno is a dog (premise)
o Benno has fleas (conclusion)
 Based on the premises we have; the conclusion must be true. However, if the first
premise turns out to be false, the conclusion that Benno has fleas cannot be relied
upon.
Hypothesis:
 Hypothesis is a predictive statement that relates independent variable to a dependent
variable and their relationship is open to testing.
 The purpose of testing is not to question the findings obtained from sample but to
judge the truth behind the difference between either two sample values or between a
sample value and population group.
  Formulation and testing of hypothesis are a part of research but not necessary for all
types of research.
 According to Kerlinger “A hypothesis is a tentative statement of the relation between
two or more variables. Hypotheses are always declarative sentence form, and they
relate either generally or specifically variable to variable.
 A hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set of propositions set forth as an
explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of phenomena either asserted
merely as a provisional conjecture to guide some investigation or accepted as highly
probable in the light of established facts. Quite often a research hypothesis is a
predictive statement, capable of being tested by scientific methods, that relates an
independent variable to some dependent variable.

It has following characteristics:

1. Hypothesis must be conceptually clear-A good research hypothesis is one which is
based upon operationally defined concepts. Not only this, but it should also be written
in commonly accepted and communicable words so that complete hypothesis is
conceptually clear for any investigating-e.g the relationship between occupational
Stress and job performance would be negative.
2. Hypothesis has a doubtful aspect associated with it –There is always a doubt
associated about whether the hypothesis is correct or not and it is this doubt which is
to be tested.
3. The hypothesis must be specific and testable –The narrower a hypothesis, the more
testable it is. A hypothesis must be formulated in a way that can be tested directly and
found to be probably true or false .Eg- A Hypothesis like- “Democratic atmosphere in
an educational institute has significant relationship with the creative thinking of the
students "is too broad and hence cannot be tested directly, such a hypothesis is
potentially not testable.
4. Hypothesis must be related to the existing body of theory and facts – If the
investigator prepared hypothesis, which shows his line of interest but not related to
the existing body of theory and facts. It cannot be a good research hypothesis. Eg.- If
the investigator develops a hypothesis that difference in skin tones produces
difference in intelligence level then it may be an interesting hypothesis but cannot be
scientifically sound because no theory has proved so.
5. Hypothesis should be able to relate the variables. Eg.- There would be significant
relationship between stress and employee performance.
6. The hypothesis must be economical- If several hypothesis are offered to the same
research problem, economic hypothesis should be preferred than the hypothesis
involving high monetary expenses.
7. Hypothesis testing should not be much time consuming – If it requires a lot of time
to test hypothesis then the value of the results may decline as the hypothesis has
become obsolete in changed conditions.
8. The hypothesis should be an adequate answer to the problem- There might be so
many hypotheses, but each hypothesis should suggest a solution to one specific
problem.

Null Hypothesis:
 Symbol-Ho
  Meaning-A null hypothesis is a statement, in which there is no relationship between
variables.
 A null hypothesis (H0) exists when a researcher believes there is no relationship
between the two variables or a lack of information to state a scientific hypothesis.
Symbol is H0(means that there is null relationship between variables). This is
something to attempt to disprove or discredit.
 E.g., Hypothesis is – There would be no effect of fertilizer on plant growth. If the
application of fertilizer doesn’t affect the growth of plant, then it can be proved as
Null hypothesis.
 The Null hypothesis (Ho) states that there is no difference between population
parameter and the sample statistic being compared. i.e.- Population mean(μ1) is equal
to the hypothesized mean (μ2).
 E.g.- A large nationwide poll recently showed an unemployment rate of 12%. The
mayor of a local town wonders if this national result holds true for her town or not, so
she plans on taking a sample of her area to see if the unemployment rate is
significantly different than 12% in her town. If she concludes the town’s
unemployment rate is 12% than
 Null hypothesis gets proved Ho: μ1= μ2=12%
 It's what the researchers wants to disapprove.

Alternate Hypothesis:
 Symbol-Ha
 Meaning-An alternative hypothesis is a statement in which some relationship
between two variables can be easily seen.
 In an attempt to disprove a null hypothesis, researchers will seek to discover an
alternative hypothesis.
 E.g.- Hypothesis is – There would be effect of fertilizer on plant growth. If the
application of fertilizer increases plant growth, then it is proved as Alternative
hypothesis.
 The Alternative hypothesis (Ha) states that there is a difference between the
population parameter and sample statistic. i.e.- Population mean (μ1) is not equal to
the hypothesized mean (μ2).
 E.g.-If she concludes the tow n’s unemployment rate is not 12% then alternative
hypothesis can get proved i.e. Ha: μ1≠μ2≠12% Then it could be either Ha: μ1> μ2 or
Ha: μ1< μ2.
 It is what researcher want to prove.

Statistical Hypothesis:
 Any hypothesis that has the quality of being verified statistically is known as
statistical hypothesis. A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about a population
parameter by examining a portion of population. This assumption may be or may not
be true.
 A statistical hypothesis is an examination of a portion of a population or statistical
model. In this type of analysis, you use statistical information from an area. For
example, if you wanted to conduct a study on the life expectancy of Savannians, you
would want to examine every single resident of Savannah. This is not practical.
 Therefore, you would conduct your research using a statistical hypothesis or a sample
of the Savannian population.
 50% of the Savannah population lives beyond the age of 70.
 80% of the U.S. population get a divorce because of irreconcilable differences.
 45% of the poor in the U.S. are illiterate.
Simple Hypothesis:
 Hypothesis is a prediction of the relationship between two variables, one independent
variable and one dependent variable. eg- Higher ratio of unemployment leads to
crime.
 See this relationship through these examples:
o Drinking sugary drinks daily leads to obesity.
o Smoking cigarettes daily leads to lung cancer.
o Getting 8 hours of sleep can lead to more alert students.
Complex Hypothesis:
 It examines the relationship between two or more independent variables with two or
more dependent variables.
 e.g.- The higher ratio of unemployment, poverty, illiteracy leads to crime, domestic
violence & alcoholism in youth.

Logical hypothesis:
 Logical hypothesis is a proposed explanation possessing limited evidence. Generally,
researcher want to turn a logical hypothesis into empirical hypothesis.
 E.g.- Camellias experience more successful growth rates than roses on mars. Until we
are able to test plant growth in mars ground for extended period, the evidence for this
claim will be limited and hypothesis only be logical.

Empirical hypothesis / Working hypothesis:

 Empirical which means it is based on evidence. In scientific method the word
“empirical” refers to the use of working hypothesis that can be tested using
observation and experiment.
 Eg- A particular species of flower bloom in a different color only during a specific
season.

Directional hypothesis:
 Directional hypothesis predicts the direction of the relationship between the
independent and dependent variable.
 E.g.-High quality of nursing education will lead to high quality of nursing practice
skills.

Non-directional hypothesis:
 Non-directional hypothesis predicts the relationship between the independent variable
and dependent variable but does not specify the direction of the relationship.
  E.g.-Teacher student relationship influence student’s learning.

Causal hypothesis:
 Predicts a cause-and-effect relationship or interaction between the independent
variable and dependent variable. This hypothesis predicts the effect of the
independent variable on the dependent variable.

Associative hypothesis:
 Predicts an associative relationship between the variables. When there is a change in
any one of the variables, change also occurs in the other variable.eg-relationship
between diet and obesity.

TYPE I Error & TYPE II Error

While testing the hypothesis there are two types of errors researcher can make-
1) TYPE I Error
2) TYPE II Error
Reasons behind Type I error and Type II error:
 The study design selected is faulty.
 The sampling procedure adopted is faulty.
 The method of data collection is inaccurate.
 The analysis is wrong.
 The statistical procedures applied are inappropriate.
 The conclusions drawn are incorrect.
 Hence in drawing conclusions about a hypothesis two types of error can occur.

TYPE I Error
1) A type I error also known as error of first kind, occurs when there is rejection of the
null hypothesis (Ho) is true . The first type of error is type1, wherein u reject the null
hypo when it is true. For example, research showing that there is effect of stress on
body weight when actually there is no effect. You are accepting an alternative hypo
when it is actually false.
2) It is false positive statement ie. a positive result corresponds to rejecting the null
hypothesis and false means conclusion is incorrect.
3) The probability of making a type I error is represented by your alpha level (α) which
is the significance level. Thus, the significance level is the maximum value of the
probability of rejecting H0 when it is true.
4) If type I error is fixed at 1% (0.01) significance level, it means that there are about 1
chance in 100 that we will reject Ho when Ho is true. Before a hypothesis is tested, a
probability is set as a level of significance which means that the hypothesis is being
tested while taking a chance where the null hypothesis is rejected even when it is true.

Type II error
1)Type II error also known as an error of second kind, it is the acceptance of null hypothesis
when it is false. So, Type II error means accepting the hypothesis which should have been
rejected.
2) E.g.- A blood test falling to detect the disease it was designed to detect in a patient who
really has a disease, a fire breaking out and fire alarm does not ring.
3) It is false negative statement false means incorrect conclusion and negative means failed to
reject null hypothesis.
4) The probability of type II error is denoted by β.
5) Power of a test is a probability of rejecting null hypothesis when it is false. Power is the
probability of making a correct decision. . It can be said that a good test should have a high
power of test and power of test is denoted as 1- β. 1-beta entails that u r making a correct
decision.
NOTE: It is possible to reduce type 1 error at a fixed size of the sample; however, while
doing so, the probability of type II error increases.

Module 5:
Variables:
  Variable – A measurable characteristics that varies. It may change group to group,
person to person, or even within one person over time.
 Variable is the condition or characteristic which in a given study may have more than
one value. Variable can be defined as an “element” in an experiment, that has a
quantity or quality that varies, while other conditions remain constant.
 Variable can be defined as an “element” in an experiment, that has a quantity or
quality that varies, while other conditions remain constant.
 A variable is a characteristic, trait, or attribute of a person or thing that can be
classified or measured
 E.g.- Attitude, Gender, Age.

Types of variables
 Discrete variable
 Continuous variable
 Independent variable
 Dependent variable
 Extraneous variable
 Controlled variable
 Confounding variable

Classification of Variables
Quantitative – measured numerically:
 Discrete – Variable having only integer value. Eg – No of children in family
 Continuous variable-A continuous variable is a variable that has an infinite number
of possible values (Any value is possible). Eg- height, weight etc.

Qualitative – categorical in nature:

 A qualitative variable, also called a categorical variable, is a variable that isn’t
numerical. It describes data that fits into categories. For example:
 Eye colours (variables include blue, green, brown, hazel).
 States (variables include Florida, New Jersey, Washington).
 Dog breeds (variables include Alaskan Malamute, German Shepherd, Siberian
Husky, Shih tzu).

Independent Variable:
 A variable that is presumed to influence another variable; the variable under study or
the one that the researcher manipulates.
 It is the variable whose change is not affected by any other variable in the experiment.
 Either the researcher must change it, or it changes on its own (age or time). It can be
of two types:
 Active variable–variable that can be manipulated, changed, or controlled.
 Attribute variable – cannot be manipulated, changed, or controlled because it is
preexisting trait; sometimes called a “categorical” variable (e.g., Age, gender,
Education, Income)
  Also known as “predicter", "explanatory”,” stimulus", "control” and “manipulated”
variables.

Dependent Variable
 The variable that is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the
independent variable.
 It is what is being studied and measured in the experiment.
 It is also known as predictand, explained, response, controlled & outcome variable.

Extraneous Variables
 Extraneous variables are those that researchers are not intentionally studying in
his/her experiment.
 These are Undesirable Variables.
 Error-producing variable that the researcher should attempt to eliminate or control.
 It might influence the outcome of the experiment, if not adequately controlled.
 May affect the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent
variable.

Controlled variable:
 Those extraneous variables which researcher can control is known as Controlled
Variable.
 E.g., Effect of daily exercise on reducing the obesity of women. Here independent
variable is daily exercise and dependent is obesity. Whereas age also plays important
role in this research which can be controlled

Confounding variable:
 The variable that may enter into an experiment unintentionally and become so
difficult to separate and decrease the validity thereby increasing the chances of
experimental error are known as Confounding Variable.
 In above example diet can be confounding variable.

Other types of extraneous variable are-

 Situational variable: These are aspects of the environment that might affect the
participant’s behavior. Eg -Temp, Light, Noise etc. Situational variables to be
controlled so that they should be same for all participants.

 Participant variables: This refers to the way in which each participant varies from
the other. Eg – Age, IQ etc.
 Researcher variables: Factors such as researchers' behavior, appearance or gender
could affect participant response, so should be made consistent throughout the
experiment.
 Demand characteristics: Either researcher unconsciously conveys to participants or
they get clues related to the purpose of research somehow. This can change the results
of an experiment if participants change their behaviour to conform to expectations.

Controlling Extraneous Variables

 1. Selective control- It represents an effort to deal with all levels of the extraneous
variables present in the experimental environment. The goal is to assign subjects to
the experimental groups in a manner which ensures uniform distribution of extraneous
variable among groups. When the distribution of the extraneous variables is the same
from group to group the effects of extraneous variables cancel out across groups. It
can be done by-
a. Randomization –means every unit has equal chance of getting selected, it
helps to reduce biasness and increase validity of result.
b. Matching – In this effort to be done to distribute extraneous variable equally
i.e. Factors like age, IQ, gender must be equally distributed among
experimental and control group. In this first identify which variables are
creating confounding characteristics then carefully place them in both group.
2. Statistical control- Analysis of variance (ANOVA) allows researcher to include
extraneous variables that cannot be eliminated. IN addition to providing control,
ANOVA increases information yield of an experiment.
3. Proper design- In our design adequate importance must be given to every extraneous
variable. Right beginning and ending points of study must be clearly identified.
4. Experience- By good experience we have knowledge about- What are extraneous
variables? What are its effects? Which technique can be used to control extraneous
variables? and researcher can use techniques to control them.

Module 6:
Terminology:
 A population is a complete set of people with a specialized set of characteristics.
  A sample is a subgroup of the population that the researcher plans to study for
research purpose.
 Parameter: Parameter is the numeric data about the whole population. Parameter is
found only when you know data about everyone in population, it is fixed.
 Statistic: Statistic is a numeric summary of the sample. It can vary as researcher can
take different sample from the population and thus can get different result.
 Target population: In research the term population can be further clarified as target
population. Researcher identifies the target population out of the whole population.
Target population is the population of interest in which researcher wants to infer
his/her findings of the study.
 Sampling frame: Sampling frame is the list of all elements/units in a population from
which sample will be taken out. Frame helps to identify everyone in the population so
that everyone can get equal chance of selection for the study. For e.g., Phone numbers
in specific area codes, Maps of geographic areas
 Sampling: Sampling is a process of selecting sample from a given population to be
investigated.
 Sampling error: Error caused by the act of taking a sample, which makes sample
results inaccurate. The sample size is not equal to population size except in the case of
complete enumeration. Therefore, the statistical measurements like mean of the
sample and mean of the population can differ if selection of sampling is not done
randomly. Eg- If one measures the height of a thousand individuals from a country of
one million, the average height of the thousand is typically not the same as the
average height of all one million people in the country. Sampling error can be
minimized by increasing the no of sample.

Difference between population and sample:

Population:
 The population is a complete set. It consists of each and every element of the entire
group.
 A measurable characteristic of a population such as mean or standard deviation is
called parameter.
 When information is collected from all units of population, the process is known as
census or complete enumeration
 With population, the focus is to identify the characteristics of the elements.

Sample:
 The sample is a subset of the population. Few items of the population is included in a
sample.
 The measurable characteristics of sample is called statistic.
 Whereas the sample survey is conducted to gather information from the sample using
sampling methods.
 The primary objective of the sample is to make statistical inferences about the
population, and it would be as accurate as possible. The greater the sample size, the
higher is the level of accuracy of generalization.
Characteristics of good sample:
1. True representative of population
2. Optimum size
3. Random selection
4. Economical
5. Practical

Probability Sampling:
Each element of the population has the probability of being included in the sample. It can be
divided into following types-
 Simple random sampling
 Systematic sampling
  Stratified sampling
 Cluster sampling

Simple random sampling:

 In this type of sampling each and every individual in population has an equal chance
of getting included in the sample.
 So we can say each has same probability of being selected. There are two ways in
which researchers choose the samples in this method of sampling: The lottery system
and using random number table.
 Example, if we have to select a sample of 300 individuals from the population of
10000 individuals, then we can put the names /numbers of individuals on a slip of
paper and then conduct lottery system or we can just select numbers randomly from
table.

 Advantages:
o Minimum knowledge of population needed.
o Easy to use.
o Free from bias
 Disadvantages:
 Selection of sample becomes impossible if the units or items are widely spread.
 Cannot be employed if units of the population are heterogeneous.

Systematic sampling:
 In this method sampling starts by selecting an element randomly and then every Nth
number or name get selected.
 Example, every 3rd name (as shown below) or every 20th number of the list can be
selected systematically.

Systematic Sampling:
 Advantages
o Simple and convenient
o Free from bias
o Proper representation
  Disadvantage
o The entire population units must be available in a systematic and sequential
manner.

Stratified sampling:
 If the population from which a sample is to be taken does not constitute a
homogenous group then stratified sampling is going to be used. In this, population is
stratified into a number of strata and then samples are selected from each stratum.
 Example - In a heterogeneous sample of college students the researcher would first
divide the sample into homogenous group of Arts, Commerce and Science then
further sampling can be done by simple random sampling.
 Advantages
o Assures representation of all groups in sample population.
o Reduce bias.
 Disadvantages
o Requires accurate information on proportions of each stratum.
o Stratified lists are costly to prepare.

Cluster sampling:
 Cluster sampling involves grouping of the population and selecting the group or
cluster rather than individual.
 An example of cluster sampling is area sampling. Each cluster is a geographical area.
Because a geographically dispersed population can be expensive to survey, simple
random sampling can be achieved by grouping several respondents within a local area
into a cluster and then entire cluster can be selected for research. Cluster sampling is
used to estimate high mortalities in cases such as wars, famines and natural disasters
etc.
 Advantages
o Can be cheaper than other sampling plans.
o Feasible
o Economical
o When the sampling frame of all elements is not available, we can resort only
to the cluster sampling.
 Disadvantages
o Higher sampling error

Non-probability sampling:
It is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that does not give all
the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected. It can be further divided
into-:
a. CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
b. JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING
c. QUOTA SAMPLING
d. SNOW BALL SAMPLING
1) CONVENIENCE SAMPLING:
 Convenience Sampling is probably the most common of all sampling techniques.
With convenience sampling, the samples are selected which are easily available.
 Advantages
• Very low cost
• Extensively used.
 Disadvantages
• Results usually biased and unsatisfactory.
2) JUDGEMENTAL SAMPLING
 Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type of
sampling subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with specific purpose in mind.
With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are more fit for
the research compared to others.
 E.g., If researcher want to do research on students in convenience sampling, he will
choose students of nearby college. But in judgmental sampling he sets some criteria
which make his research more fruitful. As if he decided to select students having
same stream in 12th, post- graduation.
 Advantages
o Relatively easy way of selecting a sample.
 Disadvantages
• Personal bias
• No objective way of evaluating reliability of results.

3) QUOTA SAMPLING
 Quota term specifies a percentage reserved for particular section of society. Similar to
stratified sampling population is divided into mutually exclusive subsets, in stratified
the purpose of division is to convert heterogeneous group into homogeneous group
(strata)whereas here population is divided into different sections(quota) indicating the
percentage of particular section in the population. Then judgement is used to select
the sample according to their contribution in the population.
 E.g., Researcher is doing research on the population in which he is finding out the
choice of chocolate among adults he come to know that target population has 40%
men and 60% women, so in his research rather than randomly choosing male and
female he deliberately chooses 60% female and 40 % male.
 Advantages
o Saves time
o Convenient
o Saves money
 Disadvantages
• Sampling bias
• Problem in generalization
4) SNOWBALL SAMPLING
 It is used where potential samples are hard to find. It’s called snowball sampling
because once you have the ball rolling, it picks up more “snow” along the way and
becomes larger and larger. In this sampling an initial group of respondents is selected.
 After being interviewed, these respondents are asked to identify others who belong to
the target population of interest. Other respondents are then selected on the basis of
referral, so it is also called referral sampling, chain sampling, chain-referral sampling.
 Advantage
o Saves time.
o Economical
 Disadvantages
o Sampling bias
o Lack of cooperation