Semiconductor Devices

By
Mr. Aniket Kumar
Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Shobhit Institute of Engineering & Technology (Deemed to-be University)
NH-58, Modipuram, Meerut – 250 110, India
 Chapter-2
Semiconductor Devices

pn Junction
It is a border between p-type & n-type semiconductor. The pn- junction itself forms the most basic
semiconductor device called semiconductor diode, thus semiconductor diode and pn junction are one and
the same.
Depletion layer
In pn junction diode the the free electrons on n side tend to diffuse across the junction ,when free
electrons enters the p region, the free electrons recombines with hole in p region, and due to which hole
disappears and free electron becomes valence electron.
Each time an electron diffuses across a junction , it creates a pair of ions , +ve ion on n side and -ve ion
on p side, these pair of ions at junction is called a dipole. As no. of dipoles builds up, empty charge
region is created know as depletion region.
Junction Potential width of depletion layer
Width of depletion layer is the distance measured from one side to the other side of the depletion region.
Due to the presence of depletion region the electrons and holes do not i.e. depletion region acts as a
barrier. Due to the presence of immobile +ve(n-side) and –ve (p-side) ions on opposite sides of the
junction an electric field is created across the junction . This electric field is known as junction potential
also known as barrier potential. The barrier potential for silicon is 0.7 volt whereas for germanium is 0.3
volt at 250C.
The Energy Hill
The barrier potential of a diode looks like an energy hill. Electrons attempting to cross the junction need
to have enough energy to climb this hill. An external voltage source that forward-bias the diode gives
electrons the energy required to pass through the depletion layer.
Barrier Potential & Temperature
When the junction temperature increases, the depletion layer becomes narrow & the barrier potential
decreases. It will decrease approximately 2.5 mV for each 0C increase.
Forward bias & Reverse bias
When an external voltage opposes the junction potential, the diode is forward biased. If the applied
voltage is greater than the barrier potential, the current flows. When an external voltage aids the barrier
potential, the diode is reverse biased.
Knee Voltage or Cut-in voltage
The voltage at which the forward diode current increases rapidly is known as Knee voltage or cut in
voltage . Knee voltage for germanium is 0.3V & for silicon is 0.7V.
Peak Inverse voltage
The maximum reverse bais voltage that p-n diode can withstand without breaking down is known as
peak inverse voltage.
Reverse saturation current
Current flowing through a diode in the reverse biased state is known as reverse saturation current (IS). The
reverse saturation current in Si increases 100 % for each 100C rise in temperature i.e. approximately equal
to 7 % for each 0C rise in temperature.
Reverse Breakdown
The reverse bais voltage above PIV leads to breakdown of voltage . The breakdown in a reverse biased
diode can take place due to following effects :
1. Avalenche Breakdown
2. Zener Breakdown
Once the breakdown voltage is reached, a large number of the minority carrier suddenly appears in a
depletion layer and the diode conducts heavily.
Due to large reverse voltage the velocity of the minority carrier will increase & hence kinetic energy
associated with them will also increase. While travelling, these high kinetic energy carriers will collide
with the stationary atoms and impart some kinetic energy to the valence electrons present in the covalent
bonds. Due to additionally acquired energy, these valence electrons collide with further atoms bounded
with covalent bonds, generating more free electrons.
The process continues in the geometric fashion, until the reverse current becomes huge. The breakdown
voltage of a diode depends on how heavily doped the diode is. Normal diodes has breakdown usually
greater than 50V.
The Zener breakdown occurs in high doping diodes known as Zener diodes , where as avalanche
breakdown occurs at low doping diodes known as Avelanche diodes . The breakdown voltage in Zener
is lesser then Avelanche breakdown voltage.

Doping Breakdown voltage

Doping Breakdown voltage

Capacitance of depletion layer

The accumulation of charge across the depletion region produces capacitance action ,where depletion
region acts as dielectric medium of the parallel plate capacitor(p-side and n-side as a plates of capacitor)
Transition capacitance (CT) & Diffusion capacitance (CD) are two capacitances associated with a p-n
junction diode.
Resistance of pn Junction diode
The two types of resistance associated with a p-n junction diode are
1. DC resistance
2. AC resistance
The resitance offered by the diode to the DC operating conditions is called as “DC resistance or Static
resistance ” denoted by RF .The DC resitance of a diode at operating point can be obtained by tacking the
ratio of VF & CD
The resistance offered by the diode to the AC operating conditions is called as “AC resistance or
Dynamic resistance” denoted by rF. AC resistance is actually the reciprocal of the slope of the forward
characteristics .
rF =

Tunnel diode
Such a diode having doping level ≈1025/m3 in both − region of pn junction diode known as Tunnel
diode. These diodes posses negative resistance & is useful for high-frequency circuits.
Point contact diode
It consists of a small wafer of a semiconducting crystal having an area of few square millimeter & a
thickness of a fraction of mm. The crystal is soldered to a metallic base for external ohmic contact.
LED
Light emitting diode (LED) produces electromagnetic energy in the form of light widely used as an
indicator on instruments, calculators and other electronic equipment. In ordinary diode energy is radiated
in the form of heat but in an LED , the energy is radiated as light.

Photodiodes
Photodiode is a reverse biased P-N junction whose operation depends on the intensity of light .The
incoming light produces free electrons and holes. The stronger the light, the greater the number minority
carrier and the larger the reverse current.
Thermistors
A thermistor is a device which has negative temperature coefficient useful for making oscillator,
amplifiers & switching devices.

Derivations
Δ
1. = -2.5mV/0C
Δ
2. ΔV= (-2.5mV/0C) * Δ
3. % IS= 100% for a 100C increase
4. % IS= 7% per 0C

Long & Short Questions

Q.1. Explain the formation of depletion layer and barrier potential barrier in a p-n Junction
diode. Find out the expression for the height of potential barrier and the width of depletion
layer.
Or

Find out the expression for potential barrier and depletion width of a junction diode.

.
Related Short Answer Question

(i) What is Junction diode? Explain the formation of depletion layer.

(ii) What is a P-N Junction diode ? How does a barrier field appear across a P-N Junction?

Formation of depletion layer

 We visualized the pentavalent atoms and free electrons n- type semiconductors as shown on the
right side of fig. . Each circled plus sign represents a pentavalent atom, and each minus sign is the
free electron it contributes to the semiconductor .
 A manufacturer can produce a single crystal with p-type material on one side and n-type on the
other side ,the region where these materials meet known as junction diode.

Two types of semiconductors Two types of semiconductors Creation of ions at junction

 The free electrons on n side tend to diffuse across the junction , when free electrons enters the p
region, it recombines with hole, and due to which hole disappears and free electron becomes
valence electron.
 Each time an electron diffuses across a junction , it creates a pair of ions , +ve ion on n side and
-ve ion on p side, these pair of ions at junction is called a dipole. As no. of dipoles builds up,
empty charge region is created know as depletion region.
 Expression for barrier potential

Energy Band diagram of a pn junction in thermal equilibrium.

The barrier potential maintains equilibrium , so no current is produced by this voltage. The intrinsic Fermi
level is equidistant from the conduction band edge through the junction, thus the built-in potential barrier
can be determined as the difference between the intrinsic Fermi level in the p and n regions.
i.e. Vbi= ⃓ Fn⃓ + ⃓ Fp ⃓ (1)
In the n region, the electron concentration in the conduction band is given by

n0 = niexp-(EC-EF)/KT (2)
Where ni& EFi are the intrinsic carrier concentration and instrinsic fermi energy resp. If Fn is the
potential in the n –region e Fn= EC-EF (3)

Eq. (3) may be written as

/KT
n0= niexp- e Fn (4)

Taking natural log both sides, setting n0=ND

ln(ND / ni) = -e Fn/KT (5)

Fn= - * ln(ND / ni) (6)

Similarly in p region , the concentration is given by
P0=NA= niexp-(EF-EV)/KT {since, e Fp= EF-EV } (7)

Fp= * ln(NA / ni) (8)

Substituting eq. (7) & (8) in eq. (1) , we have

Vbi = * ( )= * ( )

Expression for depletion width

Assuming that the space charge region abruptly ends in the n region at = n and
abruptly ends in the p region at = p, we have
Potential in n region of diode is ( )= ( − )+ 0≤ ≤ (9)

Potential in p region of diode is ( )= ( + )+ − ≤ ≤0 (10)

The magnitude of potential at = is equal to built in potential Vbi

Vbi= ( + ) (11)

∴ ={ [ ][ ]} (12)

∵ =

={ [ ][ ]} (13)

Depletion or space charge width is = +

Using equation (12) & (13) we have
={ [ ]} (14)

Q.2. Describe the action of forward and reverse biased p-n junction semiconductor. Draw its V-I
characteristics curve and explain it.

Related Short Answer Question

(i) Draw and explain the characteristics curve of a P-N Junction diode.

Forward bias

If the p- region(anode) of diode is connected to

the +ve terminal of the external DC source and n-
region (cathode) is connected to -ve terminal of
the external DC source then the biasing is said to
“forward biasing”.

In forward bias width of depletion layer will

reduce

Reverse Bias

If the p- region(anode) of diode is connected to

the -ve terminal of the external DC source and n-
region (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal of the
external DC source then the biasing is said to “reverse
biasing”.

In reverse bias width of depletion layer will increase.

V-I characteristics curve

The V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode is a graph of
voltage across the diode versus the current flowing through it
. The V-I characteristics can be dived into two parts i.e.
forward & reverse characteristics. The right side & left side
of graph is forward & reverse characteristics respectively.
Forward characteristics

 When the external voltage is applied on

germanium (Ge)/silicon (Si)diode, is
less then 0.3/0.7 volts , the Ge/Si diode
allows negligible current to flow
through it know as cut in voltage & the
Cut off region of V-I characteristics.
 When the external voltage is applied on
germanium (Ge)/silicon (Si)diode, is
more above cut in voltage, current
through the diode increases suddenly.
 The voltage at which the forward diode
current increases rapidly is known as cut
in voltage or Knee voltage. Knee
voltage for Ge is 0.3V & for Si is 0.7V.
 The Forward characteristics of Si diode shifts to the left at a rate of 2.5mV per 0C
increase in temperature.

Reverse characteristics

 Current flowing through a diode in the reverse biased state is known as reverse saturation
current.
 As the reverse voltage is increased but below breakdown voltage(VBR) , the reverse
saturation current remains constant, if the temperature is constant . However when the
reverse voltage is above (VBR) , the large current flows
 The reverse saturation current in Si increases 100 % for each 100C rise in temperature i.e.
approximately equal to 7 % for each 0C rise in temperature.
Q.3. What is a junction diode ? What do you mean by biasing a junction diode ? Draw V-I
characteristics curve of a junction diode under different biasing .

Or

What is junction diode ? Draw its characteristic junction curve.

Junction Diode
The border b/w p-type and n-type semiconductor is called p-n junction, which has led to different
inventions including diodes, transistors and integrated circuits.

Schematic of Junction diode Symbol of Junction diode

Reaming ref. to Q.2.

Q.4. Discuss the theory of current across p-n junction.

Or

Obtain the current-voltage equation for a p-n junction diode.

Current across p-n junction

The current in p-n junction flows due to majority & minority carriers present in p & n type
semiconductor . The net current density through junction is due to following four contributions

(a) The Current I1 due to flow of minority electrons from p-type to n-type.
(b) The Current I2 due to flow of majority electrons from n-type to p-type.
(c) The Current I3 due to flow of majority holes from p-type to n-type.
(d) The Current I4 due to flow of minority holes from n-type to p-type.

Therefore Inet= (I2+I3) –( I1+I4)

The current density for majority electrons from n-type

( )
I2= Aexp [ ]

( )
Similary for holes I3= Bexp [ ]

Hear A&B are constant, VB is barrier and V is the applied voltage.

For no bias condition ,no net current is flowing through the circuit , hence I2=I1 and I3=I4
 ∴ I1= Aexp [ ]

A= I1/ Aexp [ ]

∴ I2= I1exp [ ]

Similarly I3= I4 exp [ ]

∴ Inet= (I1-I4)[exp( )-1] = I0[exp( )-1]

This equation is known as Schockley equation, I0 is called reverse saturation current.

Q.5. Explain Junction resistance & Junction Capacitance in detail.

Or

Discuss the meaning of potential barrier and junction capacitance of a P-N junction diode

Related Short Answer Question

(i) Define resistance of junction diode and obtain expression for them.

The two types of resistance associated with a p-n junction diode are

1. DC resistance
2. AC resistance
 The resitance offered by the diode to the DC operating conditions
is called as “DC resistance or Static resistance ” denoted by RF
 The DC resitance of a diode at operating point can be obtained
by tacking the ratio of VF & CD

 The resistance offered by the diode to the AC operating

conditions is called as “AC resistance or Dynamic resistance”
denoted by rF.
 AC resistance is actually the reciprocal of the slope of the
forward characteristics .
rF =

The two types of capacitances associated with a p-n junction diode are

1. Transition capacitance (CT)

 2. Diffusion capacitance (CD)
 The transient capacitance CT referred to as space charge capacitance or barrier
capacitance or depletion region capacitance.
 CT is not constant, depends on the magnitude of reverse voltage.
 The value of CT is inversely proportional to the width of depletion region and the width of
depletion region is directly proportional the reverse voltage.
 When the p-n junction diode is forward biased, a capacitance which is much larger then
the transient capacitance is known as diffusion capacitance (CD) or storage capacitance.
 The diffusion capacitance (CD) is given by ,
( )
CD = = , where =

Q.6. How current flow through pn junction ? Discuss effect of biasing on the width of depletion
layer

Related Short Answer Question

(i) Draw the energy level diagram with Fermi level for an unbiased, forward biased and
reverse biased pn junction. Explain the effect of biasing on the width of depletion
layer.

Mechanism of current flow (Forward bias)

 When diode is forward bias , due to –ve terminal of external source connected to n-region, free
electrons from n-side are pushed towards the p-side. Similarly the +ve end of supply will push
holes from the p-side towards the n-side.
 With increase in the external supply voltage V, more and more number of holes (p-side) and
electrons (n-side) start travelling towards the junction .

 The holes will start converting the negative ions into neutral atoms and the electrons will
convert the positive ions into neutral atoms. As a result of this, the width of depletion region will
reduce.
 Due to reduction of the depletion region width , the barrier potential will also reduce. Eventually
at a particular value of V , the depletion region will collapse. There is absolutely no opposition
to the flow of electron and holes.
 The large no. of majority carriers crossing the junction constitute a current called as the forward
current.
  The forward current through a p-n junction diode flows due to the majority carriers and its
direction of flow(conventional) is always from anode to cathode.
 There is a potential drop across the conducting forward biased diode denoted by VF equal to
0.7V for silicon & 0.3V for germanium diode.
 The forward voltage drop is due to barrier potential & internal resistance.

Mechanism of current flow (Forward bias)

 When the diode is reverse biased , holes in the p- region are attracted towards the
negative terminal of the supply and electrons on the n- side are attracted towards the
+ve terminal of the supply.
 Widening of depletion region : Due to movement of majority carriers away from the
junction , width of depletion layer increases .
 The minority electrons on p-side are attracted by +ve end of dc supply. Hence these
electrons will cross the junction and constitute the reverse current IS of the diode.
 The reverse current flows due to minority carriers is also called as the “Reverse
Saturation current” , doubles its value for every 100C rise in temperature.

Q.7. What are Zener diodes ? Explain its operation & characteristics. How a Zener diode can be
used as a Voltage regulator ?

Related Short Answer Question

(i) What is zener diode ? Plot & explain its characteristics curve.
(ii) What is Zener diode ? How is Zener diode used as a voltage regulator in a power
supply ? Explain.
(iii) What is a breakdown diode (Zener diode). Discuss the origin of breakdown of a
junction.

Zener Diode

Zener diode is a special type of p-n junction semiconductor diode that are designed to operate in the
breakdown region
The V-I characteristics of Zener diode is a graph of voltage across the diode versus the current flowing
through it .This characteristic is divided into two parts
1. Forward Characteristics 2. Reverse Characteristics

Forward Characteristics

The Forward Characteristics of Zener diode is almost identical to forwar Characteristics of a p

p-n
junction diode.

Reverse Characteristics

 The Reverse Characteristics of Zener diode is substantially different from that of the p
p-n junction
diode.
 As we increase the reverse voltage , initially a small reverse saturation current “I0” flows. This
current flows due to thermally generated
g minority carriers.
 At a certain value of reverse voltage, the reverse current will increase suddenly and sharply. This
is an indication that breakdown has occurred This breakdown is called as zener breakdown
voltage or zener voltage denoted by VZ.
 After breakdown , the voltage across the zener diode remains constant equal to VZ
 The value of VZ can be controlled by controlling the doping levels of p and n regions.

The Zener Voltage Regulator

The voltage across the zener diode remains constant equal

to VZ when it is operated in the “Zener region”, this fact is utilized in
Zener voltage regulator.

 If the unregulated input DC voltage is able to breakdown

zener diode, a constant voltage is maintained across the
load i.e. not effected by unregulated supply.
 If Vin then I , but IL is constant as IL=
 Hence IZ as IZ= I- IL
 If Vin then I , but IL is constant

 Hence IZ as IZ= I- IL
Q.8. Compare pn junction diode & Zener diode

S.No. pn junction diode Zener diode

1. This is operated in the forward biased Zener diode is normally operated in reverse bias
condition condition.
2.

3.

4. Applications: rectifiers, clipper,

clippe clamper, Applications: Voltage regulators, Voltage limiters
voltage multipliers etc etc.

Q.9. What do you understand by Zener & Avalanche breakdown? Distinguish between the two.

S.No. Zener breakdown Avalanche breakdown

1. This is observed in zener diodes having VZ This is observed in zener diodes having VZ above
between 4 to 6 volts 6 volts.
2. The valence electrons are pulled into The valence electrons are pushed into
conduction band due to intense electric field conduction band due to the energy imparted by
appearing across the narrow depletion colliding accelerated
rated minority carriers.
region.
3. The V-II Characteristics of Zener breakdown
The V-II Characteristics of Avelanche breakdown
is vary sharp increases gradually . it is not as sharp as tzener
breakdown.
4. The breakdown voltage decreases with the The breakdown voltage increases with the
increase in temperature. increase in temperature.

Q.10. What is Knee voltage of a diode?

diode Give its value for germanium and silicon diodes.

Ref. to Q.2
Q.11 Explain the effect of temperature on the temperature on the reverse saturation current in
junction diode .

The diode characteristics is expressed by Schockley equation , I= I0[exp( )-1]

The parameters I0 & VT are temp. dependent

The forward characteristic of a si diode shifts to the left at a rate of 2.5mV per 0C increase in
temp.
In the reverse bias region , the reverse saturation current of a silicon diode doubles for every
100C rise in temperature.
The reverse breakdown voltage will increase or decrease depending on zener potential.
Q.12. What is a tunnel diode ? Explain its operation and working. Draw the characteristics of a
tunnel diode and give its main use.
Or
What is a tunnel diode? Draw the volt-ampere characteristic curves of a such a diode. Explain
the occurrence of a negative differential resistance in the characteristic. Mention some of its
uses.

Or
Describe the construction and working of a tunnel diode. Sketch its V-I characteristics and
explain. Mention its application.

Tunnel Diode
When the impurity is very high(≈1025/m3) in both P and N-region of a P-N
Junction diode , then the diode is known as tunnel diode. Since the
barrier width of a diode is becomes very thin (≈10 -6cm ) then, on
applying forward bias voltage many carriers can tunnel through the
depletion region known as tunneling. Hence the diode is known as tunnel
diode.
No bias condition
semiconductor at T=00K. Under no
Due to heavily doped, the fermi level lies within the bands of semiconductor
bias condition , the fermi level in the p side is at the same energy as the fermi level in N
N-side(fig.
AS the fermi level is the highest occupied energy level, so no current flows through the
1)AS
junction.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Reverse bias condition
On applying the reverse bias, the height of potential barrier is increased and the fermi level in
the p- side goes up relative to that in N side(fig.2).
side . The electrons in the valence band of p p-side
faces available unoccupied states at the same energy in the conduction band of N N-side, across
the barrier. Hence the electrons can tunnel from valence band of p-side p side to conduction band of
N-side giving rise to reverse diode current.
More the reverse bias, larger no. of electrons find available
available unoccupied sates on other side of
thin barrier, as a result tunnel current increases with the reverse bias.
Forward bias condition
On applying forward bias , the height of potential barrier is decreased and the fermi level in the
N-side moves up relative
ative to that of p-side.[fig.(a)].
p . The electrons in the conduction band of N N-
side finds allowed empty energy states (holes) in valence band of p-side(at
p (at the same energy)
energy),
across the barrier, Hence the electrons tunnel from N-side to p-side side giving rise to large forward
current.
 On increasing the forward bias, maximum no. of electrons leave the occupied states in N-side &
tunnel through the barrier to empty states in p-side, causing a peak current IP to flow [fig.(b)].
On increasing the forward bias further, tunneling current decreases because available
unoccupied states in p-side decreases[fig.(c)]. This corresponds to –ve resistance region AB of
the V-I characteristics of tunnel diode. Finally for even larger forward bias, the energy band
diagram is obtained as shown in [fig.(d)]

V-I Characteristics of Tunnel diode

The V-I characteristics of tunnel diode as

shown in fig. The Portion OA of the
characteristics is due to tunneling
phenomenon.
If the forward voltage increases beyond
VP, current decreases and reaches to the
minimum value IV known as the valley
current.
The forward bias voltage corresponding
to valley current is known as valley
voltage(VV).
The tunnel diode posses –ve resistance
b/w region AB. Above valley voltage , the
tunnel diode behaves like an ordinary
diode and the current increases exponentially with forward bias voltage.

Q.13. Write short notes on :

(i) Solar cell. (ii) L.E.D.

Solar cell: A solar cell or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical

device that converts the light energy into electrical energy
by the photovoltaic effect, which is
a physical and chemical phenomenon . Solar cells are the
building blocks of solar panels.
 They are used as a photo detector in optical communication.
The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires three basic
attributes:
 The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs
or excitons.
 The separation of charge carriers of opposite types.
 The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit.

L.E.D.: L.E.D. i.e. light emitting diode is a p–n junction diode, which
emits light when activated. When a suitable voltage is applied across
the diode, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within
the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is
called electroluminescence,, and
a the color of the light (corresponding
to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of
the semiconductor.
LEDs are now used in applications as diverse as aviation
lighting, automotive
ive headlamps,
headlamps advertising, general lighting, traffic
signals,, camera flashes, and lighted wallpaper.

Q.14. Explain the working of photo diodes.

Or

Describe the construction and working of a photo diode. Give its characteristics.

Photo diode is a reverse baised P-N

P N junction whose operation depends on the intensity of light
fall on it . The symbol
bol of photo diode is shown in fig.

In reverse biased P-N junction, a small reverse saturation current flows due to thermally generated holes
& electrons (minority charge carriers) being swept across the junction, when there is no illumination.

Since there
ere is no illumination or incident light , this reverse saturation current is known as dark current,
In photodiode, the light energy dislodge valence electrons from their orbit as thermal energy dislodge
valence electrons orbit as thermal energy dislodge valence electrons from their orbit on increasing the
junction temperature and generating more electron-
electron hole pairs, this increase
ase the
reverse current flowing through the diode.

Further increase in the light intensity increase the reverse current. It means
ns light
intensity and reverse current are linearly related as shown in fig.(a)

Fig. a
VI Characteristics
racteristics shown in fig.( b) . It is a plot
 The VI Characteristics
b/w current & reverse voltage for different illumination or
light intensity (f). In the absence of illumination , the current
through the diode is due to the thermally generated
minority carriers, known as dark current.
Dark current becomes zero when the applied voltage is
positive and equal to VT.
 From curve it is clear that the current through the
diode varies almost linearly with light intensity and the
spacing among different curve is equal for same inc increment
in light intensity i.e. f2= 2 f1, f3 = 2f2 and so on.
 Photo diodes are used in light detection systems in
light operated switches, tape, film, sound tracks etc.

Fig. b

Q.16. What is pointt contact diode?

diode Discuss its working & uses at high frequencies. [Kanpur 2014]

Or

Explain the construction and working of point contact diode. Mention its application at high
frequencies. [Kanpur 2016]

Point Contact diode is a small wafer of a

semiconductor crystal having an area of few square
millimeters and a thickness of a fraction of mm. The
crystal is soldered to a metallic base so that an
external ohmic contact can be made.

The point contact is made by pressing phosphorous

bronze wire (called cat wisker) against the exposed
surface of semiconductor
iconductor crystal. In case of N
N-type
semiconductor , the forward current flows from the
phosphor bronze wire to the semiconductor.

The operation of the diode depends on the pressure

of contact between a point and a semiconductor crystal.
 The V-I characteristics curve of the point contact diode
for two different temperature T=260C & 580C is shown in
fig.

Point contact diode is very useful for the operation at

high frequencies (≈10KHz)
10KHz) and in pulse circuits
cir in
contrast to normal diode.

Q.17. ottky diode ? Why Schottky diode is known as hot carrier diode? How it differs in
What is Schottky
construction from a normal P-
P N junction ? Give its working , characteristics and applications.

As frequency increases , the action of normal diodes

begins to deteriorate as a rectifier. They are no
longer able to switch off fast enough to produce a
well-defined rectified signal. The solution for this
problem is the schottky diode.
The symbol shown in figure, the cathode side looks like a rectangular S, which stands for
schottky diode.
Differ from normal diode
It is a semiconductor diode formed by the junction of a semiconductor with a metal. This diode
uses a metal such as gold, silver, or platinum on one side of the junction and doped silicon
(typically n-type)
type) on the other side.
Diode Biasing
When the schottky diode is unbiased, free electrons on the n-side
n side are in smaller orbits then the
free electrons on the metal side. This difference in orbit size is called the Schottky barrier
barrier,
approximately 0.25V.
When the diode is forward bias, free electrons
electrons on the n side can gain enough energy to travel in
larger orbits, because of this electrons cross the junction and enter the metal , producing a large
forward current. Since the metal has no holes, there is no charge storage and no reverse recovery
time.
Hot carrier diode
Schottky diode is called as a hot carrier diode , this name came as follows . Forward bias
increases the energy of the electrons on the n-side
n side to a higher level then that of electron on the
metal side of the junction. This increase inin energy inspired the name hot carrier for the n n-side
electrons.
As soon as these high- energy electrons cross the junction , they fall into the metal, which has a
lower-energy
energy conduction band.
High- Speed Turnoff
Due to lack of charge storage schottky diode iode can be turned off faster than the normal diode.
Because this property , the diode is used to rectify frequencies above 300MHz.
Applications
 Used in RF mixer and Detector diode
 Used in high power rectifier.
 Used in Solar cell applications
 Schottky barrier diodes may also be used as a clamp diode in a transistor circuit to
speed the operation when used as a switch.
Q.18. What is thermistors? Give its construction, working and applications. [Important]

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance strongly

depends on temperature. The word thermistor is a
combination of words “thermal” and “resistor”. Thermistors
are available in various shapes like disc, rod, washer, bead
etc as shown in fig.(a).
A thermistor is a temperature-sensing element composed of
sintered semiconductor material and sometimes mixture of
metallic oxides such as Mn, Ni, Co, Cu and Fe, which
exhibits a large change in resistance proportional to a small
change in temperature.
Pure metals have positive temperature coefficient of
resistance, alloys have ≈ zero temperature coefficient of
resistance and semi conductors have negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
Fig. a
Thermistors can be classified into two types:
 Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor:-resistance increase with increase in
temperature.
 Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor:-
resistance decrease with increase in temperature.
The thermistor exhibits a highly non-linear characteristic of resistance vs. temperature.

Fig. b
PTC thermistors can be used as heating elements in small temperature controlled ovens. NTC
thermistors can be used as inrush current limiting devices in power supply circuits. Inrush current
refers to maximum, instantaneous input current drawn by an electrical device when first turned
on.
Applications

 PTC thermistors were used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of most CRT displays.
A degaussing circuit using a PTC thermistor is simple, reliable (for its simplicity), and
inexpensive.
 PTC thermistors are used as heater in automotive industry to provide additional heat
inside cabin with diesel engine or to heat diesel in cold climatic conditions before engine
injection.
 PTC thermistors is used as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as
replacements for fuses.
 NTC thermistors is used to monitor the temperature of an incubator.
  Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor the
temperature of battery packs while charging.
 We regularly use NTC thermistors in automotive applications.
 NTC thermistors are used in the Food Handling and Processing industry, especially for
food storage systems and food preparation. Maintaining the correct temperature is
critical to prevent food borne illness.
 NTC thermistors are used throughout the Consumer Appliance industry for measuring
temperature. Toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc. all rely on
thermistors for proper temperature control.
 We can regularly use the Thermistors in the hot ends of 3D printers; they monitor the
heat produced and allow the printer’s control circuitry to keep a constant temperature for
melting the plastic filament.
 NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements
of the order of 10 K.
 NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits.

Numerical
Q.1. When a silicon diode having a doping concentration of NA = 9 × 1016 cm-3 on p-side and ND =
1 × 1016 cm-3 on n-side is reverse biased, the total depletion width is found to be 3 µm. Given
that the permittivity of silicon is 1.04 × 10–12 F/cm, find the depletion width on the p-side
and the maximum electric field in the depletion region.

Exp: Given NA = 9 × 1016 / cm3 ; ND = 1×1016 / cm3

Total depletion width, x= xn+xp=3 µm.
∈= 1.04 ×10−12 F / cm
Since = = = (9 × 1016)/(1 × 1016)
=9
∵ x= xn+xp=3 µm.
9 xp +xp =3 µm.
∴ xp = 0.3 µm
Max. Electric field, E= qNAND / ∈ = (1.6*10-19 *9 × 1016 * 1×1016 ) / (1.04 ×10−12)
= 4.15 ×105 V / cm Ans
Q.2. A diode has a power rating of 5W. if the diode voltage is 1.2 V and the diode current is 17.5
A, what is the power dissipation ? will the diode be destroyed ?
Exp: ∵ PD = VD ID
∴ PD= (1.2V)(1.75A)=2.1W
∵ PD < 5W so the diode will not destroyed.
Q.3. Find the dynamic resistance of a P-N junction diode at a forward current of 2mA. Assume
kT/q= 25mV.
Exp: Given , forward current = 2mA= 0.002A
Volt equivalent of temp. , VT= kT/q= 25mV
∵ Dyamic resistance (r) = ɳVT/I (ɳ=1)
∴ r = 0.025/0.002= 12.5 Ω.
Q.4. Assuming the barrier potential of 0.7V at an ambient temperature of 250C , What is the
barrier potential of a silicon diode whwn the junction temperature is 1000C ? At 00C ?
 Exp: When the Junction temp. is 1000C , the change in barrier potential is
ΔV= (-2.5mV/0C) ΔT = (-2.5mV/0C)( 1000C - 250C)= -187.5mV
∴ The barrier potential will decrese by 187.5mV
i.e. VB= 0.7V – 0.18V = 0.52 V Ans
When the Junction temp. is 00C , the change in barrier potential is
ΔV= (-2.5mV/0C) ΔT = (-2.5mV/0C)( 00C - 250C)= 62.5mV
∴ The barrier potential will increase by 62.5mV
i.e. VB= 0.7V = 0.0625 = 0.7625 V Ans
Q.5. A Silicon diode has a saturaration current of 5nA at 250C. What is the saturation current at
1000C ?
Exp: The change in temp
∴ΔT = 1000C - 250C= 75 0C
∵ there is seven doubling between 250C to 95 0C
∴ IS = (27)(5nA)= 640nA
∵ there is 5 0C rise in temp from 950C to 100 0C
∴ IS = (1.075)(640nA)= 898nA Ans
Q.6. For the series diode configuration determine VD, VR and ID.

Exp: ∵ Diode is of silicon type therefore VD= 0.7V

VR= (8-0.7)V/2.2KΩ

= 7.3V/2.2KΩ

= 3.32mA Ans

Q.7. Determine the dc reistance levels for the diode shown in

fig. at
(a) =
(b) =
(c) =−
Exp: (a) At = 2 , = 0.5 (from the curve)
∴ RD= / =0.5v/2mA= 250 Ω Ans
(b) At = 20 , = 0.8 (from the curve)
∴ RD= / =0.8v/20mA = 40 Ω Ans
(c) At = −10 , = −1 (from the curve)
∴ RD= / =-10v/- 1 = 10 MΩ Ans

Q.8. The current through p-n junction is 50mA at a forward bias voltage of 3.0volt. At temp. 270C ,
find the static and dynamic resistance of the diode.
Exp: Given V=3V, I=50mA
Static resistance is given as Rdc=V/I
∴ Rdc = 3/50mA
= 60 Ω Ans
 Dynamic resistance is given as rac=

∵ I =I0[exp(ɳ )-1] = I0[exp(ɳ )-1]

Here VT= 0.026V=26mV, I= 50mA
for silicon ɳ= 1 ,rac= ɳVT/ I = 26mV/50mA= 0.52 Ω Ans

Q.9. Calculate the value of

(i) Voltage difference across series resistance.
(ii) Electric current in zener diode.
Given Vin= 100V , VZ= 60V , RS = 5KΩ , RL= 10KΩ

Exp: Given Vin= 100V , VZ=60V, RS = 5KΩ , RL= 10KΩ

(i) Then VS(voltage across RS) = (100-60) V=
40V Ans
(ii) IS= 40V/ 5KΩ = 8mA
IL= VZ/ RL = 60V/10 K Ω= 6mA
∵ IS =IZ + IL
∴ IZ = (8-6)mA= 2mA Ans.
Q.10. For the following circuit find:
(i) Output voltage (ii) Voltage drop across RS (iii) Current through the zener diode

Given Vin= 120 V , VZ= 50V , RS = 5KΩ , RL= 10KΩ

Exp: Given Vin= 120V , VZ=50V, RS = 5KΩ , RL= 10KΩ

(i) Since zener diodes breakdown takes place

∴ Output Voltage = VZ= 50V Ans.
(ii) VS(voltage across RS) = (120-50) V= 70V Ans
(iii) IS= 70V/ 5KΩ = 14mA
IL= VZ/ RL = 50V/10 K Ω= 5mA
∵ IS =IZ + IL
∴ IZ = (14-5)mA= 9mA Ans.

Q.11. Maximum 20mA current can flow through a zener diode . If Zener voltage is 6volt, how much
resistance will have to be applied in series with the zener diode for 9 volt supply? Calculate
load current & zener current if load resistance is of 1 KΩ.

Part –I Exp: Given Vin= 9V , VZ=6V, IZ= 20mA, RS = ?

∵ IZ= 20mA, & the zener diode is in series of RS
It means 20mA current will also flow through RS
Here VS= (9-6)V= 3V
IS= 20mA
∴ RS = 3V/20mA= 150 Ω Ans
Part –II
Exp: Given Vin= 9V , VZ=6V, VS= 3V ,
RS = 150 Ω,
RL= 1K Ω , IZ= ?, IL=?
 ∵ VS= 3V
∴ IS= 3V/ 150 Ω= 20mA
∴ IL= 6V/ 1K Ω = 6mA
∵ IS =IZ + IL
∴ IZ = (20-6)mA= 14mA Ans
Q.12. A zener regulator has Vz=15V. The input voltage may vary from 22 to 40volt and load
current from 20 to 100mA. To hold load voltage constant under all conditions, what should
be the value of series resistance?
Exp: Given Vin= 15V,
δVi= (40-22)V= 18V
δIL=(100-20)mA= 80mA
∵ δVi = R δIL
∴ R= 18/(8x 10-2)= 225 Ω Ans
Q.13. A LED is made of gallium phosphide for which the band gap energy Eg= 2.26eV, at room
temperature. Find the wavelength of light emitted by it when it is forward biased.

Exp: Given Eg=2.26eV=2.26 x1.6x10-19 Joule

h=6.62 x 10-34, c=3x108m/s
∵ The wavelength of the emitted light is given as λ = hc/Eg
∴ λ= 6.62 x 10-34/3x108 =5.49x 10-7
= 5490 Ȧ Ans