BASIC INSTRUMENTATION

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FOURTH EDITION

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DISCHARGE FLUID FLOW PROPORTIONAL VALVE
BELLOWS
VALVE VALVE
PIVOT DIFFERENTIAL POSITIONER
PRESSURE

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SET-POINT 3–15 psi
SCREW AND I/P TRANSDUCER
SPRING

Z PRESSURE 4–20 mA

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X TRANSMITTER
4–20 mA 12-BIT BINARY
ANALOG PLC ANALOG
STEAM INPUT OUTPUT
PROCESSOR

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VALVE 12-BIT BINARY
SET-POINT 1–5 VOLTS DC 12-BIT BINARY
REFERENCE

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OPERATIONS MONITOR
Y AND PROGRAMMING
TERMINAL
TO
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STEAM
DRAIN
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TWO-CONTACT
POWER LINE A
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REVERSING MOTOR ORIFICE

CONTROL INSTRUMENT PLATE
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OPEN
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B
FLANGE
R BOLT
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W LIMIT
H C L SWITCHES
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METER
B CONNECTIONS
CLOSED FLANGE
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MERCURY
SWITCH PLATE
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ORIFICE

DRAIN
CONNECTIONS

PETROLEUM EXTENSION SERVICE • THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Will L. McNair is a graduate Electrical Engineer from Mississippi State University with over

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20 years of experience as a design and development engineer with companies that include
General Electric, Varo, and Baylor Company. After his employment with these companies,

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he has been a consultant and technical trainer for companies worldwide under his company,

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TRAINCO, focusing on instrument and electrical applications for the petroleum industry.
He has taught instrumentation, electrical and electronic courses in seminars and schools

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to over 5,000 personnel within the past 20 years. These subjects range from electronic in-
strumentation, programmable logic controllers, basic electricity, to sophisticated solid-state
topics such as SCR motor drives, variable frequency drives, SCADA, and many others.

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During this period, McNair headed the Energy Training Division at Texas A&M
University for 2 years, has written three other textbooks, and has been published in various

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industry magazines, including Oil & Gas Journal, World Oil, Drilling Contractor, and oth-
ers. He has contributed to several patents related to solid-state technology and developed
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several advanced products for the oil and gas industry.
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Will McNair is a registered engineer in Texas and member of ISA, IEEE, TSPE,
Society of Petroleum Engineers, IADC, and NFPA.
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 Contents

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Preface xiii

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Acknowledgments xv

Chapter 1. Introduction 1

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The Need for Measurment and Control 1
Methods of Measurement 2

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Types of Control 4

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Methods or Modes of Control 9
Summary 14

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Review Exercise 14

Chapter 2. The Units of Measurement

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15
Comparison of Systems of Units 15

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Système International (SI) d’Unités 16
Measuring Length 16
Measuring Time 18 rs
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Measuring Temperature 18
Measuring Mass, Weight, and Force 19
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Measuring Work and Energy 22

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Measuring Dimensions of Various Quantities 24

Summary 27
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Review Exercise 28
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Chapter 3. Final Control Elements 29

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Valves 29
Sizing and Piping Arrangements 39
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Actuators 39
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Controlled-Volume Pumps 48
Variable-Volume Pumps 50
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Other Final Control Elements 50

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Summary 50
Review Exercise 50
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Chapter 4. Pneumatic Automatic Controls 51

Pneumatic Controls 51
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Commercial Pneumatic Controllers 61

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Volume Booster Relays 64

Valve Positioners 65
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Summary 69
Review Exercise 69

Chapter 5. Electronic Automatic Controls 71

Analog Circuits and Equipment 71

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 Modes of Control and Control Loops 73
System Stability and Loop Tuning 78
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) Control Systems 79
Specialized Flow Computers 81

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Distributed Control Systems 81
Human-Machine-Interface (HMI) 83

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Summary 84

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Review Exercise 84

Chapter 6. Pressure Measurement and Control 85

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Units of Pressure Measurement 85
Mechanical Pressure Elements 87

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Electronic Pressure Measurement 92
Vacuum Measurements 95

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Pressure Control 97
Summary 104
Review Exercise 105

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Chapter 7. Temperature Measurement and Control 107

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Defining Temperature Measurement 108
Mechanical Temperature Sensors
Electronic Temperature Measurement
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112 rs
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Wheatstone Bridges 117
Electronic Temperature Transmitters 117
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Temperature Control 121

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Summary 124
Review Exercise
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Chapter 8. Liquid-Level Measurement and Control 125

Defining Level Measurement 125
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Mechanical Level Sensors 125

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Electrical Level Measuring Devices 134

Level Control
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Summary 140
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Review Exercise 141

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Chapter 9. Flow Measurement 143

Defining Flow Measurement 143
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Mechanical Flow Sensors and Meters 144

Electronic Flow Sensors and Meters 150
Summary 156
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Review Exercise 156

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Chapter 10. Flow Control 157

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Mechanical Flow Control Elements 157

Electronic Flow Controllers 159
Integral Flow Controllers 162
Summary 170
Review Exercise 170

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 Chapter 11. Gravity, Viscosity, Humidity, and pH 171
Measuring Specific Gravity and Density 171
Measuring Viscosity 177
Measuring Humidity and Dew Point 180

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Measuring pH 185
Summary

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187
Review Exercise 187

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Chapter 12. Programmable Logic Controllers 189

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PLC Operating Concepts 189
PLC Brands 195

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PLC Applications and Loop Tuning 203

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Summary 205
Review Exercise 205

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Appendix A. Numbering Systems and Codes 207

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Appendix B. Temperature Sensor Reference Tables 213

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Glossary 297
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 Units of Measurement

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T hroughout the world, two systems of measurement dominate: the English system and the met­ric system.

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To­day, the United States is almost the only country that employs the En­glish sys­tem.

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The English system uses the pound as the unit of weight, the foot as the unit of length, and the gallon as
the unit of capacity. In the En­glish system, for example, 1 foot equals 12 inches, 1 yard equals 36 inches, and
1 mile equals 5,280 feet or 1,760 yards.

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The metric system uses the gram as the unit of weight, the metre as the unit of length, and the litre as the

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unit of capacity. In the metric system, for example, 1 me­tre equals 10 decimetres, 100 centimetres, or 1,000

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milli­metres. A kilometre equals 1,000 me­tres. The metric system, un­like the English system, uses a base of 10;
thus, it is easy to convert from one unit to another. To convert from one unit to an­other in the English system,

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you must memorize or look up the val­ues.
In the late 1970s, the Eleventh General Conference on Weights and Measures de­scribed and adopted the

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Système International (SI) d’U­nités. Conference participants based the SI system on the metric system and
de­signed it as an interna­tional stan­dard of measurement.

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Basic Instrumentation gives both English and SI units. And because the SI sys­tem employs the British
spelling of many of the terms, the book follows those spelling rules as well. The unit of length, for ex­ample, is
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metre, not me­ter. (Note, however, that the unit of weight is gram, not gramme.)
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To aid U.S. readers in making and understanding the conversion to the SI system, we in­clude the fol-
lowing table.
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 English-Units-to-SI-Units Conversion Factors
Quantity Multiply To Obtain
or Property English Units English Units By These SI Units

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Length, inches (in.) 25.4 millimetres (mm)
depth, 2.54 centimetres (cm)

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or height feet (ft) 0.3048 metres (m)
yards (yd) 0.9144 metres (m)

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miles (mi) 1609.344 metres (m)
1.61 kilometres (km)
Hole and pipe di­ame­ters, bit size inches (in.) 25.4 millimetres (mm)

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Drilling rate feet per hour (ft/h) 0.3048 metres per hour (m/h)
Weight on bit pounds (lb) 0.445 decanewtons (dN)

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Nozzle size 32nds of an inch 0.8 millimetres (mm)

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barrels (bbl) 0.159 cubic metres (m3)
159 litres (L)

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gallons per stroke (gal/stroke) 0.00379 cubic metres per stroke (m3/stroke)
ounces (oz) 29.57 millilitres (mL)
Volume cubic inches (in.3) 16.387 cubic centimetres (cm3)

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cubic feet (ft3) 28.3169 litres (L)
0.0283 cubic metres (m3)
quarts (qt) 0.9464 litres (L)

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gallons (gal) 3.7854 litres (L)
gallons (gal) 0.00379 cubic metres (m3)


pounds per barrel (lb/bbl)
barrels per ton (bbl/tn) rs 2.895
0.175
kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3)
cubic metres per tonne (m3/t)
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gallons per minute (gpm) 0.00379 cubic metres per minute (m3/min)
Pump output gallons per hour (gph) 0.00379 cubic metres per hour (m3/h)
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and flow rate barrels per stroke (bbl/stroke) 0.159 cubic metres per stroke (m3/stroke)
barrels per minute (bbl/min) 0.159 cubic metres per minute (m3/min)
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Pressure pounds per square inch (psi) 6.895 kilopascals (kPa)

0.006895 megapascals (MPa)
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°F - 32
Temperature degrees Fahrenheit (°F) degrees Celsius (°C)
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1.8
Thermal gradient 1°F per 60 feet –– 1°C per 33 metres
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ounces (oz) 28.35 grams (g)

Mass (weight) pounds (lb) 453.59 grams (g)
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0.4536 kilograms (kg)

tons (tn) 0.9072 tonnes (t)
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pounds per foot (lb/ft) 1.488 kilograms per metre (kg/m)

Mud weight pounds per gallon (ppg) 119.82 kilograms per cubic me­tre (kg/m3)
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pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3) 16.0 kilograms per cubic me­tre (kg/m3)
Pressure gradient pounds per square inch
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per foot (psi/ft) 22.621 kilopascals per metre (kPa/m)

Funnel viscosity seconds per quart (s/qt) 1.057 seconds per litre (s/L)
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Yield point pounds per 100 square feet (lb/100 ft )2

0.48 pascals (Pa)
Gel strength pounds per 100 square feet (lb/100 ft2) 0.48 pascals (Pa)
Filter cake thickness 32nds of an inch 0.8 millimetres (mm)
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Power horsepower (hp) 0.7 kilowatts (kW)

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square inches (in.2) 6.45 square centimetres (cm2)

square feet (ft2) 0.0929 square metres (m2)
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Area square yards (yd2) 0.8361 square metres (m2)

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square miles (mi2) 2.59 square kilometres (km2)

acre (ac) 0.40 hectare (ha)
Drilling line wear ton-miles (tn•mi) 14.317 megajoules (MJ)
1.459 tonne-kilometres (t•km)
Torque foot-pounds (ft•lb) 1.3558 newton metres (N•m)
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Introduction

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n broad terms, an instrument is a mechanical or a central water supply. Customers were charged
electronic device that measures the present value according to the size of the pipe or the channel that

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of a quantity under observation. A control is a device delivered the water. One consequence of developing

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that regulates and guides a process quantity against such projects led humans to observe that they could
a previously selected standard or reference. A third improve products, conserve time, and produce better

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term, instrumentation, suggests the measurement and product quality through instrumentation.
control of a process. Early process industries in Europe and Asia

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This book uses many terms to describe the pro- included brewing and winemaking, which used mea-
cess of instrumentation. It is important to understand surement and control to insure success. Measurement

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these terms so that you can understand the text. The may have been as simple as visual observation of the
terms are regularly used in the process industry and fermenting process, and control as simple as locating
are commonly understood by those who work in it. rs
the product in a cool cellar. Instruments as we know
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Instrumentation generally includes any ar- them today were crude and almost nonexistent.
rangement of instruments used to measure, indicate, In modern industrial processing, such as
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record, or control variable quantities that exist in a chemical manufacturing, the quality of the product
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process. Variable quantities include such items as may depend on the proper proportioning of ingre-
pressure, temperature, flow, and level. They are also dients by weight or volume, maintaining a constant
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referred to as process variables. A system of instru- pressure in a reaction vessel for a prescribed time,
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mentation may include transmitters, resistance tem- and adjusting the acidity (or pH) of the final product
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perature detectors, thermometers, pressure gauges, by adding a corrective agent. The economic gains
transducers, and control valves. achieved through proper measurement and control
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of processes are of primary importance in the instru-

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mentation field.
THE NEED FOR MEASUREMENT Not only is instrumentation applied in manu-
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AND CONTROL facturing to increase savings in material and labor,

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Early humans used crude devices, such as simple but also it is used to improve the overall quality of
clubs, which were instruments of survival. Many the product. Even in the average modern home,
centuries passed before people developed instruments instrumentation is applied in our heating and air
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that improved the environment and were not just conditioning systems, sprinkler irrigation, and
for survival. They devised ways to observe the stars; security systems. This instrumentation provides us
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measure distances, angles, and times; and to monitor with basic needs and allows us to do a better job in
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natural phenomena more accurately. a variety of environments.

Improvement in measurements also improved One major benefit of instrumentation is to
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and adjusted human activity to an advantage. By reduce the labor required to monitor and operate
obtaining measurement data, people could exert process equipment. However, officials of a Middle
control over their basic needs and environment. In Eastern country contracted with an automation
early Roman times, piping and aqueducts distrib- firm for the design of a modern refinery. When the
uted water to homes and businesses in Rome from plans were completed and submitted for approval,

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The Units of Measurement

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I nstrumentation involves measuring relatively few In instrumentation, it is important to use

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quantities—for example, length, mass, time, common units so they can be shared between
and temperature. Such quantities are fundamental companies, organizations, and countries. In most

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quantities because we cannot divide them into other cases, measurements and readings are either in the
quantities. By comparison, speed is not a fundamen- English system of units (also called the conventional

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tal quantity. We can measure it, of course, but also system) or in the Système International (SI) d’Unités
we can divide it into length and time. (International System of Units), which is based on

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All quantities have dimensions. Some dimensions the metric system.
are easy to see, such as length. Others, however, may be
a little harder to make out. For example, mass and time rs
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also have dimensions, but we cannot physically measure Conventional System of
them with a ruler or a yardstick. Instead, we have to Measurement Units
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apply a measuring tool, such as a clock or a scale, which, The United States uses the English, or conventional,
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when set to a standard (is calibrated), makes the mea- system of measurement for most of its trade and com-
surement and indicates it to us. Also, some quantities mercial dealings. People in the U.S. have used this
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feature several dimensions. For example, as mentioned system for a long time and are therefore comfort-
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earlier, speed has dimensions of length and time; and able with it. Unfortunately, it is ambiguous and it
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force has dimensions of length, time, and mass. is difficult to convert from one unit to another that
A unit is a standard measure of a quantity. Laws measures the same quantity. For example, the unit
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establish some units of measurement while we adopt of mass in the conventional system is the pound,
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others by common usage. We use units to measure which in the U.S., surprisingly enough, is defined
quantities of any size, and we always express the in terms of the kilogram, which is an SI unit. The
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measurements in terms of the chosen unit. pound is divided into ounces, drams, grains, and
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other units, each of which relates to the pound. To

convert from one unit of weight to another, users
COMPARISON OF SYSTEMS OF UNITS have to remember such facts as 16 ounces make up
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Over the centuries, countries and regions initiated a pound and that a ton weighs 2,000 pounds. The
their own system of measurements. However, they yard is the standard length in the system, and it is
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rarely shared it with other countries. Moreover, many divided into feet and inches. To convert from one
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of these measurement systems were so crude and ill unit of length to another, users have to remember
conceived that it was virtually impossible to convert that 36 inches or 3 feet make up a yard. Also, 5,280
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one system to another. feet or 1,760 yards make up a statute mile. Interest-
As communication, transportation, and com- ingly, the yard, like the pound, is also defined in
merce expanded, measurement units evolved, merged, terms of the metric (SI) system.
and became standardized. Today, the world is well Besides the difficulty of converting from one
on its way to adopting a single set of measurement English unit to another, other shortcomings exist.
standards common to all nations.
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Final Control Elements

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n fluid flow processes, the final control element
regulates the rate of flow. Most final control ele- PACKING

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PACKING FLANGE STUD
ments are valves; indeed, the two terms are almost FLANGE NUT

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PACKING
synonymous. However, the petroleum industry FLANGE
PACKING YOKE LOCKNUT
also uses controlled-volume pumps, variable-speed

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FOLLOWER
pumping drives, and other devices as final control PACKING PACKING
SPRING VALVE PLUG
elements. SYSTEM

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PACKING
A final control element usually consists of a BOX BUSHING BONNET
valve, an actuator, and piping. An actuator provides GUIDE BUSHING

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SEAT RING VALVE BODY
the force that operates the valve, which controls the
rate of flow of a controlled variable through the valve.
Mechanical, pneumatic, electrical, hydraulic, or a rs INFLOW OUTFLOW
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combination of these means operate the actuator.
A controlled-volume pump delivers a definite
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and predetermined volume of liquid with each

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stroke, or cycle. The petroleum industry widely uses SEAT RING VALVE PLUG
controlled-volume pumps to force chemicals into
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BOTTOM
GUIDE
FLANGE
lines and vessels.
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BUSHING
In large-volume pumping systems, the final
control element often includes variable-speed drives,
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which power variable-volume pumps. Many pipeline Figure 3.1. Double-ported valve (Courtesy Fisher
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systems use variable-volume, variable-speed pumps Controls)

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to provide variable flow on a continuous basis,

depending on demand. A signal from an electronic
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in the process of selecting valves for special ap-

control, programmable logic controller, or similar
plications. Valve selection is one of the many jobs
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electrical device operates the pumps. The magnitude

engineers who design control systems do. But,
of the signal determines the speed of the variable-
readers should understand and appreciate the
speed drive, which, in turn, controls the volume rate
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fact that control valve selection is based on the

of the pump.
valve’s having met many critical specifications to
fulfill the exacting requirements of a particular
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VALVES control system.

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Valves have many parts (fig. 3.1). However, their

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Valve Bodies
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function and use is straightforward and easy to un-

derstand. Important valve parts include the body, Most control applications employ globe valve bodies.
the plug, the guides, and the seats. However, certain applications may use other types of
Also, keep in mind that this manual does body. The term globe comes from the round shape
not cover the extensive considerations involved of the body.

29
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Pneumatic Automatic Controls

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A utomatic control of processes has evolved from the supply air pressure must be held steady at the

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simple control systems to the complex systems required value. In short, the air pressure must be

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in today’s plants and facilities. Electronic controls, regulated. Thus, it is important to understand how
sensors, and measuring devices are significant devel- a pressure regulator adjusts and holds pressure at

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opments that have advanced automation. We now a constant value. Let’s say we have a source of air
can set adjustments with dials and digital switches. pressure delivering 100 psi (700 kPa). This pressure

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We can push a start button and watch a system is too high for most control devices. So, a device is
perform its function completely and automatically needed to reduce this pressure to an acceptable level.

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without the intervention of an operator. Micropro- Moreover, once the device reduces the pressure, it
cessors have not only put personal computers within must also regulate it—that is, maintain the reduced
reach of almost everyone, but also they have taken rs
pressure at a constant value.
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instrumentation processes to a new level.
This chapter reviews pneumatic concepts that Weight-Loaded Regulators
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many facilities still employ. Although many facilities A weight-loaded regulator (fig. 4.1) is a self-con-
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use electronic automatic controls, learning about tained device that reduces and regulates pressure at its
pneumatic controls leads to a better understanding
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output. It is a double-ported valve with a poppet-type

of electronic controls. Because electronic controls
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plug that a diaphragm actuates. The diaphragm also

form a significant part of process instrumentation supports a weight, which is sized for the particular
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and automatic control, they are covered in chapter 5. regulator. A flexible diaphragm isolates the weight
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PNEUMATIC CONTROLS
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WEIGHT
Automatic regulators and controls perform self-correct-
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ing functions—that is, once operators correctly set the

automatic controls, they do not have to do anything
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further to control the system. Examples of automatic

regulators include automobile speed controls, air condi-
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tioner thermo­stats, and oven temperature regulators—

devices we use daily. We set them and forget them, as
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the saying goes. The system does the rest.

Regulating functions use devices that are hy-
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draulically, pneumatically, or electrically con­trolled.

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This chapter covers pneumatic controls.

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POPPET
PLUG
Pressure Regulators
Pneumatic devices depend on pressure from an air Figure 4.1 A self-contained force-loaded pressure
supply. For a pneumatic device to perform properly, regulator

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Electronic Automatic Controls

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lectronic devices can duplicate all pneumatic from process transmitters include values such as 0 to
control effects and they can do it with less main- 5 volts direct current (VDC), 1 to 5 VDC, or 10 to

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tenance, greater flexibility, and easier adjustment. 50 mA. Typically, most electronic process transmitters

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In addition, electronic controls provide virtually produce a 4-to-20 mA signal that is converted to 1 to
immediate response, transmit control signals over 5 V when the signal loop is terminated to a program-

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long distances, and are easily modified when using mable logic controller (PLC), recorder, metering de-
devices incorporating microprocessors. vice, or other indicator. A simple but accurate 250-Ω

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This chapter assumes that readers have a ba- resistor converts current to voltage in accordance with
sic knowledge of electricity and of such electrical Ohm’s law. Ohm’s law is stated mathematically as—

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components as resistors, capacitors, potentiometers,
V = I×R (Eq. 5.1)
rheostats, and switches. This chapter also explains
the fundamental differences and similarities between rs
where
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analog and digital equipment. V = voltage drop across resistor, volts (V)
I = current in signal loop, amperes (A)
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R = resistance of signal terminating resistor,

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ohms (Ω).
ANALOG CIRCUITS AND EQUIPMENT Thus, if I is 0.004 A (4 mA), and R is 250 Ω, then—
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The word analog refers to a signal that is continuous V = 0.004 × 250

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and has an infinite number of points between its V = 1.

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beginning and ending values. For example, an analog Electronic signals in the form of current in mA
pressure signal of 3 to 15 psi (20 to 100 kPa) varies are preferred over voltage for several reasons. For one
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between 3 and 15 psi (20 and 100 kPa), but it has thing, if a long length of wire is used from the trans-
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an infinite number of points, or values, in between. mitter terminals to the signal interface point, which
Similarly, an electrical analog signal of 4 to 20 mil- may be a PLC, a recorder, or the like, resistance in the
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liamperes (mA) varies between 4 and 20 mA and has wire reduces the signal’s voltage. Voltage can, however,
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an infinite number of values in between. represent a process input accurately if the signal is
Essentially, analog signals are an analogy, near the transmitter’s signal terminals. In any case, if
or a representation, of a process. For example, an a signal reduction occurs, it represents a measurement
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electronic pressure transmitter can sense a pressure error and is undesirable. On the other hand, if a 4 to
range of 0 to 200 psi (0 to 1,500 kPa) and produce 20 mA current signal range is used, resistance in the
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an electrical signal of 4 to 20 mA that corresponds wire does not affect its mA value even if the wire is
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to this range of pressure. Zero psi corresponds to 4 miles in length. When the current signal reaches the
mA and 200 psi (1,500 kPa) corresponds to 20 mA. measuring point, an electronic device then converts
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A pressure between these two limits produces a cor- it to an accurate voltage of 1 to 5 V.

responding electrical signal output—for example, Voltage transmitters are also sensitive to inter-
100 psi (750 kPa) produces a signal of 12 mA. ference from external current and voltage sources.
A signal range of 4 to 20 mA is a standard value Because a voltage transmitter’s output impedance is
in process systems. Other less frequently used signals low, power circuits can induce voltages in the trans-

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Pressure Measurement and Control

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O ver the past 20 years, technology in pressure Pressure Scales

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measurement has advanced considerably, Pressure is defined as force per unit area. As pointed

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progressing from mechanical techniques to elec- out earlier, in the U.S., pressure is usually stated in

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tronic methods. Although temperature measure- pounds per square inch, or psi. The SI system uses
ment rivals pressure measurement in automatic kilopascals (kPa), which are derived from newtons

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control, pressure measurement is also vital. Pres- per metre (N/m). In the atmosphere, a uniform pres-
sure measurement can serve as an indicator and sure of about 14.7 psi (101.4 kPa) exists all around

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can control other process variables in the system. us, although we are usually not aware of it. Some
The measurement and control of pressure occurs pressure measurements ignore atmospheric pressure

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in tanks, pipes, vessels, and other components in and begin the pressure measurement at zero. We refer
a process system. Pressure is also used in measur- to measurements that ignore atmospheric pressure
ing such variables as temperature, level, and rate rsas gauge pressure. In the conventional measurement
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of flow. system, it is often abbreviated as psig, which stands
In this chapter, pressure is discussed in its use for pounds per square inch gauge. Most pressure
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to control process variables, as well as to provide a gauges indicate gauge pressure, which is the pressure
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reference in checking other measurement methods. above ambient atmospheric pressure. Pressure below
Mechanical methods of pressure measuring are atmospheric pressure is referred to as vacuum pressure.
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covered first; electronic methods follow. If we change our reference pressure from at-
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mospheric to that of space where no pressure exists,

absolute pressure is obtained. In the conventional
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UNITS OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT measurement system, absolute pressure is abbrevi-

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When the word measure is used, it is typically ated as psia, which stands for pounds per square
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meant in a broad sense because, in some instances, inch absolute. Using mechanical methods on earth,
pressure is not literally measured. For example, it is almost, but not quite, possible to attain a pure
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pressure may actuate a measuring means that is not vacuum, which is the vacuum of space, or the com-
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an indicator. A Bourdon tube may be attached di- plete absence of pressure. Gauges on an absolute
rectly to the flapper of a pneumatic controller and scale indicate about 14.7 psi for atmospheric pres-
the controlled pressure applied to flex the tube. In sure, while a gauge pressure scale indicates zero for
um

this case, the Bourdon tube is the primary element atmospheric pressure. Gauge pressure measurements
and it measures the controlled variable although are often referred to as GP while absolute pressure
le

no graduated scale is present. measurement is referred to as AP.

ro

Another example is an electronic pressure Another form of pressure measurement is

transmitter where the pressure actuates a capacitor differential pressure. Differential pressure is the
t
Pe

whose change results in a control signal from the difference between a low pressure and a high pres-
transmitter. In this case, the primary element is the sure at some point in a system. Gauges that measure
capacitor and it measures the controlled variable. pressure differences are differential-pressure, or dP,
gauges.

85
 7

in
Temperature Measurement and Control

st
Au
M

at
odern technology has vastly improved tem- dependency between temperature and pressure and
perature measurement and control. While between temperature and volume. Also important,

s
many mechanical, pneumatic, and hydraulic tech- but not as obvious as temperature-pressure and

xa
niques for temperature measurement are still in use, temperature-volume relationships, is the relation
electronic measuring devices have made significant between humidity and temperature. Humidity is

Te
inroads. Indeed, electronic measurement is now a measure of air’s ability to contain moisture at
considered the standard method of temperature different temperature levels.

of
measurement and control. Inferential temperature measurement takes
Temperature is the most important variable many forms, including the expansion and contrac-

ity
encountered in automatic control, yet its quantitative tion of metals (bimetallic thermometers), changes
value cannot be readily determined by direct means. in volume and pressure of liquids and gases (filled-
Regardless of how it is determined, temperature rssystem thermometers), change in electrical properties
ve
has a profound effect on almost every process. (Its (resistance and thermocouples), and radiation energy
effect on personal comfort alone shows that it can that produces color and brightness (pyrometers).
ni

bring about some spectacular events.) Temperature Figure 7.1 charts the devices and the temperature
U

frequently acts with other variables to produce inter- ranges they measure. The chart also divides each of
related effects. Well known physical laws establish
e
Th

DEGREES CELSIUS
n-

0 100 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200 1,400 1,600 1,800 2,000
Copper & Constantan
io

Iron & Constantan

ns

THERMOCOUPLES Chrome & Alumel

Platinum & Platinum-Rhodium
te

Tungsten-Rhenium & Tungsten-Rhenium

Ex

Low-Range Radiation
Medium-Range Radiation
High-Range Radiation
um

PYROMETERS
Optical
le

Resistance
ro

Mercury
t

FILLED Liquid
Pe

THERMOMETERS Vapor Pressure

Gas

BIMETAL
ELEMENTS
Figure 7.1 Types of temperature-measuring devices and their ranges
0 273 1,273 2,273

107 KELVIN
 
Liquid-Level Measurement and Control

in
st
Au
L iquid level is a process measurement that can MECHANICAL LEVEL SENSORS

at
be achieved directly and is therefore easy to Direct-Reading Instruments
understand. In simple terms, level is a length mea- People probably first measured liquid levels with a

s
surement. However, its value can also be inferred by

xa
stick or rod. The stick determined the depth of a pond
using various techniques and devices. or a stream. In many instances, we still use graduated
Many processes that deal with liquid products

Te
sticks and rods. For example, we use dipsticks to
include level measurement. In flow processes, for check oil level in an engine and gauge, or sounding,
example, level is often measured and controlled to rods to measure fuel in buried storage tanks. Chains,

of
keep enough fluid in a tank to equalize inflow and or lead lines, fitted with weights on their ends, gauge
outflow. Also, accurate level measurement and con-

ity
the depth of water off the bow of a ship. And, per-
trol is very important to companies that sell products. sonnel unwind steel tapes fitted with plumb bobs to
The amount of revenue a liquid product generates is
usually based on how much of it is in a sales tank, or rsdetermine, or gauge, liquid level in petroleum storage
ve
tanks. These methods are reasonably accurate when
a container. Consequently, accurate measurement of correlated to a specific temperature. Such measure-
liquid level is vital.
ni

ments must be correlated with temperature because

U

liquids in a vessel or tank expand and contract with

DEFINING LEVEL MEASUREMENT temperature changes. Expansion and contraction alter
e

the level of the liquid in the tank.

Liquid level is usually measured in length units such
Th

A gauge cock is a valve mounted on the side of

as in., ft, m, cm, and yards. The length, or height,
a storage tank. When opened, liquid flows from it if
n-

of the liquid is based on a reference point located

the liquid in the tank is at least as high as the gauge
at or near the bottom of its container and the top
io

cock. Several gauge cocks installed on the side of a

surface of the liquid. Measuring actual liquid height
tank can give an approximate measure of liquid level.
ns

is a direct measurement—that is, nothing is inferred

A sight, or gauge, glass mounted on the side of
by indirect means.
te

a liquid tank gives a visual indication of level (fig.

On the other hand, level measurement can
8.1A and B). Open-ended sight glasses are used on
Ex

be made by inference. For example, level can be

determined from the weight, or head pressure, that a
liquid exerts in a tank. In this case, the specific grav-
um

A OPEN-END B CLOSED-LOOP
ity of the liquid must be known so it can be related SIGHT GLASS SIGHT GLASS
to a standard reference, which is the specific gravity
le

of water. Since water has a specific gravity of 1.0,

ro

other liquids are either heavier or lighter and their

head pressures vary accordingly. Since water is the
t
Pe

reference when measuring level by means of head

pressure, liquid level is usually stated in terms of in. SCALE
of water (H2O) in the conventional system. In the
SI system, kPa is the preferred term, but millimetres Figure 8.1 Basic types of sight glasses. A, open or
(mm) of water can also be used. vented vessel; B, pressurized vessel

125
 9
Flow Measurement

in
st
Au
F luid flow must be controlled if the flow regu- fluid volumes because the mass of a quantity of

at
lates such variables as temperature, pressure, liquid or gas does not change with temperature.
or liquid level. Controlling fluid flow to regulate For example, military and commercial aviation ex-

s
variables requires that the flow itself be a manipu- press the quantity of gasoline, or other fuel that an

xa
lated variable. The fluid is the control agent, and aircraft carries, in terms of mass, usually in pounds
temperature, pressure, or liquid level is the controlled (lb). Mass measurement is a much more accurate

Te
variable. In flow measurement, fluid flow is treated indication of the energy available from a fuel than
as a controlled variable because it is measured and volume measurement.

of
controlled to determine the quantity of fluid used In many areas, however, volume measurement
or produced in a system or process. of fluids still prevails, despite its deficiencies. We still

ity
buy gasoline by the gal (L) and natural gas by the ft3

DEFINING FLOW MEASUREMENT rs(m3). But, when companies transport and sell large
quantities of fluid, they often state the conditions of
ve
temperature and pressure, which provide a way to
Units
determine the mass of the fluid.
ni

Flow measurement is the process of determining the

U

quantity of fluid that passes a particular point in a

given interval of time. Thus, gallons (gal) or litres (L) Dimensions
e

of water per minute (min), cubic feet (ft3) or cubic Liquid-level measurement has one simple dimension:
Th

metres (m3) of gas per hour (hr), and barrels (bbl) or length. Flow measurement is more complex because
n-

m3 of oil per day are measurements of flow. it has two dimensions: volume and time, or mass
A quantity of fluid can be expressed as a volume and time. We can determine fluid mass if we know
io

or as a mass. Expression as volume is often flawed be- its density and volume because the mass of a fluid
ns

cause of temperature effects. For example, a gal or L of equals its density times its volume.
gasoline at 40°F (4.4°C) becomes more than a gal or L Sometimes only the total quantity of fluid
te

at 100°F (37.8°C). Automobile owners of earlier days transported, produced, or used is important. In
Ex

sometimes experienced an example of fluid expansion this case, time is not a factor or dimension because
with temperature increases. If they filled their fuel quantity is more important than the speed with
tanks to the very top with cool gasoline and parked which it is transported or used. Many meters, such
um

the car in the sun, they shortly noticed that gasoline as those used for measuring the quantity of natural
ran out the vent hole of the filler cap. The warmth gas, register only the amount of fluid that passes,
le

caused the gasoline to expand in volume. (Modern and not the time-rate of its passage. For example, a
ro

environmental practices prohibit gasoline or its vapors meter may indicate only that 25,000 ft3 (700 m3)
from being vented to the atmosphere.) of gas passed through the meter. Operators call such
t
Pe

Wide variations in volume that accompany devices quantity meters. On the other hand, some
temperature changes in a liquid present a problem so meters measure quantity and time-rate. Such a meter
troublesome that volume measurement has, in some registers, for example, 25,000 ft3/hr (700 m3/hr) of
cases, been abandoned. In many cases, operators and gas. Operators call meters that measure flow in terms
organizations use mass measurement to determine quantity per unit of time rate meters.

143
 10
Flow Control

in
st
Au
C ontrolling the flow of fluids is important when
controlling such process variables as pressure,

at
temperature, and liquid level. When fluid flow
controls process variables, it is a manipulated vari-

s
able. When fluid flow produces a change in the rate

xa
ALLEN
WRENCH CHOKE
of flow from a set point to bring about a corrective NIPPLE

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action in a control system, it is a controlled variable.
Flow control’s use as a controlled variable is limited.
REMOVABLE END VIEW
This chapter discusses types of flow-control

of
FLOW BEAN OR OF CHOKE
CHOKE
devices, considerations involved in flow control, and
applications of flow control.

ity
Figure 10.1 Fixed flow bean
MECHANICAL FLOW CONTROL ELEMENTS rs
ve
Many mechanical devices control fluid flow. One Variable Flow Beans
such device is a manual valve that an operator ad- Another flow bean is adjustable (fig. 10.2). It is a
ni

justs (opens or closes) to control the flow rate and needle valve in a right-angle body. Adjustable flow
U

quantity of fluid. A simple water faucet, or tap, is

an example of a mechanical flow-control device. It
e

not only controls the quantity of water applied to a

Th

lawn or garden, but also the rate at which water is

applied. The position of the water tap’s adjustment
n-

VALVE WHEEL
ADJUSTMENT
valve is important. For example, if you open the valve
io

too wide, water runs off and is wasted.

ns

Fixed Flow Beans

te

A flow bean, or choke, provides fixed flow control—

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that is, the bean, or choke’s opening is not adjustable;

it is a fixed size. Of course, flow beans are available
in several fixed sizes, so that operators can select a INLET
um

size that is appropriate for a particular application. NEEDLE

VALVE
Flow beans often control the flow of natural gas from
le

a well (fig. 10.1). The flow bean is a constriction

ro

that is placed in a special nipple. The nipple is part

of the piping. The flow bean is a metal plug with a
t
Pe

hole drilled through it. It has external threads and

a socket for an Allen, or hex, wrench. The threads
OUTLET
and wrench socket allow an operator to easily change
the flow bean.
Figure 10.2 Adjustable flow bean

157
 11
Gravity, Viscosity, Humidity, and pH

in
st
Au
V ariable factors such as specific gravity, density, to determine the charge in a lead-acid battery or to

at
viscosity, humidity, and pH often modify auto- establish the strength of an antifreeze solution in a
matic control of pressure, temperature, liquid level, cooling system. Although specific gravity measure-

s
and flow rate. Consequently, these variable factors ments may not be important in everyday life, such

xa
must also be accurately measured and controlled. measurements are very important in science and

Te
technology.
In industrial processes, measuring a solution’s
MEASURING SPECIFIC GRAVITY specific gravity is often the simplest and most ac-

of
AND DENSITY curate way to determine the solution’s composition.
The petroleum industry and the Bureau of Mines

ity
Specific gravity expresses a comparison between the
densities of a particular substance and a reference measure the specific gravity of petroleum using API
substance, which is usually water or air. If water is
rsgravity, which is based on the specific gravity of water.
The strength of acid solutions is readily determined
ve
the reference substance, its specific gravity is 1. In
gas-flow measurement, air is the reference substance. by specific gravity. The higher the specific gravity,
ni

Water and air are used almost exclusively for specific the higher is the acid concentration. The charge of
gravity measurements, although oxygen is sometimes a lead-acid storage battery is inferred by measuring
U

used for critical scientific measurement of gases. the specific gravity of its acid.
e

Temperature and pressure affect density, and

API Scale
Th

therefore they must be taken into account when

making specific gravity measurements. However, During the 1920s, the American Petroleum Institute
n-

ordinary pressures can be ignored when dealing with (API) devised and adopted a scale of specific gravity
incompressible liquids. For accurate measurement measurement units called degrees (°) API. Although
io

of liquid density, scientists usually specify double- the scale is different from the ordinary specific gravity
ns

distilled water at 4°C (39.2°F) as the standard. (Water scale, it bears a definite relation to it. The equation
is densest at 4°C.) For accurate measurements of gas for determining API gravity is—
te

density, they usually specify air at a standard tempera- 140

Ex

°API = – 130 (Eq. 11.1)

ture of 0°C and a pressure of 760 mm of mercury. 1
On the other hand, U.S. engineering standards where
um

often specify 60°F and 14.73 psia for temperature G = specific gravity of petroleum with reference
and pressure, although deviations from these values to water, both at 60°F (15.55°C).
are common.
le

As an example, determine the API gravity of water

that has a specific gravity of 1.
ro

Measuring Scales 140

t

°API = – 130
Pe

Ordinarily, people do not measure specific gravity 1

as often as they do temperature, humidity, or at- = 140 − 130
mospheric pressure, which are pertinent to weather °API = 10.
forecasting. However, automobile enthusiasts may As another example, determine the API gravity of
be aware of making specific gravity measurements oil whose specific gravity is 0.9462.

171
 
Programmable Logic Controllers

in
st
Au
T he programmable logic controller (PLC) rep-

at
resents a significant advance in instrumenta- HOT BUS COMMON
RAIL RAIL
tion. Since the PLC’s introduction into automobiles

s
in 1969, it has virtually replaced electromechanical

xa
relays in control circuits. Using solid-state electron- INPUTS OUTPUTS

ic components, a PLC’s reliability and flexibility are

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CR2
ideally suited for harsh industrial environments. CR1
Further, with only minimal hardware changes,

of
technicians can easily reprogram the control cir-
cuit’s ladder logic to suit a particular application.

ity
A computer is the heart of a PLC, and those RUNGS
who first marketed it knew that people were initially
skeptical of computer devices. So, they named it rs
ve
a controller to make it sound familiar to field op-
erators and engineers. In addition, they added the
ni

CR4
terms programmable logic to indicate that operators
U

CR2 CR3
could change the device’s operation with software.
Early PLCs replaced relay logic circuits and
e
Th

hard-wired, solid-state controllers and were known

as discrete, or on-off, controllers. Today’s PLCs are
n-

more complex and powerful, and can handle analog Figure 12.1 Typical relay ladder logic diagram
signals from instruments in the form of current,
io

frequency, and resistance. They can also perform

ns

mathematical comparisons; multiply and divide; symbol form, five relays, contacts, or coils on the
extract square roots; and perform proportional, rungs. They are labeled CR1, CR2, CR3, and CR4.
te

integral, and derivative (PID) functions. Devices and contacts (such as CR1) on the left side
Ex

of the rung are inputs. The devices on the right

side, such as the coil labeled CR2, are outputs. The
PLC OPERATING CONCEPTS lines that connect the input devices to the output
um

Most PLCs have five common building blocks devices on a particular rung are hard wired in relay
that originated from relay ladder logic in control circuits. However, software in the PLC’s program-
le

circuits. Figure 12.1 is a ladder logic diagram that ming terminal also logically connects them. (Logic,
ro

shows several functions. The two vertical lines on in this sense, means the computer and its software
either end of the diagram are bus voltage, or power not only recognize the electrical connection, but
t
Pe

supply, lines. The left line is the hot bus and the also recognize the function each component is de-
right line is the common, or neutral, bus. These signed to perform, and ensures that the components
lines are also called rails in ladder logic terminology. perform them properly.)
The two horizontal lines (the rungs) contain A PLC requires five major hardware compo-
the logic control circuit. Figure 12.1 shows, in nents (fig. 12.2). They are—

189
 Index

in
12-bit A/D converter, 200 ASCII (American Standard Code for Information

st
135-ohm resistors, 46 Interchange), 82, 195, 209–12

Au
asynchronous transmission, 82
atmospheric pressure, 85, 86
A automatic control, 5–6

at
abscissa, 32 automatic reset, for pneumatic controllers, 58
absolute pressure, 85, 86

s
absolute viscosity, 27, 177–78 B

xa
acceleration, 20
back-pressure regulators, 103–4
acid, 185
baffle plates, 66, 67–68

Te
actuators, 39–48
baffles, 53–57
air-loaded diaphragm, 41–42
Bakelite sliding valves, 156
combination, 48
balancing relay, 47

of
diaphragm, 40
barometric pressure, 86
electric, 43–46
bauds, 82

ity
electric-motor-operated, 44–46
Baumé scale, 172
electrohydraulic, 48
electropneumatic, 48
hydraulic, 46–48
rsBCD (binary coded decimal), 195, 209
bellows, 90–91
ve
mechanical, 40 and rate of change, 61
in relief valves, 122
overview, 39–40
ni

and valve positioners, 66–68

piston, 40, 42, 102–3
U

pneumatic, 40–43 bellows orifice meters, 150

reverse-acting diaphragm, 40 bellows-spring assembly, 56
e

solenoid, 43–44 bell-type gauges, 91

Th

spring-loaded diaphragm, 40–41 benefits of instrumentation, 1–2

A/D converter, 200 beta factors, 147
bimetal thermometers, 112
n-

adjustable flow beans, 157–58

air-bubble (air-purge) system, 133, 172–75 binary coded decimal (BCD), 195, 209
io

air compressor controllers, PLC, 104, 105 binary numbering system, 193, 194, 195, 207
BISYNC standard, 82
ns

air compressors, pressure-controlled, 97–98

air-loaded diaphragm actuators, 41–42 boilers, pressure-controlled, 97–98
bonnets, 38
te

air-operated injection pumps, 48–49

air-purge (air-bubble) system, 133, 172–75 Boolean symbols, 190–91
Ex

air relays, 54–55, 62, 68 booster relays, 64–65

air-to-open valves, 67 bottom product discharge rate, 168
Allen-Bradley Panelview, 83 Bourdon gauges, 95
um

Allen-Bradley PLC-5, 196–203 Bourdon tubes/springs, 54, 85, 87–88, 130

ambient temperature, 110 B-type thermocouple, 215–22
le

American Petroleum Institute (API) scale, 171–72 bubble tube, 133

American Standard Code for Information Interchange bulbs, rubber, 92
ro

(ASCII), 82, 195, 209–12 buoyancy instruments, 126–28

t

amount of substance, 17 Bureau of Mines dew-point tester, 184–85

Pe

analog circuits and equipment, 71–73 butterfly valve bodies, 32

analog modules, in PLCs, 201–2
angle-body valves, 31 C
API (American Petroleum Institute) scale, 171–72 cabling, parallel vs. serial, 82
area measurement, 16, 17 CAOs (computer assisted operations), 203

315
 316 BASIC INSTRUMENTATION

capacitance level measurement and controls, 135–36 D

capacitor plates, 135 Dall tubes, 145–46
capacitors, 135 dampeners, 91–92
capacity, 7 data code, 82
capsules, 89

in
data communication equipment (DCE), 82
Celsius, Anders, 109 Data Highway Plus, 83

st
Celsius scale, 16, 18, 109 data terminal equipment (DTE), 82

Au
centimetre-gram-second (cgs), 27 data transfer protocols, 82
centrifugal pumps, 50, 164, 165 data transmission rate, 82
cgs (centimetre-gram-second), 27 DCE (data communication equipment), 82

at
characterized V-port valve plugs, 34 dead band, 7
Charles, Jacques, 109 dead time, 9

s
chokes, 157 decimal numbering system, 192–93, 195

xa
closed-loop control system, 6, 48–49, 80 density, 171–77
closed-loop sight glasses, 125–26 measuring devices, 172–77

Te
closed-tank liquid-level indication, 132 measuring scales, 171–72
coefficient of expansion, 109 SI units of measurement, 17
derivative control, 14

of
coil CR1, 191, 192
combination actuators, 48 dew point, 184–85
diaphragm actuators, 40

ity
commercial pneumatic controllers, 61–64
common buses, 189 diaphragms
computer assisted operations (CAOs), 203
concentric orifices, 147 rs in differential-pressure devices, 158
in gas meters, 155–56
ve
continuous bleed air relays, 62 for level measurement in open tanks, 132–33
control agents, 6 in liquid-level gauges, 90
ni

control, defined, 1 metallic and non-metallic, 88–90

U

controlled variables, 2, 4 in piston pneumatic actuators, 68

controlled-volume pumps, 48–50 slack, 89–90
e

controller set-point regulation by vapor pressure and valve positioners, 66–67

Th

differential, 168–69 why not satisfactory for large differential

pressures, 102
controlling means, 6
n-

dielectric, 135
control of processes
differential pressure, 85, 86, 88, 144
methods or modes of, 9–14
io

differential-pressure devices, 158–59

floating mode control, 10–11
ns

differential-pressure gauges, 90, 92

on-off, or two-position mode, 9–10
differential-pressure transmitters, 80, 137
PID controls, 13–14
te

dimensions, flow measurement, 143

proportional control, 11–12
dimensions of various quantities, 24–27
Ex

proportional plus-reset mode control, 12–13

direct-acting ported valve, 30
proportional plus-reset plus rate, 13 direct measurement, 2–3
need for, 1–2 direct-reading instruments, 125–26
um

types of controls, 4–8 discharge rate, 167–68

control variables, 6 displacer floats, 175–77
le

conventional system of measurement, 15, 17 displacer instruments, 128–30

cooling, evaporative, 182 distributed control systems, 81–83
ro

copper 295–96 double-ported valves, 29, 30

t

copper-constantan thermocouple, 114 draft gauges, 90

Pe

critically damped responses, 204 dry-bulb thermometers, 183

C-tube, 88 DTE (data terminal equipment), 82
current transmitters, two-wire, 93–94, 118–20 D valves, 156
Cv (flow coefficient), 34 dynamic viscosity, 177–78
cycling, 6–7 dyne, 27
 Index 317

E Engler degree system, 179

eccentric orifices, 147 Engler seconds system, 178
EEPROM memory, 121, 190 English system of measurement, 15
ephemeris second, 18
EIA (Electrical Industries Association), 82
equal percentage valve plugs, 35

in
electric actuators, 43–46
ergonomics, 83
electrical current, units of measurement for, 17

st
error control, 82–83
Electrical Industries Association (EIA), 82
E-type thermocouple, 223–28

Au
electrical level measuring devices, 134–38
evaporative cooling, 182
electrical noise, 93–94
expansion, coefficient of, 109
electric fields, 20

at
electric liquid-level controllers, 134, 135
electric-motor-operated actuators, 44–46 F

s
electric variable-speed drive, 50 Fahrenheit, Gabriel, 108

xa
electrodes, 135 Fahrenheit scale, 18–19, 108
electrohydraulic actuators, 48 feedback, 5–6

Te
electrolytes, 186 feed-rate control, 166–67
electronic automatic controls, 71–84 filled temperature systems, 110–12
analog circuits and equipment, 71–73

of
filters, for pneumatic actuators, 43
distributed control systems, 81–83 final control elements, 29–50
human-machine-interface (HMI), 83–84

ity
actuators, 39–48
modes of control and control loops, 73–78 combination, 48
overview, 73–74
proportional control mode, 74–76 rs
electric, 43–46
hydraulic, 46–48
ve
proportional-plus-integral control (PI), or mechanical, 40
proportional-plus-reset mode, 76–77 overview, 39–40
ni

proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative (PID) pneumatic, 40–43

U

control, or proportional-plus-reset-plus-rate controlled-volume pumps, 48–50

mode, 77–78 overview, 6
e

programmable logic controllers (PLC) control sizing and piping arrangements, 39

Th

systems, 79–81 valves, 29–39

specialized flow computers, 81 characteristics of, 32–34
n-

system stability and loop tuning, 78–79 design details, 37–39

electronic differential-pressure flowmeters, 151 guides and seats for, 36
io

electronic flow controllers, 159–62 plugs for, 34–36

ns

electronic flow sensors and meters, 150–56 trim of, 36–37

electronic differential-pressure flowmeters, 151 valve bodies, 29–32
te

magnetic flowmeters, 151–52 variable-volume pumps, 50

mass flowmeters, 152–53 fixed flow beans, 157
Ex

positive displacement meters, 154–56 flappers, 53–57

turbine flowmeters, 153 in differential-pressure devices, 158
vortex flowmeters, 153–54 in displacer instruments, 130
um

electronic pressure measurement, 92–95 in Foxboro Model 40 pneumatic controller, 64

electronic temperature sensors, 112–17 and rate of change, 61
le

electronic temperature transmitters, 117–21 flexure tube, 130

electronic transmitter configurations, 94 floating control, 10–11, 45
ro

electropneumatic actuators, 48 floats, 126–28, 129–30, 175–77

t

elevation of zero, 137, 138 flow beans, 157–58

Pe

end connections, for valves, 38–39 flow characteristics of valves, 32–34

energy flow coefficient (Cv ), 34
kinetic, 16, 23, 24 flow control, 157–70
potential, 23, 24 electronic flow controllers, 159–62
units of measurement for, 17, 22–24 in fractionating columns, 166
 318 BASIC INSTRUMENTATION

integral flow controllers, 162–69 gauges

control of fraction withdrawal rate, 166–69 bell-type, 91
flow control in fractionating columns, 166 Bourdon, 95
gas and steam flow control, 162–63 differential-pressure, 90, 91, 92
liquid flow control, 163–65 draft, 90

in
mechanical flow control elements, 157–59 liquid-level, diaphragms used in, 90

st
flow measurement, 143–56 McLeod, 87, 95
defining, 143 Pirani, 95–96

Au
electronic flow sensors and meters, 150–56 thermocouple vacuum, 96–97
electronic differential-pressure flowmeters, 151 GENET system, 83

at
magnetic flowmeters, 151–52 globe valve bodies, 29–30
mass flowmeters, 152–53 gold-leaf grids, 184

s
positive-displacement meters, 154–56 gram, 20

xa
turbine flowmeters, 153 gravitational force, 19
vortex flowmeters, 153–54 gravitational force, determining mass by balancing, 21

Te
flow rate, 2, 26 gravity, specific, 26, 171–77
mechanical flow sensors and meters, 144–50 Gray binary code, 195, 212
bellows orifice meters, 150 guides and seats, for valves, 36

of
calculating flow velocity, 148–49
installation arrangements for primary H

ity
elements, 148
mercury manometer orifice meters, 149 Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 182
restrictive elements, 144–47
rs
HART (highway addressable remote transducer), 160
HAT pressure switches, 191, 192
ve
variable-area meters, 150
flow nozzles, 144, 146 head meters, 144
head pressure, 87, 125, 144
ni

flow regulators, 123

flow velocity, calculating, 148–49 heat, units of measurement for, 17
U

fluidity, 178 helical Bourdon tube, 88

fluid-straightening vanes, 148 helical elements, 112
e

force, units of measurement for, 17, 19–22 hexadecimal numbering system, 194, 195, 208–9
Th

force-balance sensing devices, 158 H-H pressure switches, 191

four-wire voltage transmitters, 72, 92–93 high high-level switch (hi-hi LS), 138–39
n-

Foxboro Model 40 pneumatic controller, 63, 64 high-pressure regulators, 102–3

fractionating columns, 166 high-vacuum range, 95
io

frequency, units of measurement for, 17 highway addressable remote transducer (HART), 160
ns

frequency-counter-to-binary converter, 201–2 hi-hi LS (high high-level switch), 138–39

friction, and valve positioners, 65–66 HMI (human-machine-interface), 83–84, 195
te

horsepower, 24
hot buses, 189
Ex

G hot-water temperature, 4–5

gain, 12 human-machine-interface (HMI), 83–84, 195
gallons, 16 humidity
um

gas and steam flow control, 162–63 measuring, 180–85

gases, measuring electrical effects occurring in, 95–96 overview, 107
le

gas-filled systems, 111–12 hunting. See cycling

gas lines, pressure relief valves in, 99–100 hydrates, 184
ro

gas meters, 154–56 hydraulic actuators, 46–48

t

gas-operated injection pumps, 48–49 hydrogen ions, 185

Pe

gas thermal conduction, 95 hydrometers, 172

gate valve bodies, 32 hydrostatic level measurements, 134
gauge cocks, 125 hydrostatic pressure, 3, 86, 98
gauge glasses, 125–26 hydrostatic pressure instruments, 131
gauge pressure, 85, 86 hygroscopic materials, 182
 Index 319

I liquid-in-glass thermometers, 109–10

liquid-level control, 4, 138–40
IBM’s BISYNC standard, 82
liquid-level controllers, electric, 134, 135
Imperial gallon, 16
liquid-level gauges, diaphragms used in, 90
inferential measurement, 2–3
liquid-level measurement, 125–38

in
injection pumps, 48–49
defined, 125
instrument, defined, 1

st
electrical level measuring devices, 134–38
instrumentation
mechanical level sensors, 125–34

Au
defined, 1
air-bubble (air-purge) system, 133
need for, 1–2
buoyancy instruments, 126–28
integral control, 14, 76. See also PID controls

at
direct-reading instruments, 125–26
integral flow controllers, 162–69
displacer instruments, 128–30
control of fraction withdrawal rate, 166–69

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hydrostatic level measurements in pressurized
flow control in fractionating columns, 166

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vessels, 134
gas and steam flow control, 162–63
hydrostatic pressure instruments, 131
liquid flow control, 163–65

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level measurement in open tanks, 131–33
integrator, 76
liquid manometers, 91
intermediate-pressure regulators, 100–101
lithium chloride, 184

of
International System of Units (Système International
litmus paper, 186
D’unités), 16, 17
logarithmic flow, 32
I/P transducer, 159

ity
logarithms, 185
iron-constantan thermocouple, 114
logic numbering systems, 192–95
ISO 646, 82
isobutane, 168 rs
loop tuning, 78–79
ve
LOPs (low oil pressure switches), 191, 192
isolation seal, 92
louvers, 50
ni

lower range value (LRV), 72, 73, 136

J low flows, valve plugs for, 36
U

J-type thermocouple, 229–33 low oil pressure switches (LOPs), 191, 192
low-pressure regulators, 101–2
e

LRV (lower range value), 72, 73, 136

Th

K luminous intensity, 17
Kelvin, Lord, 108, 109
n-

Kelvin scale, 16, 18, 109

M
kilogram, 20
io

kilopascals (kPa), 85 magnetic fields, 19–20

ns

kilowatt-hours, 24 magnetic flowmeters, 151–52, 162

kinematic viscosity, 27, 178 manipulated variables, 6
te

kinetic energy, 16, 23, 24 man-machine-interface (MMI). See human-machine-

K-type thermocouple, 234–41 interface (HMI)
Ex

manometers, 25–26
liquid, 91
L mercury manometer orifice meters, 149
um

ladder logic programming, 190–92 U-tube, 25–26, 149

lathe-turned valve plugs, 35 manual control, 4–5
le

length, units of measurement for, 16–18 mass

level measurement. See liquid-level measurement converting to volume, 26
ro

linearity, 73 determining by balancing gravitational force, 21

t

linear valve plugs, 35–36 units of measurement for, 17, 19–22

Pe

line pressure, 86 mass flowmeters, 26, 152–53

liquid-and-mercury-filled thermometers, 110, 111 McLeod gauges, 87, 95
liquid flow control, 163–65 measured variable (MV) feedback signal, 75
liquid-heating system, proportional controller measurement
in, 57 need for, 1–2
 320 BASIC INSTRUMENTATION

units of, 15–28 N

comparison of systems of units, 15–16 network sharing, 83
for dimensions of various quantities, 24–27 neutral buses, 189
for length, 16–18 newton, 16, 20, 25
for mass, weight and force, 19–22

in
nickel 112, 292–94
Système International (SI) D’unités nickel-iron alloy, 112

st
(International System of Units), 16 noise, electrical, 93–94
for temperature, 18–19

Au
nonbleed air relays, 62
for time, 18
non-metallic diaphragms, 89–90
for work and energy, 22–24
nozzles, 53–57
mechanical actuators, 40

at
in differential-pressure devices, 158
mechanical flow sensors and meters, 144–50
in displacer instruments, 130
bellows orifice meters, 150

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flow, 144, 146
calculating flow velocity, 148–49

xa
in Foxboro Model 40 pneumatic controller, 64
installation arrangements for primary
and rate of change, 61
elements, 148

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and valve positioners, 66–67
mercury manometer orifice meters, 149
N-type thermocouple, 242–49
restrictive elements, 144–47
numbering systems and codes, 207–12

of
variable-area meters, 150
American Standard Code for Information
mechanical level sensors, 125–34
Interchange (ASCII), 209–12

ity
air-bubble (air-purge) system, 133
Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) Code, 209
buoyancy instruments, 126–28
binary number system, 207
direct-reading instruments, 125–26
displacer instruments, 128–30 rs
gray code, 212
ve
hexadecimal number system, 208–9
hydrostatic level measurements in pressurized
octal number system, 194, 195, 207–8
vessels, 134
ni

hydrostatic pressure instruments, 131

U

level measurement in open tanks, 131–33 O

mechanical pressure instruments, protection octal numbering system, 194, 195, 207–8
e

of, 91–92 Ohm’s law, 71

Th

mechanical pressure measurement, 87–92 one-fourth amplitude responses, 204

mechanical reset adjustments, for pneumatic on-off level control, 134, 138–39
n-

controllers, 58 on-off mode, 9–10

mechanical temperature sensors, 109–12 on-off programmable logic controllers (PLCs), 104, 105
io

mercury manometer orifice meters, 149 op amps (operational amplifiers), 72

ns

mercury, millimetres of, 87 open air trap, 133

mercury thermometers, 109–10 open-ended sight glasses, 125–26
te

Meritape liquid-level sensor, 136 open-loop control system, 203–4

metallic diaphragms, 88–90 combined with closed-loop system, 48–49
Ex

metres, 16 compared with proportional-plus-integral control, 77

micrometres, 87 overview, 6
open-sequence control system. See open-loop control
um

miles, 16
millimetres of mercury, 87 system
millivoltmeter with thermocouple, 115 open-tank liquid-level indication, 132
le

mixing valves, regulated, 122 operational amplifiers (op amps), 72

operators. See actuators
ro

MMI (man-machine-interface). See human-machine-

interface (HMI) optical pyrometers, 115–17
t

Modbus system, 83 ordinate, 33

Pe

modified linear valve plugs, 34 orifice plates, 146–47, 163, 164

molecular motion, 108 orifices, 144, 147
multiple-capacity system, 7 orifice-to-pipe diameter, 147
multivariable flowmetering, 160 overdamped responses, 204
MV (measured variable) feedback signal, 75 oxides of thermoresistive elements, 114
 Index 321

P barometric, 86
Panelview, 83 differential, 85, 86, 88, 144
parallel cabling, 82 hydrostatic, 3, 86, 98
pascals, to express pressure, 25 measurement of, 2, 25–26, 85–97
electronic, 92–95

in
pH factor, 27, 185–87
PI (proportional-plus-integral control), or mechanical, 87–92

st
proportional-plus-reset mode, 76–77 pressure scales, 85
sensors for, 87

Au
PID controls, 13–14, 202–3
units of, 17, 85–87
PID input modules, 202–3
vacuum, 95–97
piezometer ring, 175

at
overview, 2
pilot-operated controller, 128
pressure control, 97–105
pilot valve, 128
devices for, 97–102

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pipeline pumps, 193

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overview, 97–98
piping arrangements, for valves, 39
pressure regulators, 100–104
Pirani gauges, 95–96

Te
pressure relief valves, 98–100
piston actuators, 40, 42, 102–3
pressure controllers, 104
platinum, 113–14
pressure regulators, 51–52, 100–104
platinum 100, 272–81

of
pressure relief valves, 98–100
platinum 200, 282–86
pressure taps, 144–45, 148
platinum 500, 287–91

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pressurized vessels, hydrostatic level measurements
PLC (programmable logic controller) card, 139 in, 134
PLCs. See programmable logic controllers (PLCs)
plugs, for valves, 34–36 rs
primary elements, 4, 6
process reaction rate, 8
ve
pneumatic actuators, 40–43 process variables. See variable quantities
pneumatic automatic controls, 51–69 programmable logic controller (PLC) card, 139
ni

automatic reset, 58–59 programmable logic controllers (PLCs), 79–81, 104,

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commercial pneumatic controllers, 61–64 105, 151, 189–205

fixed and variable orifices, 52–55 analog inputs and outputs, 198–202
e

mechanical reset adjustments, 58 applications and loop tuning, 203–5

Th

operation of, 57–58 brands of, 195–203

pressure regulators, 51–52 and electronic flow controllers, 159–62
n-

proportional controllers, 55–57 operating concepts, 189–95

rate of response adjustments, 59–60 ladder logic programming, 190–92
io

summary of controller action, 60–61 logic numbering systems, 192–95

ns

valve positioners, 65–69 processor characteristics, 192

volume booster relays, 64–65 special interface modules, 202–3
te

pneumatic piston actuators, 42 temperature control, 123–24

poise, 27 proportional band, 11–12, 13
Ex

poppets, 34, 51 proportional band controllers, 104

positioners, for valves, 41, 42, 65–69 proportional control, 11–12
positive-displacement meters, 154–56 proportional controllers, 55–57
um

positive-displacement pumps, 48, 164, 165 proportional control mode, 74–76

positive-flow indicator, 133 proportional level measurement and controls, 135–37
le

potential energy, 23, 24 proportional-plus-integral control (PI), or proportional-

potentiometer, 74 plus-reset mode, 76–77
ro

pound, 15, 20–21 proportional-plus-integral-plus-derivative (PID)

t

power controls, 13–14, 202–3

Pe

relation to work and energy, 24 proportional-plus-reset controller, 59–60

units of measurement for, 17 proportional plus-reset mode control, 12–13
pressure proportional plus-reset plus rate, 13
absolute, 85, 86 proportional-plus-reset-plus-rate mode, 77–78
atmospheric, 85, 86 protocols, data transfer, 82
 322 BASIC INSTRUMENTATION

psychrometers, 183 resistance-level measurement, 136–37

pulsation dampeners, 91–92 resistance temperature detector (RTD), 118, 160. See
pumping wells, injection pumps for, 48–49 also RTD-type thermocouple
pumps resistance vs. wire diameter, 213
air-operated injection, 49 response lag, 6

in
centrifugal, 50, 164, 165 restricted range level controller, 127

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controlled-volume, 48–50 restrictive elements, 144–47
gas-operated injection, 48–49 reverse-acting diaphragm actuators, 40

Au
injection, 48–49 reverse-acting ported valve, 30
pipeline, 193 reversible motors, floating control of, 45

at
positive-displacement, 48, 164, 165 RTD (resistance temperature detector), 118, 160
reciprocating piston, 48 RTD-type thermocouple, 272–96

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variable-volume, 50 copper 10, 295–96

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pyrometers, optical, 115–17 nickel 120, 292–94
platinum 100, 272–81

Te
platinum 200, 282–86
Q platinum 500, 287–91
QR (quadrate rate) card, 160 R-type thermocouple, 250–58

of
quadrate rate (QR) card, 160 rubber bulbs, 92
quantity meters, 143

ity
quick-opening valve plugs, 34
S

R rs
safety valves. See pressure relief valves
Saybolt, George M., 178
ve
rails, 189 Saybolt Seconds Furol (SSF), 178
range, of voltage transmitters, 72 Saybolt Seconds Universal (SSU), 178
ni

Rankine scale, 18, 108 Saybolt viscometers, 179

U

Rankine, William J.M., 108 scalar quantity, 23

rate meters, 143 scales
e

rate of change, for pneumatic controllers, 60–61 API (American Petroleum Institute), 171–72
Th

rate of flow, 26 Baumé, 172

rate of response adjustments, for pneumatic controllers, Celsius, 16, 18, 109
n-

59–60 Fahrenheit, 18–19, 108

rate response, 13 Kelvin, 16, 18, 109
io

ratio flow control, 168 pressure, 85

ns

reciprocating piston pumps, 48 Rankine, 18, 108

Redwood Admiralty seconds system, 178 spring, 21–22
te

Redwood seconds system, 178 weight-scale modules, 202

reflux, 167, 168 seals, for valves, 37
Ex

regulated mixing valves, 122 segmental orifices, 147

regulators sensors. See names of specific sensors
flow, 123 serial cabling, 82
um

pressure, 51–52, 100–104 set points, 4

spring-loaded, 52 adjustment signal, 75
le

relative viscosity, 178 changing with electronic controllers, 12

relays and proportional plus-reset mode control, 12–13
ro

air, 54–55, 62, 68 responses to changes above, 204

t

balancing, 47 sg (specific gravity), 26, 171–77

Pe

booster, 64–65 SI (Système International) D’unités (International

relief valves, 122 System of Units), 16, 17
rerange, 72 sight glasses, 125–26
reset, for pneumatic controllers, 58, 60–61 signal inaccuracy, 93–94
resistance, 7–8 single-capacity system, 7
 Index 323

single-ported globe valve bodies, 30 conventional and SI units, 17

slack diaphragms, 89–90 defining, 108–9
sliding friction, and valve positioners, 65–66 electronic temperature sensors, 112–17
sling psychrometers, 183 electronic temperature transmitters, 117–21
small flow-rate bodies, 32 mechanical temperature sensors, 109–12

in
smart mass-flow transmitter, 160, 161 methods of, 2

st
smart temperature transmitters, 120–21 overview, 107–8
smart transmitters, 94 units of, 18–19

Au
solenoid actuators, 43–44 Wheatstone bridges, 117
span, of voltage transmitters, 72 temperature sensors, 213–95

at
specialized flow computers, 81 electronic, 112–17
specific gravity (sg), 26, 171–77 resistance vs. wire diameter, 213
thermocouple wire identification, 213

s
specific viscosity, 178

xa
spiral Bourdon tube, 88 type B thermocouple, 215–22
split-body valves, 31 type E thermocouple, 223–28

Te
spring-loaded diaphragm actuators, 40–41 type J thermocouple, 229–33
spring-loaded regulators, 52 type K thermocouple, 234–41
springs, 20 type N thermocouple, 242–49

of
springs, equations for energy in, 23, 24 type RTD thermocouple
spring scales, 21–22 copper 10, 295–96

ity
square metres, 25 nickel 120, 292–94
square units, 16 platinum 100, 272–81
SSF (Saybolt Seconds Furol), 178
rs
platinum 200, 282–86
platinum 500, 287–91
ve
SSU (Saybolt Seconds Universal), 178
Standard RS232, 82 type R thermocouple, 250–58
type S thermocouple, 259–67
ni

state of equilibrium between liquid and

vapor, 182 type T thermocouple, 268–71
U

static friction, 65–66 wire table for standard annealed copper, 214
static pressure, 86 thermocouples, 114
e

steam flow control, 162–63 copper-constantan, 114

Th

steam turbines, 47–48 iron-constantan, 114

stem-guided valve plugs, 36 millivoltmeter with, 115
n-

step change, 8, 9 Type B, 215–22

stoke, 27 Type E, 223–28
io

Stokes, Sir Frederick, 177–78 Type J, 229–33

ns

stuffing boxes, 37 Type K, 234–41

S-type thermocouple, 259–67 Type N, 242–49
te

sumps, 43 Type R, 250–58

suppression of transmitters, 138 Type RTD, 272–96
Ex

synchronous transmission, 82 copper 10, 295–96

Système International (SI) D’unités (International nickel 120, 292–94
um

System of Units), 16, 17 platinum 100, 272–81

platinum 200, 282–86
platinum 500, 287–91
le

T Type S, 259–67
TD1 pressure switches, 191 Type T, 268–71
ro

Teflon, 37 thermocouple vacuum gauges, 96–97

t

temperature thermocouple wire identification, 213

Pe

ambient, 110 thermometers

control of, 121–24 bimetal, 112
automatic, 5 dry-bulb, 183
manual, 4–5 filled temperature systems, 110–12
measurement of, 107–21 gas-filled, 111–12
 324 BASIC INSTRUMENTATION

liquid-and-mercury-filled, 110 V
liquid-in-glass, 109–10 vacuum pressure measurement, 95–97
vapor pressure, 110 valves, 29–39
wet-bulb, 183 air-to-open, 67
thermoresistive elements, 113–14

in
angle-body, 31
Thompson, William, 108, 109 Bakelite sliding, 156

st
threaded fittings, for valves, 38 butterfly valve bodies, 32
three-way valves, 31–32, 130

Au
characteristics of, 32–34
throttling range. See proportional band design details, 37–39
throttling valve plugs, 35, 39 direct-acting ported, 30

at
throttling valves, 163, 164, 165 double-ported, 29, 30
time, units of measurement for, 17, 18 D valves, 156

s
top product discharge rate, 167–68 flow characteristics of, 32–34

xa
torque tubes, 129–30 gate valve bodies, 32
transfer lag, 9 globe valve bodies, 29–30

Te
transmission rate, data, 82 guides and seats for, 36
pilot, 128
transmitters
plugs for, 34–36

of
differential-pressure, 80, 137 positioners for, 41, 42, 65–69
electronic temperature, 94, 117–21 pressure relief, 98–100

ity
four-wire, 72 regulated mixing valves, 122
smart mass-flow transmitters, 160, 161 relief valves, 122
smart temperature transmitters, 120–21
rs
reverse-acting, 30, 67
safety. See pressure relief valves
ve
smart transmitters (in general), 94
suppression of, 138 single-ported globe valve bodies, 30
split-body, 31
ni

two-wire current transmitters, 72, 93–94, 118–20

voltage, 71–72, 92–93 three-way, in displacer instruments, 130
U

transportation lag, 9 throttling, 163, 164, 165

trim of, 36–37
trim, of valves, 36–37
e

valve bodies, 29–32

T-type thermocouple, 268–271
Th

vapor. See humidity

turbine flowmeters, 153, 160–61
vapor pressure, 181
turbines, steam, speed control system for, 47–48
n-

vapor pressure differential, 168–69

two-position mode, 9–10
vapor pressure thermometers, 110, 111
io

two-wire transmitters, 72, 93–94, 118–20

variable-area meters, 150
ns

variable flow beans, 157–58

U variable orifices, 52
te

U.S. gallon, 16 variable quantities, 1

ultra-high vacuum range, 95 variable-speed motors, 140
Ex

underdamped responses, 204 variable-volume pumps, 50

units of measurement, 15–28 vector quantity, 23
um

comparison of systems of units, 15–16 velocity, 17

for dimensions of various quantities, 24–27 venturi effect, 101
flow measurement, 143 venturi sections, 145–46
le

for length, 16–18 viscometers, 179

ro

for mass, weight, and force, 19–22 viscosity, 27, 177–80

Système International (SI) D’unités (International voltage transmitters, 71–72, 92–93
t

System of Units), 16 volume

Pe

for temperature, 18–19 converting from mass to, 26

for time, 18 units of measurement for, 17
for work and energy, 22–24 volume booster relays, 64–65
upper range value (URV), 93 vortex flowmeters, 153–54, 162
U-tube manometer, 25–26, 149 V-port valve plugs, 34
 Index 325

W work, units of measurement for, 17, 22–24

water vapor. See humidity working pressure, defined, 86
weight-loaded pressure regulators, 51–52, 103
weight-scale modules, 202 Y

in
weight, units of measurement for, 19–22 yard, 15
welded ends, for valves, 39

st
wells, injection pumps for, 48–49
Z

Au
wet-bulb thermometers, 183
wet leg measurement, 138 zero, elevation of, 137, 138
Wheatstone bridges, 96, 117 Ziegler-Nichols open-loop tuning method, 204

at
wire table for standard annealed copper, 214 Ziegler-Nichols optimum performance method, 79

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 To obtain additional training materials, contact:

in
PETEX

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The University of Texas at Austin
Petroleum Extension Service

Au
1 University Station, R8100
Austin, TX 78712-1100

at
Telephone: 512-471-5940
or 800-687-4132

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FAX: 512-471-9410

xa
or 800-687-7839
E-mail: petex@www.utexas.edu

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or visit our Web site: www.utexas.edu/ce/petex

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To obtain information about training courses, contact:

ity
PETEX
Houston training center
The University of Texas rs
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2700 W. W. Thorne Blvd.
Houston, TX 77073
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Telephone: 281-443-7144
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or 800-687-7052
FAX: 281-443-8722
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E-mail: petexhtc@www.utexas.edu
Th

or visit our Web site: www.utexas.edu/ce/petex

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 Pe
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ISBN 0-88698-197-2
Catalog No. 1.20040
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