SECTION 2

Thermal physics
Topics
2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter
2.2 Thermal properties and temperature
2.3 Transfer of thermal energy
 2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter
2.1.1 States of matter
FOCUS POINTS
★ Know the properties of solids, liquids and gases.
★ Understand that changes in state can occur and know the terms to describe these changes.

In this topic you will learn about the three states of matter: solids, liquids and gases. The particles
in each are ordered differently and this leads to each state having different properties. You will
find that solids have a high level of internal order, a liquid has less, and in a gas the particles have
no order and move about randomly. The state of a material can be altered by heating or cooling. In
a solid the bonds between particles break down on heating and it melts into a liquid; for example,
ice melts into water. Boiling a liquid produces a gas with well separated particles; water turns into
steam. The three states of matter can be represented in a particle diagram.

Matter is made up of tiny particles (atoms,

molecules, ions and electrons) which are too
Properties of solids, liquids
small for us to see directly. But they can be ‘seen’ and gases
by scientific ‘eyes’. One of these is the electron Matter can exist in different states and each state
microscope. Figure 2.1.1 is a photograph taken with has different characteristics.
such an instrument, showing molecules of a protein.
Solids
Molecules consist of even smaller particles called
atoms and these are in continuous motion. Solids have a definite shape and volume and are not
easily compressed. The particles in a solid are close
together and in fixed positions.
When a force is applied to a solid the atoms move
slightly further apart in the direction of the force
and stretching occurs (see Topic 1.5.1). When a solid
is heated (see Topic 2.2), the distance between
atoms increases. If enough energy is supplied to
the solid the atoms move even further apart and
melting into a liquid occurs.
Liquids
Liquids have a definite volume but their shape
depends on the container they are kept in. They are
more easily compressed or stretched than solids and
also expand more when heat is applied. The particles
in a liquid are further apart than they are in a solid
and have a less ordered structure. They are not fixed
in position and can slide over each other when the
liquid is poured. The liquid then takes on the shape
▲ Figure 2.1.1 Protein molecules of the new container.

86
 2.1.2 Particle model

When a liquid is cooled sufficiently, solidification are heated. When a gas is cooled sufficiently it will
occurs and it returns to the solid state. The density return to the liquid state in a process known as
of a material in its solid state is usually higher than condensation.
it is in its liquid state. When a liquid is heated, Drops of water are formed when steam condenses
particles can escape from its surface by a process on a cold window pane, for example.
called evaporation. When sufficient energy is
supplied to the liquid, boiling occurs and the liquid
turns into a gas. Test yourself
Gases 1 Using what you know about the compressibility
(squeezability) of the different states of matter,
Gases have no definite shape or volume as these explain why
depend on the dimensions of the container. The a air is used to inflate tyres
particles in a gas are much further apart than they b steel is used to make railway lines.
are in a liquid and the density of a gas is much lower 2 Identify the processes in which
a a solid turns into a liquid
than that of a liquid. The particles have no ordered b a liquid turns into a gas
structure and are able to move about freely in a c a liquid turns into a solid
random manner. Gases are more easily compressed d a gas turns into a liquid.
than solids or liquids and expand more when they

2.1.2 Particle model

FOCUS POINTS
★ Describe the particle structures of solids, liquids and gases and represent these states using particle
diagrams.
★ Understand how temperature affects the movement of particles.
★ Understand the factors that affect the properties of solids, liquids and gases.
★ Understand the relationship between the kinetic energy of particles and temperature, including the
concept of absolute zero.
★ Know how a change in pressure in a gas affects the motion and number of collisions of its particles.
★ Describe how a change in pressure of a gas affects the forces exerted by particles colliding with surfaces
(force per unit area).

The properties of solids, liquids and gases can be related to the arrangement, separation and motion
of the particles in each. In the previous section, you learnt about the properties of solids, liquids
and gases. In this topic, you will learn that in a gas, the particles are well separated and in constant
random motion, producing pressure on a container by their collisions with its surfaces. In a solid, the
particles are closely arranged and firmly bound together, with a regular pattern in crystals. In a liquid
the particles are further apart, with only local ordering between particles that have more freedom of
movement than those in a solid.

87

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 87 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter

Particle model of matter Liquids

As well as being in continuous motion, particles Structure
(atoms, molecules, ions and electrons) also exert In liquids the particles are slightly further apart than
strong electric forces on one another when they are in solids but still close enough together to have a
close together. The forces are both attractive and definite volume (Figure 2.1.2b). As well as vibrating,
repulsive. The former hold particles together and they can at the same time move rapidly over short
the latter cause matter to resist compression. distances, slipping past each other in all directions.
The particle model can explain the existence of A model to represent the liquid state can be made
the solid, liquid and gaseous states. by covering about a third of a tilted tray with marbles
(‘particles’) (Figure 2.1.4). It is then shaken back and
Solids
forth and the motion of the marbles observed. The
Structure marbles are able to move around but most stay in the
In solids the particles are close together and lower half of the tray, so the liquid has a fairly definite
the attractive and repulsive forces between volume. A few energetic marbles escape from the
neighbouring molecules balance. Also, each ‘liquid’ into the space above. They represent particles
particle vibrates about a fixed position. that have evaporated from the liquid surface and
Particles in a solid can be arranged in a regular, become gas or vapour particles. The thinning out of
repeating pattern like those formed by crystalline the marbles near the liquid surface can also be seen.
substances. Figure 2.1.2a represents the
arrangement of particles in a solid.
a b c
solid liquid gas

▲ Figure 2.1.2 Arrangements of particles in a solid, liquid tilted

and gas tray

Properties
We can imagine springs (Figure 2.1.3) representing marbles
the electric forces between particles that hold them ▲ Figure 2.1.4 A model of particle behaviour in a liquid
together and determine the forces and distances
between them. These forces enable the solid to keep Properties
a definite shape and volume, while still allowing In a liquid the forces between particles are less than
the individual particles to vibrate backwards and in a solid and so the distance between particles
forwards. Owing to the strong forces between is greater. Liquids have a definite volume but
particles, solids resist compression and expand very individual particles can slide over each other and
little when heated. are never near another particle long enough to get
trapped in a regular pattern. This allows liquids to
flow and take on the shape of the vessel containing
them. The forces between particles are strong
enough that liquids are only slightly more easily
compressed than solids. When heated, the particles
move further apart, enabling liquids to expand more
easily than solids. As the temperature increases some
particles may have sufficient energy to escape from
▲ Figure 2.1.3 The electric forces between particles in a the surface of the liquid, resulting in evaporation of
solid can be represented by springs. the liquid.

88

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 88 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.1.2 Particle model

Gases is determined by the volume of the container.

Structure They are easily compressed, and expand much more
than solids or liquids when heated.
The particles in gases are much further apart than in
solids or liquids (about ten times; see Figure 2.1.2c) Temperature and kinetic energy
and so gases are much less dense and can be
squeezed (compressed) into a smaller space. In a solid at room temperature, the particles vibrate
The particles dash around at very high speed (about about fixed positions. When energy is supplied to
500 m/s for air molecules at 0°C) in all the space the solid and its temperature increases, the particles
available. It is only during the brief spells when they vibrate more strongly and the average kinetic energy
collide with other particles or with the surfaces of of the particles increases. When the temperature is
the container that the particle forces act. reduced, the average kinetic energy of the particles
A model of a gas is shown in Figure 2.1.5. reduces, and eventually a temperature is reached
The faster the vibrator works, the more often where particle motion ceases and the kinetic energy
the ball-bearings have collisions with the lid, the of the particles is zero. We call this temperature
tube and with each other, representing a gas at a absolute zero and it occurs at −273°C.
higher temperature. Adding more ball-bearings is
like pumping more air into a tyre; it increases the Pressure and kinetic energy
pressure. If a polystyrene ball (1 cm diameter) is The particle model can explain the behaviour
dropped into the tube, its irregular motion is similar of gases.
to the random way smoke particles behave in air; an Gas pressure
observation that provides evidence for the kinetic
particle model of matter. All the particles in a gas are in rapid random
motion, with a wide range of speeds, and repeatedly
hit and rebound from the surfaces of the container
lid in huge numbers per second.
This causes a force at right angles to the surfaces
of the container or a pressure. When the temperature
Perspex tube of the gas rises, so does the average speed and
kinetic energy of the particles. Collisions with the
surfaces of the container occur more frequently and
ball-bearings so the pressure of the gas increases.
Force and gas pressure
At each collision of a gas particle with a surface of
rubber sheet the container, it undergoes a change of momentum
which produces a force on the surface (see Topic 1.6).
vibrator driven At a constant temperature the average force and
by motor hence the pressure exerted on the surface is
▲ Figure 2.1.5 A model of particle behaviour in a gas constant, since pressure is force per unit area.
When the temperature rises, the average speed of
Properties the particles increases, and the change of momentum
Owing to the high speed and the large distance in collisions with the surfaces of the container
between particles in a gas the interaction between increases so that the average force and hence the
them is small. Gases have no shape and their volume gas pressure increases.

89

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 89 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter

Going further

Practical work
Brownian motion the apparatus and set it on the microscope
The apparatus is shown in Figure 2.1.6a. platform. Connect the lamp to a 12 V supply;
First fill the glass cell with smoke using a the glass rod acts as a lens and focuses light
match (Figure 2.1.6b). Replace the lid on on the smoke.
a

microscope
window

lid
lamp
b glass plate
smoke c
smoke
burning match
glass cell
glass rod glass cell

▲ Figure 2.1.6

Carefully adjust the microscope until you see 1 What are the specks of light in the glass
bright specks dancing around haphazardly cell of the Brownian motion experiment?
(Figure 2.1.6c). The specks are smoke 2 In a glass cell set up to show Brownian
particles seen by reflected light; their random motion, describe how the specks of light
motion is called Brownian motion and is move.
evidence for the kinetic particle model of 3 What do you think might cause
matter. This motion is due to collisions between microscopic particles to move in the way
the microscopic particles in a suspension and they do in a Brownian motion experiment?
the particles of the gas or liquid.

Explanation of Brownian motion

The random motion of the microscopic smoke particles molecule, but if there are more high-speed molecules
in the cell in Figure 2.1.6 is due to random molecular striking one side of it than the other at a given instant,
collisions of fast-moving air molecules in the cell. the particle will move in the direction in which there is a
A smoke particle is massive compared with an air net force. The imbalance, and hence the direction of the
net force, changes rapidly in a random manner.

Test yourself
3 Explain the structure of
a solids
b liquids
c gases.
in terms of the particle model.
4 Explain what is meant by the term absolute zero.

90

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 90 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.1.3 Gases and the absolute scale of temperature

2.1.3 Gases and the absolute scale of temperature

FOCUS POINTS
★ Describe, in terms of particles, the effect of change of temperature or volume on the pressure of a fixed
mass of gas, and the effect of temperature on volume at constant pressure.
★ Use the correct equation to calculate pressure and volume of a fixed mass of gas, and be able to represent
this relationship graphically.
★ Convert temperatures between the Celsius and Kelvin temperature scales using the correct equation.

Gases show the simplest behaviour of the three states of matter and respond to changes of temperature
or volume by a change of pressure. By keeping either volume or temperature constant in an experiment,
their relationships with pressure can be determined and explained in terms of the kinetic particle model
of matter. The properties of gases can be exploited for use in thermometers to measure temperature.
You will be familiar with the Celsius scale of temperature for everyday measurements; the freezing
temperature of water is set at 0°C and the boiling temperature of water at 100°C. In both the Kelvin
and Celsius temperature scales, there are 100 degrees between the freezing temperature and boiling
temperature of water, but the Kelvin scale starts from −273°C where the motion of particles ceases.

Pressure of a gas When a gas is heated, as air is in a jet engine,

its pressure as well as its volume may change.
The air forming the Earth’s atmosphere stretches To study the effect of temperature on these two
upwards a long way. Air has weight; the air in a quantities we must keep one fixed while the other
normal room weighs about the same as you do, is changed. When investigating relationships
about 500 N. Because of its weight the atmosphere between properties only one variable should be
exerts a large pressure at sea level, about changed at a time.
100 000 N/m2 = 105 Pa (or 100 kPa). This atmospheric
pressure acts equally in all directions. Effect on pressure of a change in temperature
A gas in a container exerts a pressure on the (constant volume)
surfaces of the container. If air is removed from a can When a gas is heated and its temperature rises,
by a vacuum pump (Figure 2.1.7), the can collapses the average speed of its particles increases. If the
because the air pressure outside is greater than volume of a fixed mass of gas stays constant, its
that inside. A space from which all the air has been pressure increases because the change of momentum
removed is a vacuum. Alternatively, the pressure in a per second when the particles collide with the
container can be increased, for example by pumping surfaces increases, leading to a larger force per unit
more gas into the can; a Bourdon gauge (Topic 1.8) is area and hence pressure.
used for measuring gas pressures.
Effect on volume of temperature
(constant pressure)
to vacuum
pump
The particles in a gas are free to move about rapidly
and fill the entire volume of the container. When a
can gas is heated and its temperature rises, the average
speed of its particles increases; this means that
there are more frequent collisions with the surfaces
of the container and a hit by a molecule produces a
larger force on the walls. If the pressure of the gas
is to remain constant, the volume of the container
must increase so that the frequency of collisions
▲ Figure 2.1.7 Atmospheric pressure collapses the decreases; that means expansion of the gas must
evacuated can. occur. See Practical work p. 95.
91

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 91 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter

Effect on pressure of a change in volume piston

(constant temperature)
If the volume of a fixed mass of gas is halved by
halving the volume of the container (Figure 2.1.8), V
the number of particles per cm3 will be doubled. cylinder
V
There will be twice as many collisions per second 2
with the surfaces, i.e. the pressure is doubled.
▲ Figure 2.1.8 Halving the volume doubles the pressure.

Practical work
Bourdon
Effect on pressure of temperature (volume rubber tubing
pressure
constant) gauge

Safety
l Eye protection must be worn.
l The Bourdon gauge should be firmly clamped
to prevent toppling.
l Take care with hot apparatus. thermometer
The apparatus is shown in Figure 2.1.9. The
rubber tubing from the flask to the pressure gauge can
should be as short as possible. The flask must
be in water almost to the top of its neck and be water
securely clamped to keep it off the bottom of the
can. The water is heated either by standing the can
flask
on a hot plate or on a tripod over a Bunsen burner. (250 cm3)
Record the pressure over a wide range of
temperatures, but before taking a reading from
the thermometer, stop heating, stir and allow
heat
time for the gauge reading to become steady; the
air in the flask will then be at the temperature of
▲ Figure 2.1.9
the water. Take about six readings and tabulate
the results. Effect on volume of pressure (temperature
constant)
Plot a graph of pressure on the y-axis and
temperature on the x-axis. Changes in the volume of a gas due to pressure
changes can be studied using the apparatus in
4 a Name the independent variable in the Figure 2.1.10. The volume V of air trapped in
experiment. the glass tube is read off on the scale behind.
b Name the dependent variable. The pressure is altered by pumping air from
5 Why must the volume be kept constant in the a foot pump into the space above the oil
experiment? reservoir. This forces more oil into the glass
6 What precautions should you take to obtain tube and increases the pressure p on the air in
accurate results in the experiment? it; p is measured

92

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 92 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.1.3 Gases and the absolute scale of temperature

by the Bourdon gauge. Take about six different 8 A graph of pressure against 1/volume for
measurements. Plot a graph of pressure versus the results of the experiment is shown in
volume as shown in Figure 2.1.11a. Figure 2.1.11b. Name the features of the graph
which suggest that pressure is proportional to
0 0 glass tube 1/volume.
10 10
air a b
20 20 Bourdon gauge p p

30 30

40 40
p
50 50 to foot doubled
oil pump
V
reservoir
halved

▲ Figure 2.1.10 0 V 0 1
V
7 a Name the independent variable in the ▲ Figure 2.1.11
experiment.
b Name the dependent variable.

Variations in gas pressure Worked example

with volume
A certain quantity of gas has a volume of 40 cm3 at a pressure
The variation of the pressure of a fixed mass of gas
of 1 × 105 Pa. Find its volume when the pressure is 2 × 105 Pa.
with changes in volume (at constant temperature) Assume the temperature remains constant.
is shown in Figure 2.1.11a. Close examination of
Using the equation pV = constant we have
the curve shows that if p is doubled, V is halved.
That is, p is inversely proportional to V. In symbols p1V1 = p2V2

p ∝ 1 or p = constant × 1 Rearranging the equation gives

V V V2 = p1 × V1/p2
∴ pV = constant = 1 × 105 Pa × 40 cm3/2 × 105 Pa
If several pairs of readings, p1 and V1, p2 and = 20 cm3
V2, etc. are taken, then it can be confirmed that
p1V1 = p2V2 = constant Now put this into practice
1 A fixed mass of gas has a volume of 9 cm3 at a pressure of
This is Boyle’s law, which is stated as follows: 1 × 105 Pa. Find its volume when the pressure is
The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely 3 × 105 Pa.
2 A certain quantity of gas has a volume of 40 cm3 at a
proportional to its volume if its temperature is kept
pressure of 2 × 105 Pa. Find its pressure when the volume
constant. is 20 cm3.
Since p is inversely proportional to V, then p is
directly proportional to 1/V. A graph of p against
1/V is therefore a straight line through the origin
(Figure 2.1.11b).

93

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 93 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter

Celsius and Kelvin temperature Some metals and compounds become superconductors
of electricity and a current, once started in them,
scales flows forever, without a battery. Figure 2.1.13 shows
The volume–temperature and pressure–temperature research equipment that is being used to create
graphs for a gas are straight lines (Figure 2.1.12). materials that are superconductors at very much
They show that gases expand linearly with higher temperatures, such as −23°C.
temperature as measured on a mercury thermometer,
i.e. equal temperature increases cause equal volume
or pressure increases.
volume or pressure

273°C 0°C temperature

0K 273 K
▲ Figure 2.1.12

The graphs do not pass through the Celsius

temperature origin (0°C). If graph lines are
extrapolated backwards, they cut the temperature
axis at about −273°C. This temperature is called
absolute zero because we believe it is the lowest
temperature possible. It is the zero of the absolute
or Kelvin scale of temperature. At absolute zero
molecular motion ceases and a substance has no
internal energy.
Degrees on this scale are called kelvins and are ▲ Figure 2.1.13 This equipment is being used to make films
denoted by K. They are exactly the same size as of complex composite materials that are superconducting
Celsius degrees. Since −273°C = 0 K, conversions at temperatures far above absolute zero.
from °C to K are made by adding 273. For example
0°C = 273 K Worked example
15°C = 273 + 15 = 288 K a Convert 27°C to K.
100°C = 273 + 100 = 373 K Substitute in the equation T = 273 + θ to give
T = 273 + 27 = 300 K
Kelvin or absolute temperatures are represented by
the letter T, and if θ (Greek letter ‘theta’) stands for a b Convert 60 K to °C.
Rearrange the equation T = 273 + θ to give
degrees Celsius scale temperature then, in general,
θ = T − 273 = 60 − 273 = −213°C
T = 273 + θ
Near absolute zero strange things occur. Liquid Now put this into practice
helium becomes a superfluid. It cannot be kept in 1 Convert 80°C to K.
an open vessel because it flows up the inside of the 2 Convert 100 K to °C.
vessel, over the edge and down the outside.
94

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 94 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.1.3 Gases and the absolute scale of temperature

Practical work

Effect on volume of temperature (pressure The pressure of (and on) the air column is
constant): Charles’ law constant and equals atmospheric pressure plus
the pressure of the acid index.
Safety
ruler
l Eye protection must be worn. (30 cm) thermometer
l Take care as concentrated sulfuric acid
is highly corrosive. Do not touch it if any leaks capillary can
tube
out of the tube.
concentrated
Arrange the apparatus as in Figure 2.1.14. air sulfuric acid
The index of concentrated sulfuric acid traps the column index
air column to be investigated and also dries it. rubber
Adjust the capillary tube so that the bottom of the band
water
air column is opposite a convenient mark on the
ruler.
heat
Note the length of the air column (between the
▲ Figure 2.1.14
lower end of the index and the sealed end of
the capillary tube) at different temperatures 9 a Name the independent variable in the
but, before taking a reading, stop heating and experiment.
stir well to make sure that the air has reached b Name the dependent variable.
the temperature of the water. Put the results in a 10 The results of the experiment are plotted
table. in a graph of volume versus temperature
and appear similar to those shown in
Plot a graph of volume (in cm, since the length
Figure 2.1.12. What do the results indicate
of the air column is a measure of it) on the y-axis
about the relationship between volume and
and temperature (in ºC) on the x-axis.
temperature?

Going further

The gas laws

Using absolute temperatures, the gas laws can be Charles’ law may be stated as follows.
stated in a convenient form for calculations.
The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly
Charles’ law proportional to its absolute temperature if the
pressure is kept constant.
In Figure 2.1.12 the volume–temperature graph passes
through the origin if temperatures are measured on the Pressure law
Kelvin scale, that is, if we take 0 K as the origin. We can
then say that the volume V is directly proportional to the From Figure 2.1.12 we can say similarly for the pressure
absolute temperature T, i.e. doubling T doubles V, etc. p that
Therefore
p ∝ T or p = constant × T
V ∝ T or V = constant × T
or
or
p
V = constant (2)
= constant (1) T
T

95

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 95 30/03/21 1:07 PM

 2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter

The pressure law may be stated as follows. Combining the laws

The pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly The three equations can be combined, giving
proportional to its absolute temperature if the
volume is kept constant. pV
= constant
T
Variations in gas pressure with volume
For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature For cases in which p, V and T all change from, say, p1, V1
and T1 to p2 , V2 and T2 , then
pV = constant (3)
p1V1 p2V2
= (4)
T1 T2

Worked example
A bicycle pump contains 50 cm3 of air at 17°C and at Note that: (i) all temperatures must be in K; (ii) any units
1.0 atmosphere pressure (atm). Find the pressure when can be used for p and V provided the same units are used
the air is compressed to 10 cm3 and its temperature rises on both sides of the equation; (iii) in some calculations
to 27°C. the volume of the gas has to be found at standard
temperature and pressure, or ‘s.t.p.’. This is temperature
We have
0°C and pressure 1 atmosphere (1 atm = 105 Pa).
p1 = 1.0 atm  p2 = ?
Now put this into practice
V1 = 50 cm3 V2 = 10 cm3
1 A fixed mass of gas has a volume of 9 cm3 at a
pressure of 1 × 105 Pa at 27°C. Find its pressure
T1 = 273 + 17 = 290 K T2 = 273 + 27 = 300 K
when the volume is compressed to 5 cm3 and its
temperature rises to 37°C.
From equation (4) we get
2 A certain quantity of gas has a volume of 40 cm3
V T 50 300 at a pressure of 2.0 × 105 Pa at 27°C. Find its
p2 = p1 × 1 × 2 = 1 × × = 5.2 atm
V2 T1 10 290 temperature when the volume is 30 cm3 and the
pressure is 3.2 × 105 Pa.

Test yourself
5 In terms of particle motion describe the effect 7 a Why is −273ºC chosen as the starting
on the pressure of a fixed mass of gas when the temperature for the Kelvin scale of temperature?
temperature rises but the volume is kept constant. b How do the size of units on the Celsius and Kelvin
6 Describe the effect on the pressure of a fixed mass scales of temperature compare?
of gas if the volume is reduced but the temperature
of the gas is kept constant.

96

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 96 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.1.3 Gases and the absolute scale of temperature

Revision checklist
After studying Topic 2.1 you should know and After studying Topic 2.1 you should be able to:
understand: ✔ recall the terms describing changes in state of
✔ the different physical properties of solids, liquids solids, liquids and gases
and gases ✔ explain temperature, absolute zero and change in
✔ particle diagrams for the different states of matter pressure in terms of molecular motion
✔ the different particle structure of solids, liquids ✔ describe the effect on the pressure of a fixed
and gases mass of gas caused by a change in temperature
✔ how the particle model explains the physical (at constant volume) and a change of volume (at
properties of solids, liquids and gases. constant temperature); describe the effect on the
volume of a fixed mass of gas caused by a change
in temperature (at constant pressure)
✔ convert temperatures between the Celsius and
Kelvin scales of temperature using the equation
T (in K) = θ (in °C) + 273
✔ recall and use the equation p1V1 = p2V2 (for a fixed
mass of gas at constant temperature).

97

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 97 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.1 Kinetic particle model of matter

Exam-style questions
1 Solids, liquids and gases are composed of b i E xplain the significance of a
particles. Which one of the following statements temperature of −273°C in terms of
is not true? particle motion.[2]
A The particles in a solid vibrate about a fixed ii State the value of a temperature of
position. −273°C on the Kelvin temperature
B The particles in a liquid are arranged in a scale.[1]
regular pattern. iii Calculate the value of a temperature
C The particles in a gas exert negligibly small of −200°C on the Kelvin scale of
forces on each other, except during collisions. temperature.[1]
D The densities of most liquids are about [Total: 7]
1000 times greater than those of gases
because liquid particles are much closer 5 The piston in Figure 2.1.15 is pulled out of the
together than gas particles. cylinder from position X to position Y, without
[Total: 1] changing the temperature of the air enclosed.
2 Sketch particle diagrams for If the original pressure in the cylinder was
a a solid [2] 1.0 × 105 Pa, calculate
b a liquid [2] a the air pressure when the piston is at position
c a gas. [2] Y [3]
[Total: 6] b the air pressure when the piston is moved
a further 10 cm to the left of position Y. [3]
3 a Identify the state of matter in which the
particles are furthest apart. [1] 30 cm 10 cm
piston
b Explain, using the particle model of matter,
how a gas exerts pressure on the surfaces of
its container. [2]
c State and explain how the pressure
changes when the temperature of the
gas increases. [4]
[Total: 7]
4 a The following statements refer to the pressure Y X cylinder
exerted by a gas in a container. ▲ Figure 2.1.15
State whether each statement is true or false.
i Pressure is due to the particles of the [Total: 6]
gas bombarding the surfaces of the 6 A certain quantity of gas has a volume of 30 cm3
container. [1] at a pressure of 1 × 105 Pa.
ii The pressure decreases if the gas is Assuming the temperature remains constant,
cooled at constant volume. [1] calculate the volume of the gas when the
iii The pressure increases if the volume pressure is
of the container increases at constant a 2 × 105 Pa [3]
temperature.[1] b 5 × 105 Pa. [3]
[Total: 6]

98

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 98 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 Exam-style questions

Alternative to Practical
7 The variation in pressure of a fixed mass of gas is a Plot a graph of pressure against volume. [3]
measured for different volumes. b Calculate values for 1/volume and enter
The results obtained are listed in the following them into the table. [1]
table. c Plot a graph of pressure against 1/volume. [3]
d Are the results in agreement with the
Pressure/105 Pa Volume/cm3 1/volume/cm3 equation pV = constant?[2]
24 1.0 [Total: 9]
12 2.0
8 3.0
6 4.0
4 6.0

99

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 99 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.2 Thermal properties and
temperature
2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
FOCUS POINTS
★ Describe thermal expansion in solids, liquids and gases and know some everyday applications of thermal
expansion.
★ Use the motion and arrangement of particles in solids, liquids and gases to explain the relative order of
magnitudes of their expansion as temperature increases.

As thermal energy is transferred to a material, the particles tend to move further apart. As you saw
in Topic 2.1, the effect on heating a gas is large because the particles are free to move and expansion
can easily occur. Expansion is much smaller in solids but thermal effects in a solid can still be
important in conditions where there are wide temperature variations. Special features to absorb
expansion need to be included in railway tracks and engineered structures such as bridges so that
they do not distort on very hot days. In this topic you will encounter some everyday applications and
consequences of expansion in solids and liquids.
When solids, liquids and gases are heated, the magnitude of the expansion for a given temperature
rise is less for a liquid than a gas and even less for a solid where the particles are close together and
the force of attraction between them is high.

Thermal expansion The particles in a liquid are further apart, less

ordered and are more mobile than in a solid so
According to the kinetic particle model (Topic 2.1.2) the interaction between the particles is less and
the particles of solids and liquids are in constant expansion is easier for liquids than for solids.
vibration. When heated they vibrate faster, so force Liquids typically expand about five times more
each other a little further apart and expansion results. than solids for a given temperature rise. In gases,
the interactions between particles are few because
Relative expansion of solids, liquids they are far apart and move about very quickly;
and gases this means they are able to expand much more
The linear (length) expansion of solids is small and easily than liquids. Typically, gases expand about
for the effect to be noticed, the solid must be long 20 times more than liquids for a given temperature
and/or the temperature change must be large. For a rise. These figures indicate that gases expand much
1 m length of steel the linear expansion is 0.012 mm more readily than liquids, and liquids expand more
for a 1°C rise in temperature. readily than solids.

100
 2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases

Uses of expansion Fire alarm

Axles and gear wheels are major components of Heat from the fire makes the bimetallic strip bend
clocks on the small scale and wheeled vehicles from and complete the electrical circuit, so ringing the
cars to trains on the large scale. alarm bell (Figure 2.2.3a).
In Figure 2.2.1 the axle has been shrunk by cooling A bimetallic strip is also used in this way to work
in liquid nitrogen at −196°C until the gear wheels can the flashing direction indicator lamps in a car, being
be slipped on to it. On regaining normal temperature, warmed by an electric heating coil wound round it.
the axle expands to give a very tight fit. a

electric
bell

contact
bimetallic
strip

heat

b control knob

insulator
▲ Figure 2.2.1 ‘Shrink-fitting’ of axles into gear wheels

In the kitchen, a tight metal lid can be removed

to heater
from a glass jar by immersing the lid in hot water contacts
circuit
so that it expands and loosens. The expansion of
a liquid or a gas can be used in thermometers to
bimetallic strip
measure temperature (see p.104). An expanding gas
drives the pistons in the engine of a motor car.
▲ Figure 2.2.3 Uses of a bimetallic strip: a fire alarm;
b a thermostat in an iron
Bimetallic strip
If equal lengths of two different metals, such as Thermostat
copper and iron, are riveted together so that they A thermostat keeps the temperature of a room or an
cannot move separately, they form a bimetallic strip appliance constant. The one in Figure 2.2.3b uses a
(Figure 2.2.2a). When heated, copper expands more bimetallic strip in the electrical heating circuit of,
than iron and to allow this the strip bends with copper for example, an iron.
on the outside (Figure 2.2.2b). If they had expanded When the iron reaches the required temperature
equally, the strip would have stayed straight. the strip bends down, breaks the circuit at the
Bimetallic strips have many uses. contacts and switches off the heater. After cooling
a a little, the strip remakes contact and turns the
copper heater on again. A near-steady temperature results.
iron If the control knob is screwed down, the strip has
to bend more to break the heating circuit and this
b requires a higher temperature.

copper
iron

▲ Figure 2.2.2 A bimetallic strip: a before heating;

b after heating

101

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 101 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.2 Thermal properties and temperature

Precautions against expansion Test yourself

In general, when matter is heated it expands and
1 Explain why
when cooled it contracts. If the changes are resisted a the metal lid on a glass jam jar can be
large forces are created, which are sometimes useful unscrewed easily if the jar is inverted for a few
but at other times are a nuisance. seconds with the lid in very hot water
Gaps used to be left between lengths of railway b furniture may creak at night after a warm day
lines to allow for expansion in summer. They caused c concrete roads are laid in sections with pitch
(a compressible filling) between them.
a familiar ‘clickety-click’ sound as the train passed 2 A bimetallic strip is made from aluminium and
over them. These days rails are welded into lengths copper. When heated it bends in the direction
of about 1 km and are held by concrete ‘sleepers’ shown in Figure 2.2.5.
that can withstand the large forces created without a Which metal expands more for the same rise in
buckling. Also, at the joints the ends are tapered temperature, aluminium or copper?
and overlap (Figure 2.2.4a). This gives a smoother b Sketch a diagram to show how the bimetallic
strip would appear if it were cooled to below
journey and allows some expansion near the ends of room temperature.
each length of rail.
aluminium
For similar reasons slight gaps are left between
lengths of aluminium guttering. In central heating
pipes ‘expansion joints’ are used to join lengths of pipe at room
temperature
(Figure 2.2.4b); these allow the copper pipes to expand
in length inside the joints when carrying very hot water. after
heating copper

▲ Figure 2.2.5

Going further
Unusual expansion of water
As water is cooled to 4°C it contracts, as we would
expect. However, between 4°C and 0°C it expands,
surprisingly. Water has a maximum density at 4°C
(Figure 2.2.6).
▲ Figure 2.2.4a Tapered overlap of rails
volume
nut nut

rubber seal ice

pipe pipe ice and water

water

maximum density
▲ Figure 2.2.4b Expansion joint

–4 0 4 8 12 16
temperature/°C

▲ Figure 2.2.6 Water expands on cooling below 4°C.

102

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 102 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.2.1 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases

At 0°C, when it freezes, a considerable volume

expansion occurs and every 100 cm3 of water becomes
109 cm3 of ice. This accounts for the bursting of
unlagged water pipes in very cold weather and for ice at 0°C
the fact that ice is less dense than cold water and so
floats. Figure 2.2.7 shows a bottle of frozen milk, the
main constituent of which is water.
water at 0°C
1°C
2°C
3°C
4°C

▲ Figure 2.2.8 Fish can survive in a frozen pond.

The volume expansion of water between 4°C and 0°C
is due to the breaking up of the groups that water
particles form above 4°C. The new arrangement
requires a larger volume and more than cancels out
the contraction due to the fall in temperature.

Liquid-in-glass thermometer
The temperature of a body tells us how hot the body
is. It is measured using a thermometer, usually in
degrees Celsius (0°C).
In the liquid-in-glass thermometer the liquid in
a glass bulb expands up a capillary tube when the
bulb is heated. The liquid must be easily seen and
▲ Figure 2.2.7 Result of the expansion of water on
must expand (or contract) rapidly and by a large
freezing amount over a wide range of temperature. It must
not stick to the inside of the tube or the reading
The unusual (anomalous) expansion of water between
4°C and 0°C explains why fish survive in a frozen will be too high when the temperature is falling.
pond. The water at the top of the pond cools first, Mercury and coloured alcohol are commonly used
contracts and being denser sinks to the bottom. liquids in this type of thermometer. Mercury freezes
Warmer, less dense water rises to the surface to be at −39°C and boils at 357°C but is a toxic material.
cooled. When all the water is at 4°C the circulation A non-toxic metal alloy substitute for mercury, such
stops. If the temperature of the surface water falls
below 4°C, it becomes less dense and remains at
as Galinstan, is often used nowadays; it melts at
the top, eventually forming a layer of ice at 0°C. −19°C and boils at 1300°C. Alcohol freezes at −115°C
Temperatures in the pond are then as in Figure 2.2.8. and boils at 78°C and is therefore more suitable for
low temperatures.

103

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 103 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.2 Thermal properties and temperature

Going further
Scale of temperature
A scale and unit of temperature are obtained by
choosing two temperatures, called the fixed points, and
dividing the range between them into a number of equal 100°C steam point
divisions or degrees.
On the Celsius scale (named after the Swedish scientist
Anders Celsius who suggested it), the lower fixed point
is the temperature of pure melting ice and is taken
as 0°C. The upper fixed point is the temperature of
the steam above water boiling at normal atmospheric
pressure, 105 Pa (or N/m2), and is taken as 100°C.
100
When the fixed points have been marked on the degrees
thermometer, the distance between them is divided into
100 equal degrees (Figure 2.2.9). The thermometer now
has a linear scale, in other words it has been calibrated
or graduated.

0°C ice point

▲ Figure 2.2.9 A temperature scale in degrees Celsius

Test yourself
3 Explain the relative order of magnitude of the 4 a What is meant by the anomalous expansion of
expansion of solids, liquids and gases. water?
b Name two consequences of the unusual
expansion of water.
5 Describe the action of a liquid-in-glass thermometer.

2.2.2 Specific heat capacity

FOCUS POINTS
★ Know that an object’s internal energy is increased when its temperature rises.
★ Explain a change in an object’s temperature in terms of the change in kinetic energy of all its particles.
★ Define specific heat capacity, use the correct equation in calculations and describe experiments to
measure it.

104

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 104 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.2.2 Specific heat capacity

Some materials require more heat than others to raise their temperature. As discussed in the
previous topic, when the temperature of an object rises, its particles move more rapidly. The increase
in the kinetic energy associated with this motion raises the internal energy of the object.
The extent of the increase in kinetic energy of the particles in a material when it is heated depends
on the nature of the material and its state, and is measured in terms of specific heat capacity.
The specific heat capacity of aluminium is higher than that of copper, so copper is a more energy
efficient material to use for saucepans. In this topic you will find out how to measure and calculate
the specific heat capacity of some solids and liquids.

The internal energy of an object is the energy energy would be transferred from it to the water even
associated with the motion of its particles. though much more thermal energy could be obtained
When an object is heated and its temperature from the water.
increases, there is an increase in the internal energy
of the object. Both temperature and energy are Specific heat capacity
scalar quantities. If 1 kg of water and 1 kg of paraffin are heated in
turn for the same time by the same heater, the
Internal energy temperature rise of the paraffin is about twice
The kinetic particle theory (Topic 2.1.2) regards that of the water. Since the heater transfers equal
temperature as a measure of the average kinetic amounts of thermal energy to each liquid, it seems
energy (Ek) of the particles of the body. The greater that different substances require different amounts
this is, the faster the particles move and the of energy to cause the same temperature rise in the
higher the temperature of the body. Increasing same mass, say 1°C in 1 kg.
the temperature of an object increases its internal The amount of energy required to raise the
energy because the kinetic energy of all the temperature of a particular substance by one
particles increases. degree is measured by its specific heat capacity
(symbol c).
Thermal energy and temperature The specific heat capacity of a substance is
It is important not to confuse the temperature of a defined as the energy required per unit mass per
body with the thermal energy that can be obtained unit temperature increase.
from it. For example, a red-hot spark from a fire is In physics, the word ‘specific’ means that unit
at a higher temperature than the boiling water in a mass is being considered.
saucepan. In the boiling water the average kinetic In general, for a mass m, receiving energy ΔE
energy of the particles is lower than in the spark; but which results in a change in temperature Δθ, this
since there are many more water particles, their total can be written in equation form as:
energy is greater, and therefore more thermal energy ∆E
can be supplied by the water than by the spark. c=
m∆θ
Thermal energy is transferred from a body at a where c is the specific heat capacity of a material
higher temperature to one at a lower temperature. of mass m whose temperature changes by Δθ when
This is because the average kinetic energy (and its internal energy increases by ΔE. In words this is
speed) of the particles in the hot body falls as a written as:
result of the collisions with particles of the cold change in energy
body whose average kinetic energy, and therefore specific heat capacity =
mass × change in temperature
temperature, increases. When the average kinetic
energy of the particles is the same in both bodies, Internal energy is measured in joules (J) and the
they are at the same temperature. For example, if the unit of specific heat capacity is the joule per
red-hot spark landed in the boiling water, thermal kilogram per °C, i.e. J/(kg °C).

105

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 105 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.2 Thermal properties and temperature

The equation for specific heat can be rearranged Key definition

to give the equation: Specific heat capacity the energy required per unit mass
ΔE = mcΔθ = mass × specific heat capacity × change per unit temperature increase
 in temperature

Worked example
If 20 000 J is supplied to a mass of 5 kg and its temperature Now put this into practice
rises from 15°C to 25°C, calculate the specific heat capacity
of the mass. 1 If 25 000 J of energy is supplied to a mass of 2 kg and
∆E its temperature rises from 10°C to 35°C, calculate the
Using c = specific heat capacity of the mass.
m∆θ
2 How much energy must be supplied to a mass of 3 kg of
20000 J 20000 J material of specific heat capacity = 500 J/(kg °C) to raise
c= =
(5kg × (25 − 15) °C) 50 kg °C its temperature by 10°C?
400 J
=
kg °C

Practical work
electric immersion
Finding specific heat capacities heater
thermometer

Safety 12 V
l Eye protection must be worn. supply

l Take care as the pan and water and

aluminium block may become hot.
You need to know the power of the 12 V electric water
immersion heater to be used.
Precaution: Do not use one with a cracked
aluminium
seal. pan

A 40 W heater transfers 40 joules of energy from

an electric current to thermal energy per second.
▲ Figure 2.2.10
If the power is not marked on the heater, ask
about it. Assuming that the energy supplied by the heater
Water equals the energy received by the water, work
Weigh out 1 kg of water into a container, such as out the specific heat capacity of water in J/(kg °C),
an aluminium saucepan. Note the temperature of as shown below:
the water, insert the heater (Figure 2.2.10), switch energy transferred to water (J) = power of heater (J/s)
on the 12 V supply and start timing. Stir the water  × time heater on (s)
and after 5 minutes switch off but continue stirring
and note the highest temperature reached. then the

specific heat change in energy of the water (J)

capacity of water = mass (kg) × temp.rise (°C)

106

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 106 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.2.2 Specific heat capacity

1 Suggest sources of error in the experiment electric immersion

heater
described on the previous page to find the thermometer
specific heat capacity of water.
2 In an experiment to determine the specific
heat capacity of water, the temperature rise 12 V
supply
of 1 kg of water is found to be 2.5°C when the
water is heated by a 40 W heater for 5 minutes.
Calculate the specific heat capacity of water.

Aluminium
An aluminium cylinder weighing 1 kg and having aluminium
two holes drilled in it is used. Place the block
immersion heater in the central hole and a
thermometer in the other hole (Figure 2.2.11).
Note the temperature, connect the heater to a 12 V
supply and switch it on for 5 minutes. When the ▲ Figure 2.2.11
temperature stops rising, record its highest value.
3 Suggest a source of error in the experiment
Calculate the specific heat capacity as before. to measure the specific heat capacity of
aluminium and suggest how the experiment
could be improved.
4 In an experiment to determine the specific
heat capacity of aluminium, the temperature
rise of an aluminium cylinder weighing 1 kg is
found to be 12.5°C when the cylinder is heated
by a 40 W heater for 5 minutes. Calculate the
specific heat capacity of aluminium.

Importance of the high specific also has to give out more energy to fall 1°C. Since
islands are surrounded by water, they experience
heat capacity of water much smaller changes of temperature from summer to
The specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/(kg °C) winter than large land masses such as Central Asia.
and that of soil is about 800 J/(kg °C). As a result, The high specific heat capacity of water (as
the temperature of the sea rises and falls more well as its cheapness and availability) accounts for
slowly than that of the land. A certain mass of water its use in cooling engines and in the radiators of
needs five times more thermal energy than the same central heating systems.
mass of soil for its temperature to rise by 1°C. Water

Worked example
a A tank holding 60 kg of water is heated by a 3 kW electric Assuming energy supplied = energy received by water
immersion heater. If the specific heat capacity of water is 3000 J/s × t = ΔE = mcΔθ
4200 J/(kg °C), estimate the time for the temperature to
rise from 10°C to 60°C. (60 × 4200 × 50) J
∴t = = 4200 s (70 min)
∆E 3000 J/s
Rearranging c = gives ΔE = mcΔθ
m∆θ b A piece of aluminium of mass 0.5 kg is heated to 100°C
Energy supplied to water = 3000 J/s × t, where t is the and then placed in 0.4 kg of water at 10°C. If the resulting
time of heating in seconds. temperature of the mixture is 30°C, what is the specific heat
capacity of aluminium if that of water is 4200 J/(kg °C)?

107

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 107 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.2 Thermal properties and temperature

When two substances at different temperatures Now put this into practice
are mixed, energy flows from the one at the higher
temperature to the one at the lower temperature until 1 An electric kettle rated at 3 kW containing 1 kg of
both are at the same temperature – the temperature of water is switched on. If the specific heat capacity of
the mixture. If there is no loss of energy, then in this case: water is 4200 J/(kg °C), estimate the time for the water
temperature to rise from 30°C to 100°C.
energy given out by aluminium = energy taken in by water
2 A metal sphere of mass 100 g is heated to 100°C and
Using the equation ΔE = mcΔθ and letting c be the specific then placed in 200 g of water at 20°C. If the resulting
heat capacity of aluminium in J/(kg °C), we have temperature of the mixture is 25°C, what is the specific
energy given out = 0.5 kg × c × (100 − 30)°C heat capacity of the metal if that of water is 4200 J/(kg °C)?
energy taken in = 0.4 kg × 4200 J/(kg °C) × (30 − 10)°C
∴ 0.5 kg × c × 70°C = 0.4 kg × 4200 J/(kg °C) × 20°C
(4200 × 8) J
c= = 960 J/ kg °C
35 kg °C

Test yourself
6 Which one of the following statements is not true? 7 How much thermal energy is needed to raise the
A Temperature tells us how hot an object is. temperature by 10°C of 5 kg of a substance of specific
B When the temperature of an object rises so does heat capacity 300 J/(kg °C)?
its internal energy. 8 How long will it take a 3 kW immersion heater to
C Energy flows naturally from an object at a lower raise the temperature of 5 kg of water from 30°C to
temperature to one at a higher temperature. 50°C?
D The particles of an object move faster when its
temperature rises.

2.2.3 Melting, boiling and evaporation

FOCUS POINTS
★ Describe melting and boiling, including the temperatures for both for water.
★ Describe condensation, solidification and evaporation in terms of particles.
★ Understand the differences between boiling and evaporation.
★ Describe the factors that affect evaporation.
★ Describe latent heat in terms of particles.

To melt a bar of chocolate you will need to heat it. Melting and boiling require the input of energy to
change the state of matter from solid to liquid or from liquid to gas. In the reverse changes, energy is
released. During a change of state there is no change in temperature until the process is complete.
The kinetic particle model can help us to understand the processes which occur during a change of
state. In this section you will also learn how the model explains evaporation and cooling in terms of
the escape of energetic particles from the surface of a liquid.
You will learn the differences between the processes of evaporation and boiling and the factors
which affect the rate of cooling of an object.

When a solid is heated, it may melt and change A pure substance melts at a definite temperature,
its state from solid to liquid. If ice is heated it called the melting temperature; it solidifies at
becomes water. The opposite process, freezing, the same temperature – sometimes then called the
occurs when a liquid solidifies. freezing temperature. At standard atmospheric
pressure, the melting temperature of water is 0°C.
108

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 108 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.2.3 Melting, boiling and evaporation

Practical work
Cooling curve of stearic acid 5 Plot a graph of temperature against time
(a cooling curve) and identify the freezing
Safety temperature of stearic acid.
l Eye protection must be worn. 6 The cooling curve (a plot of temperature
l Take care when handling hot water and against time) for a pure substance is shown in
apparatus. Figure 2.2.13. Why is the cooling curve flat in
the region AB?
Half fill a test tube with stearic acid and place it
in a beaker of water (Figure 2.2.12a). Heat the
water until all the stearic acid has melted and its
temperature reaches about 80°C.
Remove the test tube and arrange it as in Figure
2.2.12b, with a thermometer in the liquid stearic

temperature
acid. Record the temperature every minute until it A B
has fallen to 60°C.
a b melting temperature

thermometer

water
stearic acid
time
▲ Figure 2.2.13 Cooling curve

7 What is happening to the liquid over region

AB in Figure 2.2.13?
8 Is the rate of cooling faster or slower at higher
temperatures in Figure 2.2.13?

▲ Figure 2.2.12

Solidifying, melting and boiling get hotter. For example, the temperature of a well-
stirred ice–water mixture remains at 0°C until all the
The previous experiment shows that the temperature ice is melted. Similarly, when energy is supplied to a
of liquid stearic acid falls until it starts to solidify boiling liquid, the temperature of the liquid does not
(at 69°C) and remains constant until it has all change. The temperature of pure water boiling at
solidified. The cooling curve in Figure 2.2.13 is standard atmospheric pressure is 100°C.
for a pure substance; the flat part AB occurs at
the melting temperature when the substance is Latent heat of fusion
solidifying.
During solidification a substance transfers thermal Energy that is transferred to a solid during melting
energy to its surroundings but its temperature does or given out by a liquid during solidification is
not fall. Conversely when a solid is melting, the called latent heat of fusion. Latent means hidden
energy supplied does not cause a temperature rise; and fusion means melting. Latent heat does not
energy is transferred but the substance does not cause a temperature change; it seems to disappear.

109

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 109 30/03/21 12:55 PM

 2.2 Thermal properties and temperature

Going further
Specific latent heat of fusion Specific latent heat is measured in J/kg or J/g.
In general, the quantity of heat ΔE needed to change
The specific latent heat of fusion (lf ) of a substance is the
a mass m from solid to liquid is given by
quantity of heat needed to change unit mass from solid
to liquid without temperature change. ΔE = m × lf

Practical work
Specific latent heat of fusion for ice To correct for heat transferred from the
surroundings, collect the melted ice in a
Safety beaker for time t (e.g. 4 minutes); weigh the
l Eye protection must be worn. beaker plus the melted ice, m1. Empty the
beaker, switch on the heater, and collect the
Through measurement of the mass of water
melted ice for the same time t; re-weigh the
m produced when energy ΔE is transferred
beaker plus the melted ice, m2. The mass of ice
to melting ice, the specific latent heat of
melted by the heater is then
fusion for ice can be calculated.
m = m2 − m1
Insert a 12 V electric immersion heater of
known power P into a funnel, and pack crushed The energy supplied by the heater is given by
ice around it as shown in Figure 2.2.14. ΔE = P × t, where P is in J/s and t is in seconds;
ΔE will be in joules. Alternatively, a joulemeter
can be used to record ΔE directly.
immersion heater
9 Use your data to calculate the specific latent
heat of fusion, lf, for ice from the equation
ΔE = m × lf
10 What correction is made in this experiment
to measure the specific latent heat of fusion
crushed ice
of ice to compensate for heat gained from
funnel the surroundings?
11 How could you reduce heat loss to the
surroundings in this experiment?

beaker

water

▲ Figure 2.2.14

110

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 110 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.2.3 Melting, boiling and evaporation

Latent heat of vaporisation Test yourself

Latent heat is also needed to change a liquid into
9 1530°C 100°C 55°C 37°C 19°C
a vapour. The reading of a thermometer placed in
0°C −12°C −50°C
water that is boiling remains constant at 100°C even From the above list of temperatures choose the
though energy, called latent heat of vaporisation, most likely value for each of the following:
is still being transferred to the water from whatever a the melting temperature of iron
is heating it. When steam condenses to form water, b the temperature of a room that is comfortably
latent heat is given out. A scald from steam is warm
c the melting temperature of pure ice at normal
often more serious than one from boiling water pressure
(Figure 2.2.15). d the boiling temperature of water
e the normal body temperature of a healthy person.
10 a Why is ice good for cooling drinks?
b Why do engineers often use superheated steam
(steam above 100°C) to transfer heat?

Change of state and the kinetic

particle model
Melting and solidification
The kinetic particle model explains the energy
absorbed in melting as being the energy that
enables the particles of a solid to overcome the
intermolecular forces that hold them in place,
and when it exceeds a certain value, they break
free. Their vibratory motion about fixed positions
changes to the slightly greater range of movement
they have as liquid particles, and the solid melts.
In the reverse process of solidification in which the
liquid returns to the solid state, where the range of
▲ Figure 2.2.15 Steam from boiling water; invisible steam movement of the particles is less, potential energy
near the spout condenses into visible water droplets is transferred from the particles to thermal energy
higher up. in the surroundings.
The energy input in melting is used to increase
the potential energy of the particles, but not their
Going further average kinetic energy (Ek) as happens when the
energy input causes a temperature rise.
Specific latent heat of vaporisation Vaporisation and condensation
The specific latent heat of vaporisation (lv) of a If liquid particles are to overcome the forces holding
substance is the quantity of heat needed to change
unit mass from liquid to vapour without change of them together and gain the freedom to move
temperature. around independently as gas particles, they need
a large amount of energy. This energy increases
Again, the specific latent heat is measured in J/kg or
J/g. In general, the quantity of heat ΔE to change a the potential energy of the particles but not their
mass m from liquid to vapour is given by kinetic energy. Energy is also required to push back
the surrounding atmosphere in the large expansion
ΔE = m × lv
that occurs when a liquid vaporises. In the reverse
To change 1 kg of water at 100°C to steam at 100°C process of condensation, in which a vapour returns
needs over five times as much heat as is needed to to the liquid state, where the particles are closer
raise the temperature of 1 kg of water at 0°C to water
at 100°C. together, potential energy is transferred from the
particles to thermal energy in the surroundings.
111

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 111 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.2 Thermal properties and temperature

Boiling and evaporation air

At standard atmospheric pressure, the boiling

temperature of water is 100°C.
Boiling
For a pure liquid, boiling occurs at a definite glass tube
temperature called its boiling temperature and
is accompanied by bubbles that form within the
can
liquid, containing the gaseous or vapour form of the
particular substance.
Energy is needed in both evaporation and boiling dichloromethane
and is stored in the vapour, from which it is released
when the vapour is cooled or compressed and water
changes to liquid again. block of wood

Evaporation
▲ Figure 2.2.16 Demonstrating cooling by evaporation
A few energetic particles close to the surface of a
liquid may escape and become gas particles. This Explanation
process of evaporation occurs at all temperatures.
Evaporation occurs when faster-moving particles
escape from the surface of the liquid. The average
Conditions affecting evaporation speed and therefore the average kinetic energy
Evaporation happens more rapidly when of the particles left behind decreases, i.e. the
● the temperature is higher, since then more temperature of the liquid falls.
particles in the liquid are moving fast enough to Cooling by contact
escape from the surface
When evaporation occurs from a liquid and the
● the surface area of the liquid is large, so giving
average kinetic energy of the remaining particles
more particles a chance to escape because more
decreases, the liquid cools. In Topic 2.3.1 we will see
are near the surface
that thermal energy flows from a hotter to a colder
● a wind or draught is blowing over the surface
object by conduction. If an object is in contact with
carrying vapour particles away from the surface,
the liquid during evaporation, thermal energy will
thus stopping them from returning to the liquid
flow from the object to the liquid. The object will
and making it easier for more liquid particles to
cool until its temperature equals that of the liquid.
break free. (Evaporation into a vacuum occurs
much more rapidly than into a region where there Uses
are gas particles.) Water evaporates from the skin when we sweat.
This is the body’s way of losing unwanted heat and
Cooling by evaporation keeping a constant temperature. After vigorous
In evaporation, energy is transferred to the liquid exercise there is a risk of the body being overcooled,
from its surroundings, as may be shown by the especially in a draught; it is then less able to resist
following demonstration, done in a fume cupboard. infection.
Ether acts as a local anaesthetic by chilling
Demonstration (as well as cleaning) your arm when you are
Dichloromethane is a volatile liquid, i.e. it has a low having an injection. Refrigerators, freezers and
boiling temperature and evaporates readily at room air-conditioning systems use cooling by evaporation
temperature, especially when air is blown through it on a large scale.
(Figure 2.2.16). Energy is transferred first from the Volatile liquids are used in perfumes.
liquid itself and then from the water below the can.
The water soon freezes causing the block and can to
stick together.

112

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 112 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 Exam-style questions

Test yourself
11 a When a solid is melting ii does the potential energy of the particles
i does its temperature increase, decrease or increase, decrease or remain constant?
remain constant 12 a Describe the process of evaporation in particle
ii is energy absorbed or released or neither terms.
iii does the kinetic energy of the particles b How does the temperature of a liquid change
increase, decrease or remain constant? during evaporation?
b When a liquid is boiling 13 Some water is stored in a bag of porous material,
i does its temperature increase, decrease or such as canvas, which is hung where it is exposed to
remain constant a draught of air. Explain why the temperature of the
water is lower than that of the air.

Revision checklist
After studying Topic 2.2 you should know and
✔ define specific heat capacity, c, and solve problems
understand:
using the equation
✔ that a rise in the temperature of an object
increases its internal energy change in energy
specific heat capacity =
✔ the relation between an object’s temperature mass × change in temperature
and the kinetic energy of the particles  ∆E 
 c = 
✔ that melting and boiling occur without a change in m∆θ 
temperature and recall those temperatures for water. ✔ describe experiments to measure the specific heat
After studying Topic 2.2 you should be able to: capacity of metals and liquids by electrical heating
✔ describe the thermal expansion of solids and liquids ✔ describe condensation, solidification and
✔ describe precautions taken against expansion and evaporation processes in terms of the kinetic
uses of expansion particle model
✔ explain the relative order of magnitude of the ✔ explain latent heat using the kinetic particle model
expansion of solids, liquids and gases ✔ explain cooling by evaporation
✔ distinguish between evaporation and boiling ✔ recall the factors which affect evaporation.

Exam-style questions
1 a A gas expands more easily than a liquid. State if the following statements are correct or
Explain in terms of the motion and incorrect.
arrangement of particles. [3] A It operates by the bimetallic strip bending
b Explain why the ends of railway lines are away from the contact. [1]
tapered and overlapped at joints. [2] B Metal A expands more per degree of
[Total: 5] temperature rise than metal B. [1]
2 A bimetallic thermostat for use in an iron is C Screwing in the control knob raises the
shown in Figure 2.2.17. temperature at which the contacts open. [1]
[Total: 3]
control knob

insulator

contacts to heater
metal A circuit

metal B
▲ Figure 2.2.17
113

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 113 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.2 Thermal properties and temperature

3 The same quantity of thermal energy was given to 6 a Define

different masses of three substances A, B and C. i   melting temperature
The temperature rise in each case is shown in the ii   boiling temperature
table. Calculate the specific heat capacities of A, iii freezing temperature. [3]
B and C. b State
i the melting temperature of ice
Temp. ii the boiling temperature of water
Material Mass/kg Thermal energy given/J rise/°C
at standard atmospheric pressure. [2]
A 1.0 2000 1.0 c State if energy is absorbed or released when
B 2.0 2000 5.0 i a liquid solidifies
C 0.5 2000 4.0 ii a gas condenses. [2]
[Total: 7]
[3 marks for each of A, B, C]
7 A drink is cooled more by ice at 0°C than by the
[Total: 9] same mass of water at 0°C.
4 a The fruit in a hot fruit pie always seems hotter This is because ice
than the pastry. Why? [2] A floats on the drink [1]
b Calculate the temperature rise of 3 kg of a B has a smaller specific heat capacity [1]
material of specific heat capacity 500 J/(kg °C) C gives out energy to the drink as it melts [1]
when it is heated with 15 000 J of energy. [3] D absorbs energy from the drink to melt [1]
[Total: 5] E is a solid. [1]
5 a A certain liquid has a specific heat State whether each of the above
capacity of 4.0 J/(g °C). How much energy statements is correct or incorrect.
must be supplied to raise the temperature [Total: 5]
of 10 g of the liquid from 20°C to 50°C? [3]
b Explain why a bottle of milk keeps better
when it stands in water in a porous pot
in a draught. [3]
[Total: 6]

Alternative to Practical
8 In an experiment to investigate the cooling of 9 A student is investigating the factors that affect
a liquid to a solid, a test tube containing a pure the rate of evaporation from a liquid surface.
solid is warmed in a beaker of hot water until it The following apparatus is available:
has completely melted to a liquid and has reached • electronic balance (precision 0.1 g)
a temperature of 90°C. The tube is then removed • shallow containers with different base areas
from the hot water and the temperature recorded • stopwatch • hairdryer • hot water.
every 2 minutes while the liquid cools to a solid. Plan an experiment to investigate the effect on
The results are given in the following table. the rate of evaporation of a liquid of
i surface area and ii draughts.
Time/minutes 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
You should:
Temperature/°C 90 86 82 81 80 80 79 76 73 72 • explain briefly how you would carry out the
a Plot a graph of temperature versus time. [4] experiment
b Determine the melting temperature of the • state the key variables you would control
solid and explain your choice. [2] • draw a table (or tables) with column headings
c Explain what happens to the arrangement of • state how you would draw a conclusion from
the particles in the liquid during solidification. your results.
[2] [Total: 6]
[Total: 8]
114

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 114 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.3 Transfer of thermal energy
2.3.1 Conduction
FOCUS POINTS
★ Know how to investigate whether a material is a good or poor thermal conductor.
★ Use atomic or molecular lattice vibrations and the movement of free (delocalised) electrons in metallic
conductors to describe thermal conduction in solids.
★ Understand that good thermal conductors conduct thermal energy better than thermal insulators and
some solids are better thermal conductors than others.

Heat from a stove is quickly transferred to all parts of a metal saucepan; metals are good
conductors of heat. A poor thermal conductor, such as plastic, is often used for the handle of
a saucepan to keep it cool. In this topic you will encounter experiments that demonstrate the
properties of both good and bad thermal conductors.
Thermal energy can be transferred in various ways. In a solid an increase in temperature produces
stronger local vibrations of the particles that are transferred to their neighbours and thermal energy
is transferred progressively through the material. This is a slow process but is the main way of
transferring energy in poor conductors. In good conductors, the main way of transferring thermal
energy is by free electrons in the conductor; these can transfer energy from particle to particle very
quickly.

A knowledge of how thermal energy travels first, showing it is the best conductor, followed
is needed to keep a building or a house at a by aluminium, brass and then iron.
comfortable temperature in winter and in summer, if match
it is to be done economically and efficiently.
copper rod
Conduction iron rod

The handle of a metal spoon held in a hot drink soon aluminium rod
gets warm. Thermal energy passes along the spoon
tripod
by conduction. paraffin wax
Conduction is the flow of thermal energy (heat)
through matter from places of higher temperature brass rod
to places of lower temperature without movement of
the matter as a whole.
A simple demonstration of the different burner
conducting powers of various metals is shown in
Figure 2.3.1. A match is fixed to one end of each rod ▲ Figure 2.3.1 Comparing conducting powers
using a little melted wax. The other ends of the rods
are heated by a burner. When the temperatures of Thermal energy is conducted faster through a rod
the far ends reach the melting temperature of wax, if it has a large cross-sectional area, is short and has
the matches drop off. The match on copper falls a large temperature difference between its ends.

115
 2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

Most metals are good thermal conductors; materials white gummed paper
such as wood, glass, cork, plastics and fabrics
are thermal insulators (poor conductors). The
arrangement in Figure 2.3.2 can be used to show
brass
the difference between brass and wood. If the rod wood
is passed through a flame several times, the paper
over the wood scorches but not the paper over the
▲ Figure 2.3.2 The paper over the brass does not burn.
brass. The brass conducts the thermal energy away
from the paper quickly, preventing the paper from Metal objects below body temperature feel colder than
reaching the temperature at which it burns. The objects made of poor conductors – even if all the
wood conducts the thermal energy away only very objects are at exactly the same temperature – because
slowly. the metal objects carry thermal energy away faster
from the hand.

Going further
Conduction in liquids and gases
Liquids and gases also conduct thermal energy but only steam
very slowly. Water is a very poor thermal conductor, as
shown in Figure 2.3.3. The water at the top of the tube boiling water
can be boiled before the ice at the bottom melts.
very little
Liquids and gases conduction
Liquids and gases are generally less dense than solids
and their particles are further apart. They do not have ice
a regularly ordered particle structure, so it is difficult
to set up lattice vibrations, and they do not usually have
free electrons. They are therefore less good thermal metal
gauze to
conductors than solids. keep ice
down
▲ Figure 2.3.3 Water is a poor conductor of thermal
energy.

Conduction and the particle model occur in non-metals since these do not have free
electrons; hence non-metals are poor conductors of
Two processes occur in metals. Metals have a large heat and are good insulators.
number of ‘free’ (delocalised) electrons (Topic 4.2.2) There are many solids which have fewer free
which move about within the metal. When one part electrons available to transfer thermal energy than
of a metal is heated, the electrons there move faster metals do and so are less good thermal conductors
(their kinetic energy increases) and move further. than metals but better thermal conductors than
As a result, they are able to interact with particles in insulators. For example, the semiconductors used
cooler parts, so passing on their energy and raising the in electronic circuits can have a range of thermal
temperature of these parts. This process occurs quickly. conductivities between those of metals and
The second process is much slower. The atoms or insulators.
molecules at the hot part make colder neighbouring
particles vibrate more vigorously. These atomic
or molecular lattice vibrations are less important Test yourself
in metals, but are the only way conduction can 1 Explain what is meant by thermal conduction.

116

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 116 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.3.2 Convection

2.3.2 Convection
FOCUS POINTS
★ Know that thermal energy transfer in liquids and gases usually occurs by convection.
★ Use density changes to explain convection in liquids and gases.
★ Describe some experiments to show convection.

You may have a convector heater in your home which helps to keep you warm in winter.
In convection, heat is transferred by the motion of matter and it is an important method for
transferring thermal energy in liquids and gases. When the temperature of a fluid increases,
thermal expansion reduces its density and the warmer, less dense parts of the fluid tend to rise,
while cooler, denser parts will sink. The combination sets up fluid flows known as convection
currents that transfer thermal energy from places of high temperature to those of lower
temperature by motion of the fluid itself. In the case of a convector heater, convection currents are
set up in the air in the room.

Convection in liquids Streams of warm, moving fluids are called

convection currents. They arise when a fluid is
Convection is the usual method by which thermal heated because it expands, becomes less dense and
energy (heat) travels through fluids such as liquids is forced upwards by surrounding cooler, denser fluid
and gases. It can be shown in water by dropping a which moves under it. We say ‘hot water (or hot
few crystals of potassium permanganate down a tube air) rises’. Warm fluid behaves like a cork released
to the bottom of a beaker or flask of water. When the under water: being less dense it bobs up. Lava lamps
tube is removed and the beaker heated just below (Figure 2.3.4b) use this principle.
the crystals by a small flame (Figure 2.3.4a), purple
streaks of water rise upwards and fan outwards.

▲ Figure 2.3.4a Convection currents shown by potassium

permanganate in water. ▲ Figure 2.3.4b Lava lamps make use of convection.

117

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 117 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

Convection is the flow of thermal energy through a

a
fluid from places of higher temperature to places of
lower temperature by movement of the fluid itself.

Convection in air sea

breeze
Black marks often appear on the wall or ceiling land
warmer
above a lamp or a radiator. They are caused by dust
being carried upwards in air convection currents sea
cooler
produced by the hot lamp or radiator.
A laboratory demonstration of convection
currents in air can be given using the apparatus of b

Figure 2.3.5. The direction of the convection current

created by the candle is made visible by the smoke
from the touch paper (made by soaking brown paper
in strong potassium nitrate solution and drying it). land land
cooler breeze

sea
warmer
smoke

▲ Figure 2.3.6 Coastal breezes are due to convection:

a day; b night.
lighted
touch paper
glass chimneys Gliding
Gliders, including hang-gliders (Figure 2.3.7), are
box carried along on hot air currents, called thermals.

lighted glass
candle window

▲ Figure 2.3.5 Demonstrating convection in air

Going further
Natural convection currents
▲ Figure 2.3.7 Once airborne, a hang-glider pilot can stay
Coastal breezes aloft for several hours by flying from one thermal to
During the day the temperature of the land increases another.
more quickly than that of the sea (because the specific
heat capacity of the land is much smaller; see Topic
2.2.2). The hot air above the land rises and is replaced
by colder air from the sea. A breeze from the sea
results (Figure 2.3.6a).
Test yourself
2 Explain the advantage of placing an electric
At night the opposite happens. The sea has more
immersion heater in a tank of water
thermal energy to transfer and cools more slowly.
a near the top
The air above the sea is warmer than that over the
b near the bottom.
land and a breeze blows from the land (Figure 2.3.6b).
3 Why does hot air rise?

118

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 118 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.3.3 Radiation

2.3.3 Radiation
FOCUS POINTS
★ Understand that thermal radiation is infrared radiation that does not require a transmission medium.
★ Describe the effects of surface colour and texture on the emission, absorption and reflection of infrared
radiation.
★ Understand the factors which affect the amount of radiation emitted by an object.
★ Describe experiments to distinguish between good and bad absorbers and emitters of infrared radiation.
★ Know that surface temperature and surface area of an object affect the rate of emission of radiation.

On a sunny day it is pleasant to feel the warmth of the radiation reaching you from the Sun.
Radiation is the third way of transferring thermal energy from one place to another. It does not
need a transmission medium. On reaching Earth, the Sun’s rays are partly reflected, absorbed or
transmitted by objects. Shiny white surfaces are good reflectors of radiation but dull black surfaces
are good absorbers. The efficiency of emission and absorption of radiation depends on the nature
of the surface of the material.
The rate of radiation emission depends on the temperature and surface area of the object.

Radiation is a third way in which thermal energy Good and bad absorbers
can travel but, whereas conduction and convection
both need matter to be present, radiation can occur Some surfaces absorb radiation better than others,
in a vacuum; particles of matter are not involved. as may be shown using the apparatus in Figure 2.3.9.
Radiation is the way thermal energy reaches us from The inside surface of one lid is shiny and of the
the Sun. other dull black. The coins are stuck on the outside
Radiation has all the properties of of each lid with candle wax. If the heater is midway
electromagnetic waves (Topic 3.3), and travels with between the lids, they each receive the same
the speed of light. Thermal radiation is infrared amount of radiation. After a few minutes the wax on
radiation and all objects emit this radiation. When the black lid melts and the coin falls off. The shiny
it falls on an object, it is partly reflected, partly lid stays cool and the wax unmelted.
transmitted and partly absorbed: the absorbed electric
heater
radiation raises the temperature of the object. shiny dull black
Buildings in hot countries are often painted surface surface

white (Figure 2.3.8). This is because white surfaces

are good reflectors of radiation and so help to keep
the houses cool. coin
candle
wax
tin lid

▲ Figure 2.3.9 Comparing absorbers of radiation

▲ Figure 2.3.8 White painted buildings

119

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 119 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

Dull black surfaces are better absorbers of radiation

than white shiny surfaces, which are instead good Going further
reflectors of radiation. Reflectors on electric fires
are made of polished metal because of its good Temperature and rate of emission of
reflecting properties. ­radiation
Radiation is emitted by all bodies above absolute zero
Good and bad emitters and consists mostly of infrared radiation, but light
and ultraviolet are also present if the body is very hot
Some surfaces also emit radiation better than others (e.g. the Sun). For an object to maintain a constant
when they are hot. If you hold the backs of your temperature, energy must transfer away from the
hands on either side of a hot copper sheet that object at the same rate that the object receives
has one side polished and the other side blackened energy. If the average energy radiated is less than
(Figure 2.3.10), it will be found that your hands feel that absorbed, the temperature of the object will
rise. If the average energy radiated is more than that
warmer near the dull black surface. The dull black absorbed, the temperature of the object will fall.
surface is a better emitter of radiation than the
shiny one. The greenhouse effect
The cooling fins on the heat exchangers at the The warmth from the Sun is not cut off by a sheet
back of a refrigerator are painted black so are of glass but the warmth from a red-hot fire can be
good emitters of radiation and they lose heat more blocked by glass. The radiation from very hot bodies
quickly. By contrast, saucepans that are polished are like the Sun is mostly light and short-wavelength
infrared. The radiation from less hot objects, such
poor emitters and keep their heat longer. as a fire, is largely long-wavelength infrared which,
In general, surfaces that are good absorbers unlike light and short-wavelength infrared, cannot
of radiation are good emitters when hot. pass through glass.
Light and short-wavelength infrared from the Sun
penetrate the glass of a greenhouse and are absorbed
by the soil, plants, etc., raising their temperature.
These in turn emit infrared but, because of their
relatively low temperature, this has a long wavelength
and is not transmitted by the glass. The greenhouse
thus acts as a ‘heat-trap’ and its temperature rises.
hot copper sheet with one
Carbon dioxide and other gases such as methane in
side polished and the
other blackened the Earth’s atmosphere act in a similar way to the
glass of a greenhouse in trapping heat radiated from
the Earth’s surface. This has serious implications for
back of hands
the global climate. For the average temperature of the
towards sheet Earth to remain constant, a balance must be achieved
between the incoming radiation and the radiation
emitted from the Earth’s surface.
If there is a build-up of carbon dioxide and methane
gases in the atmosphere, the balance between
incoming radiation from the Sun and the average
power emitted from the Earth will be upset.
▲ Figure 2.3.10 Comparing emitters of radiation

120

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 120 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.3.3 Radiation

Rate of cooling of an object equal and a constant temperature is reached.

The higher the surface temperature of the object
If the surface temperature of an object is higher above its surroundings, and the larger its surface
than its surroundings, it emits radiation at a faster area, the greater the quantity of radiation it emits
rate than it absorbs radiation from its surroundings. and the greater its rate of cooling.
As a result, it cools until the two rates become

Practical work
Rate of cooling
Safety 1 In this experiment a student recorded the
● Eye protection must be worn. following temperatures on the thermometer as
● Take care when handling hot water and its it cooled in air.
containers. Time/s 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
Place a thermometer in some hot water and Temperature/oC 80 63 51 42 36 31 28
wait until the temperature reaches a steady
temperature above 80°C. Remove the a Plot a graph of temperature against time
thermometer from the water, and quickly wipe it using the values given in the table.
dry with a paper towel. Record the temperature b Calculate the temperature drop
on the thermometer every 30 s as it cools away i between 0 and 90 s
from draughts or any source of heat. Use your ii between 90 s and 180 s.
results to plot a graph of temperature against c State the temperature range over which the
time. thermometer cools most quickly.
d Does the thermometer emit radiation
at a higher rate at the higher or lower
temperatures?

Test yourself
4 The door canopy in Figure 2.3.11 shows clearly the 5 What type of radiation is thermal radiation?
difference between white and black surfaces when 6 Why is frost less likely on a cloudy night than a clear
radiation falls on them. Explain why. one?

▲ Figure 2.3.11

121

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 121 30/03/21 12:23 PM

 2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

2.3.4 Consequences of thermal energy transfer

FOCUS POINTS
★ Explain everyday applications and consequences of thermal energy transfer by conduction, convection
and radiation.

You have now learned about the three ways in which thermal energy can be transferred from one
place to another: conduction, convection and radiation. Such transfers occur in many different
situations in everyday living. Transfer of thermal energy by conduction from an external source
enables us to heat cooking pots. Convection is often used in water and convector heaters in our
homes. Radiation from the Sun can be felt directly and an infrared thermometer allows us to
read temperature from a distance. In this topic you will learn more about the uses of both good
conductors and poor conductors (insulators).

Uses of conductors
Good conductors
These are used whenever heat is required to travel
quickly through something. Saucepans, boilers and
radiators are made of metals such as aluminium,
iron and copper which are all good conductors that
transfer thermal energy quickly.
Thermal insulators (bad conductors)
These are used when a slow transfer of thermal
energy is required. A polystyrene cup will help
▲ Figure 2.3.12a Foam or wool in a cavity wall provides
to keep hot liquids warm or cold liquids cool extra insulation.
(Figure 2.3.12d opposite). The handles of some
saucepans are made of wood or plastic. Cork is used
for table mats. These are insulating materials that
transfer thermal energy only very slowly.
Air is one of the worst thermal conductors and so
one of the best insulators. This is why houses with
cavity walls (two layers of bricks separated by an air
space) and double-glazed windows keep warmer in
winter and cooler in summer.
Because air is such a bad conductor, materials
that trap air, such as wool, felt, fur, feathers,
polystyrene foam and fibreglass, are also very bad
conductors. Some of these materials are used as
thermal insulation to insulate water pipes, hot
water cylinders, ovens, refrigerators and the walls
and roofs of houses (Figures 2.3.12a and 2.3.12b).
Others are used to make warm winter clothes like ▲ Figure 2.3.12b A thick layer of thermal insulation reduces
fleece jackets (Figure 2.3.12c opposite). energy loss through the roof of a building.

122

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 122 30/03/21 12:24 PM

 2.3.4 Consequences of thermal energy transfer

Practical work
Effect of insulation
Place the bulb of a thermometer in some
melting ice until it reaches a temperature of
0ºC. Remove the thermometer from the ice.
Record the temperature on the thermometer
every 5 s until it reaches room temperature.
Repeat the experiment but wrap the bulb of the
thermometer with insulation immediately you
remove it from the ice. Use your results to plot
graphs of temperature against time.
▲ Figure 2.3.12c Fleece jackets help to retain your body
warmth. 1 State the source of thermal energy when the
temperature of the thermometer rises after it
is removed from the ice.
2 How could the time taken for the
thermometer to reach room temperature be
increased?

Reducing energy losses from

buildings
The inside of a building can only be kept at a
steady temperature above that outside by heating
it at a rate which equals the rate at which it is
losing energy. The loss occurs mainly by conduction
through the walls, roof, floors and windows. For a
typical house where no special precautions have
▲ Figure 2.3.12d An insulated cup slows the transfer of been taken, the contribution each of these makes to
thermal energy. the total loss is shown in Table 2.3.1a.
As fuels (and electricity) become more expensive
Wet suits are worn by divers and water skiers to and the burning of fuels becomes of greater
keep them warm. The suit gets wet and a layer of environmental concern (Topic 1.7.3), more people are
water gathers between the person’s body and the considering it worthwhile to reduce energy losses
suit. The water is warmed by body heat and stays from their homes. The substantial reduction of this
warm because the suit is made of an insulating loss which can be achieved, especially by wall and
fabric, such as neoprene (a synthetic rubber). roof insulation, is shown in Table 2.3.1b.
▼ Table 2.3.1 Energy losses from a typical house

a Percentage of total energy loss due to

walls roof floors windows draughts
35 25 15 10 15
b Percentage of each loss saved by
insulating walls insulating roof carpets on floors double glazing draught excluders
65 80 ≈ 30 50 ≈ 60
Percentage of total loss saved = 60

123

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 123 30/03/21 12:24 PM

 2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

Going further
Applications involving more
than one type of thermal energy
Ventilation transfer
In addition to supplying heat to compensate for the
energy losses from a building, a heating system Car radiator
has also to warm the ventilated cold air, needed for
comfort, which comes in to replace stale air.
Both conduction and radiation occur in a car
radiator which acts to dissipate the heat generated
If the rate of energy loss is, say, 6000 J/s, or 6 kW, and in the engine. It contains a fluid which circulates
the warming of ventilated air requires 2 kW, then the
total power needed to maintain a certain temperature
between the engine block and the radiator. Thermal
(e.g. 20°C) in the building is 8 kW. Some of this is energy is transferred to the fluid by conduction
supplied by each person’s ‘body heat’, estimated to be as it passes over the engine block. When the fluid
roughly equal to a 100 W heater. enters the radiator, thermal energy is transferred
by conduction to the radiator which then radiates
Uses of convection energy in the infrared to the surroundings. The
metal radiator is black and has a large surface so is
Convection currents set up by electric, gas and a good emitter of radiation. In this way the fluid is
oil heaters help to warm our homes. Many so- cooled before it circulates back to the engine block.
called ‘radiators’ are really convector heaters.
Warm air produced by the heater rises because it Wood or coal fire
is less dense than the colder air above. The cold Radiation and convection occur when a room is
air sinks, is warmed by the heater and itself rises. heated by a wood- or coal-burning fire.
A convection current is set up which helps to warm Thermal energy is radiated from the burning
the whole room. wood or coal and heats up objects in the room which
Convection currents also form in the water being absorb it. Air in contact with the hot wood or coal
heated in hot water tanks, kettles and kitchen pans, is warmed and rises upwards because it is less dense
allowing water to be heated quickly. than the cold air above. Cooler air is drawn down
to take its place and a convection current is set up
Uses of radiation: infrared which also transfers thermal energy into the room.
thermometer Vacuum flask
An infrared thermometer detects the thermal A vacuum or Thermos flask keeps hot liquids hot
radiation emitted by an object and converts it into or cold liquids cold. It is very difficult for heat to
an electrical signal. The temperature of the object travel into or out of the flask.
can be determined from the radiant power detected Transfer of thermal energy by conduction and
and the value is shown on a digital display. It is a convection is minimised by making the flask a
non-contact method and allows temperature to be double-walled glass vessel with a vacuum between
measured at a distance. Infrared thermometers are the walls (Figure 2.3.14). Radiation is reduced by
frequently used to monitor the health of passengers
arriving at an airport.

stopper

double-walled
glass vessel
silvered
surfaces
case
vacuum
felt pad
▲ Figure 2.3.13 An infrared thermometer in use ▲ Figure 2.3.14 The structure of a vacuum flask
124

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 124 30/03/21 12:24 PM

 2.3.4 Consequences of thermal energy transfer

silvering both walls on the vacuum side. Then if, for

example, a hot liquid is stored, the small amount of Test yourself
radiation from the hot inside wall is reflected back 7 Explain why on a cold day the metal handlebars of
across the vacuum by the silvering on the outer a bicycle feel colder than the rubber grips.
wall. The slight energy loss that does occur is by 8 Identify the energy transfers which occur
conduction up the thin glass walls and through the a when a radiator is used to cool the engine
stopper. If the flask is to be used to store a cold of a car
liquid, thermal energy from outside the flask is b when a room is heated by a coal fire.
reflected from the inner wall.

Revision checklist
After studying Topic 2.3 you should know and After studying Topic 2.3 you should be able to:
understand: ✔ describe experiments to show the different
✔ that thermal energy transferred by infrared conducting powers of various substances and
radiation does not require a medium name good and bad conductors
✔ the rate of radiation emission increases as ✔ explain conduction using the kinetic particle model
the temperature or surface area of the object ✔ describe experiments to show convection in fluids
increases (liquids and gases) and relate convection in fluids
✔ how thermal insulation is used to keep liquids cool to density changes
and to reduce energy loss from buildings. ✔ describe the effect of surface colour and texture
on the emission, absorption and reflection of
radiation and recall that good absorbers are also
good emitters
✔ describe experiments to study factors affecting
the absorption and emission of radiation
✔ explain some everyday applications of conduction,
convection and radiation.

Exam-style questions
1 Describe an experiment to demonstrate the A Energy from the Sun reaches the Earth by
properties of good and bad thermal conductors. radiation only. [1]
[Total: 4] B A dull black surface is a good absorber of
2 Explain in terms of particles how thermal energy radiation. [1]
is transferred by conduction in solids. C A shiny white surface is a good emitter of
[Total: 4] radiation. [1]
3 a Explain how thermal energy is transferred D The best heat insulation is provided by a
by convection. [3] vacuum. [1]
b Describe an experiment to illustrate [Total: 4]
convection in a liquid. [3] 5 Describe the effect of surface colour and texture
[Total: 6] on the
4 The following statements relate to the absorption a emission of radiation [2]
and emission of radiation. b reflection of radiation [2]
State which of the statements are true and which c absorption of radiation. [2]
are false. [Total: 6]

125

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 125 30/03/21 12:24 PM

 2.3 Transfer of thermal energy

6 a Describe an experiment to show the c Air is one of the worst conductors of heat.
properties of good and bad emitters of What is the advantage of replacing it by
infrared radiation. [4] plastic foam as shown in Figure 2.3.15? [1]
b Describe an experiment to show the properties d A vacuum is an even better heat insulator
of good and bad absorbers of infrared than air. Suggest one (scientific) reason why
radiation. [4] the double glazing should not have a vacuum
[Total: 8] between the sheets of glass. [1]
7 Explain why [Total: 8]
a newspaper wrapping keeps hot things hot, a
e.g. fish and chips, and cold things cold,
house roof rafter
e.g. ice cream [1]
b fur coats would keep their wearers warmer
fibreglass laid
if they were worn inside out [2] between rafters
c a string vest helps to keep a person warm
even though it is a collection of holes
bounded by string. [2]
[Total: 5] c
b
8 Figure 2.3.15 illustrates three ways of reducing cavity with air
heat losses from a house. plastic foam
injected
a Explain how each of the three methods
reduces heat losses. [4] house
glass glass
wall
b Why are fibreglass and plastic foam good
substances to use? [2] ▲ Figure 2.3.15 a Roof insulation; b cavity wall insulation;
c double glazing

Alternative to Practical
9 The manufacturers of roof insulation suggest that Other apparatus normally found in the school
two layers of fibreglass are more effective than laboratory is also available.
one. Describe how you might set up an experiment You should
in the laboratory to test whether this is true. • explain briefly how you would carry out the
The following apparatus is available: investigation
• 250 cm3 glass beaker • state the key variables that you would control
• measuring cylinder • give a table, or tables, with column headings
• layers of fibreglass insulation to show how you would display your readings
• thermometer • explain briefly how you would use your
• stopwatch. readings to reach a conclusion.
 [Total: 6]

126

9781398310605_Sec_2.indd 126 30/03/21 12:24 PM