Electronics Repair

Manual
• Electronics Repair Basics

• Tools and Test Equipment

• Troubleshooting and Maintenance

• Specific Repair Instructions

• Schematic Diagrams

• Component/Manufacturer Indices

Editor

Gene B. Williams

© WEKA Publishing, Inc., 1993

New York • Munich • Zurich • Paris

Milan • Amsterdam • Vienna
 The publisher shall not be liable to the purchaser or
any other person or entity with respect to any liability, loss or
damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by this book.

When attributed as a source, the named manufacturer reserves all rights to the information presented.
WEKA Publishing reserves the rights to the format in which such information is presented in the
Electronics Repair Manual. For the sum of the other material in the book, all rights reserved by
VVEKA Publishing. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means-graphic,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage and retrieval
systems-without the permission of the publisher.

WEKA Publishing
97 Indian Field Rd
Greenwich, CT 06830
(203) 622-4177
FAX (203) 622-4187

A member of the international WEKA Publishing Group

New York· Munich· Zurich· Paris· Milan· Amsterdam· Vienna

©WEKA Publishing, Inc., 1993

ISBN: 0-929321-06-5
 WEKA Publishing, Inc
97 Indian Field Road
Greenwich, CT 06830
Phone: 203-622-4177
Toll-free: 1-800-222-WEKA
~ Fax: 203-622-4187
L..- ...I USA • Gennany • Switzerland • France • Italy • Netherlands • Austria • Belgium

Dear Subscriber,

As Product Manager for the Electronics Repair Manual, I'd like to welcome you per-
sonally to what I think is the most useful reference source for electronics repair.

Your manual occupies a unique place in today's array of electronics books andmaga-
zines; unique simply because it covers and explores all of the areas which are of interest
to professionals and hobbyists. From repairing audio and video equipment, to computers,
to household appliances and automobile electronics, this manual is packed with valuable
information, references, and step-by-step instructions-things you want and need to kll1ow.

Repair All Kinds of Electronics Yourself

Radio receivers, television sets, VCRs, camcorders, personal computers and peripherals,
CD players - whatever your repair job, you'll have comprehensive information within
easy reach. For each device covered you'll find:
• fundamentals of operation
• necessary tools and test equipment
• preventive maintenance
• troubleshooting and repair instructions

Use Universal Repair Instructions for General Troubleshooting

Universal repair instructions are provided that apply to entire groups of equipment.
You'll find general approaches on how to locate the faulty parts of your device and how
to repair it. You can be working on one of the hundreds of VCR models in use today and
have valid repair instructions at your fingertips.

Profit from Model-Specific Repair Instructions

Specific repair instructions show you step-by-step troubleshooting and repair for partilcu-
lar models. This in-depth information is illustrated with drawings and pictures, accompa-
nied by checklists and diagrams. As a beginner or professional, this section offers you a
tr~asue of tips and hints that will increase your success with repairing all kinds of elec-
tronics equipment.
 Now You Have a Complete Reference Source at Your Fingertips
In addition to universal repair instructions and model-specific repair instructions, your
manual provides you with schematics, valuable data tables on electronic components, an
in-depth section on tools and test equipment, and lists of suppliers and manufacturers.

Your Manual Continues to Grow in Size and Value

Your quarterly updates to the Electronics Repair Manual provide you with an ever-
expanding source of repair information. You'll keep up with technological developments
and increase your productivity through additional hands-on projects.

Shape Your Supplements

Use the enclosed questionnaire to help us select the devices and topics for future updates.
What devices are you interested in? Do you like more universal or more model-specific
repair instructions? What kind of component indices would be of help to you?

In a sense, you become a member of our editorial team. You help us to make the manual
your manual- to make it what you want it to be.

I hope you'll enjoy your edition of the Electronics Repair Manual! Any comments and
suggestions you may have regarding this book and the updates are welcomed. We look
forward to hearing from you.

Sinc:erely,

U.J!~ Christopher B. Smith

Product Manager for Electronics Publications

P.S.: If you like to save time and money, please feel free to give our Customer Service
Department a call in order to take advantage of our special subscription offer. You'll be
saving shipping and handling for a whole year and you'll receive an additional binder for
free! So why don't call today! Our toll-free number is 1·800·622·WEKA.
 Electronics Repair Manual· Questionnaire
1 How Interesting are the different sections of the manual to you?
Name:
(please indicate: 1 = highest interest; 5 = lowest interest)
Address:
1 2 3 4 5 City: • State:___ZIP:_ _
Electronics Repair Basics 0 0 0 0 0
Tools and Test Equipment 0 0 0 0 0 Phone Number: ( )
Video 0 0 0 0 0
Television 0 0 0 0 0
Audio 0 0 0 0 0 2 How Important Is our toll-free hotllne
Automobile Electronics 0 0 0 0 0 service to you?
Computer EqUipment 0 0 0 0 0
Home Appliances
(1 =very important; 5 =not imponant)
0 0 0 0 0
Reference Materials: -Addresses 0 0 0 0 0
-Indices 0 0 0 0 0
1 2 3 4 5
- Schematics 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
I

3 Which devices would you like to see covered In future updates?

Please indicate whether you are interested in: a) maintenance; b) general trOUbleshooting techniques and repair inlitructions; c) troubleshooting
certain problems (please indicate the problem) d) case studies to various models [(please indicate the manufacturer and model(s)]; e) schematic
diagrams [(please indicate manufacturer and model(s)]. Please note the most important manufacturers for each area.

a) b) c) d) e)
Maintenance General trouble- Troubleshooting Case Schematic
shooting/repair certain problems studies diagrams
Video
OVCRs:VHS 0 0 0 0 0
SVHS 0 0 0 0 0
o Camcorders:
VHS 0 0 0 0 0
SVHS 0 0 0 0 0
VHS-C 0 0 0 0 0
SVHS-C 0 0 0 0 0
8mm 0 0 0 0 0
Hi-8 0 0 0 0 0
Beta 0 0 0 0 0
o Laser Disc Player 0 0 0 0 0
o Cameras 0 0 0 0 0
Other: 0 0 0 0 0
Most important manufacturer(s)

Audio
o Microphone 0 0 0 0 0
o Tape Recorder 0 0 0 0 0
OWalkman 0 0 0 0 0
o Tumtable 0 0 0 0 0
o Amplifier 0 0 0 0 0
OCD Player 0 0 0 0 0
o Loudspeaker 0 0 0 0 0
o Crossover Systems 0 0 0 0 0
Other: 0 0 0 0 0
Most imortant manufacturer(s)

Automobile Electronics
o Air Conditioning/
temperature control 0 0 0 0 0
o Ignition/starter 0 0 0 0 0
o Electric sunroof
o Windows/door lock 0 0 0 0 0
o Fuel control 0 0 0 0 0
o Speed control 0 0 0 0 0
o Travel computer 0 0 0 0 0

(Questionnaire continued on reverse)

BW3
 a) b) c) d) e)
Maintenance General trouble- Troubleshooting Case Schematic
shooting/repair certain problems studies diagrams
Automobile
Electronlcs(,cont'd)
o Alternator 0 0 0 0 0
Other: 0 0 0 0 0
Most important manufacturer(s)

Computer Equipment
o Personal Computer 0 0 0 0 0
o Min-cro,"~pute 0 0 0 0 0
o Computer Bc)ards 0 0 0 0 0
o Ports 0 0 0 0 0
o Hard Drive 0 0 0 0 0
o CD-ROM 0 0 0 0 0 \

o Laser Printer 0 0 0 0 0
o Dot Matrix Printer 0 0 0 0 0
o Scanner 0 0 0 0 0
o Monitor 0 0 0 0 0
o Mouse 0 0 0 0 0
Other: 0 0 0 0 0
Most important manufacturer(s)

Home Applliances
o Refrigerator/Freezer 0 0 0 0 0
o Dish Washer 0 0 0 0 0
o Washer/Dyl~ 0 0 0 0 0
o Sewing Machine 0 0 0 0 0
o Lawn Mowell' 0 0 0 0 0
o Dehumidifier 0 0 0 0 0
o Air Conditioner 0 0 0 0 0
o Garage-door Opener 0 0 0 0 0
Other: 0 0 0 0 0
Most important manufacturer(s)

Miscellaneous (please note below)

0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

4 Which specialized test equipment would 5 Please mention any other topics that Interest you:
you like to see covered?

6 Which kind of indices would you like to receive?

[Please mention for each index, whether it should be a part number index (p), a functional index (f), or alternate source index (a)]
0 Diodes o Thyristors and Triacs o Transistors o Linear ICs such as
0 Microcontrcillers o Microprocessors o Memories o Other Digital ICs
7 I use th,e "Electronics Repair Manual" for 8 As a repair technician, do you consider yourself:
o Hobbyonly o Hobby and business o Business only o Beginner o Advanced o Professional
9 Do you use a computer? 10 .Which other areas would you like to receive more
0 No o Yes detailed Information about?
0 IBM elbit~pmoC o Macintosh o Other o Integrated Circuits o Data Acquisition 0 Electronics Projects
0 Disk Drive: 051/.1" o 3Y2" o Electronics Basics o Home Office Computing o Other
11 Which magazines do you read?
o Electronic Servicing & Technology o PopUlar Communications o Computer Craft 0 PopUlar Electronics o Radio Electronics
o Viejo Publications o Prentice Hall Electronics Book Club 0 McGraw Hill Electronics Book Club
o Other
 Section 1 • Table of Contents

Table of
Contents

Section 1
Table of Contents
section 1 Table of Contents

section 2 Preface

2/1 Welcome
2/2 How to use Your Manual
2/3 Safety Procedures

section 3 Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 Electronic Fundamentals

3/2- C Components
3/2-0 Ohm's Law
3/2 - PVC Power, Voltage, Current
3/2 -QU5 Quantities, Units, Symbols
3/3 Troubleshooting Techniques
3/4 SolderingiDesoldering

Section 4 Tools and Test Equipment

4/1 Tools for Repair

4/2 Basic Test Equipment
4/3 Advanced Test Equipment
4/3- DMM Digital Multimeter
4/3 - Fe Frequency Counter
4/3- LP Logic Probe
4/3-0 Oscilloscope
4/3 - 55 Signal Sources

section 5 Video

5/Cam Camcorder
5/Cam - A An Introduction

Page 1
 Section 1 • Table of Contents

Talble of
Contents
I

Section 5 Video (Continued)

5/Cam - F Features
5/Cam - M Maintenance
5tCam -TE Test Equipment
5tCam -TR Troubleshooting and Repair
5tCam -VCS Various Case Studies

5NCR Video Recorder

5NCR-A An Introduction
5NCR-M Maintenance
5NCR-TE Test Equipment
5NCR-TR Troubleshooting and Repair
5NCR-VCS Various Case Studies

Section 6 Television

61TTV Tube Television

61TTV-A An Introduction
61TTV-TE Test Equipment
61TTV -TR Troubleshooting and Repair
61TTV - VCS Various Case Studies

Section 7 Audio
7tA Amplifier
7/A-A An Introduction
7/A-TR Troubleshooting and Repair

7tCD CD Player
7tCD-A An Introduction
7tCD - F Features
7/CD- M Maintenance
7/CD -TE Test Equipment
7tCD - TR Troubleshooting and Repair

7tR Radio
7/R-A An Introduction
7/R-F Features
7tR - TR Troubleshooting and Repair

Page 2
 Section 1 • Table of Contents

Table of
Contents

7/R Receiver
7/R-VCS Various Case Studies

71T Tuner
7rr- VCS Various Case Studies

section 8 Automobile Electronics

8ITE Test Equipment

8ITR Troubleshooting and Repair
8ITR - PS Power Systems
8ITR - ECM Electronics Control Module
8ITR-R Radios
8ITR-WS Wiring Systems
8NCS Various Case Studies

Section 9 Computer Equipment

9/PC Personal Computer

9/PC-AM Architecture of Microcomputers
9/PC- C Components
9/PC-TE Test Equipment
9/PC -TR Troubleshooting and Repair
9/PC - VCS Various Case Studies

9/PR Printer
9/PR - A An Introduction
9/PR - M Maintenance
9/PR -TR Troubleshooting and Repair

Section 10 Home Appliances

10/A An Introduction
10ITR Troubleshooting and Repair
10ITR - A An Introduction
10ITR - AlC· R Air Conditioners/Refrigerators
10ITR - Co Controls
10ITR - ECM Electronically Controlled Motors
10ITR - T Transformers
10ITR - Th Thermostats

Page 3
 Section 1 • Table of Contents
I

T~ble of
C9ntents
!

Section 11 Miscellaneous Devices

11/A An Introduction

11/C Copier
11/C - A An Introduction
11/C - TR Troubleshooting and Repair

11/F Fax Machine

11/F - A An Introduction
11/F - M Maintenance

11/Tel Telephone
11/Tel- A An Introduction
11/Tel- TE Test Equipment
11/Tel- TR Troubleshooting and Repair
section 12
Reference Materials

121A Addresses
12/1 Indices
12/5 Schematics

(Note: For more detailed information see "Table of Contents" at the beginning
of each section.)

Page 4
 Section 2 • Preface

Table of
Contents

Section 2
Preface
Table of Contents

2/1 Welcome

2/2 How to Use Your Manual

2/3 Safety Procedures

Page 1
 Section 2 • Preface
I
I

Ta~leof
Coptents
I

Page 2
 Section 2 • Preface

2/1
Welcome

2/1
Welcome

Welcome to the Electronics Repair Manual! This unique publication aims to

provide the starter, as well as the professional, with clear and concise information
on how to repair and maintain a wide range of electronic equipment.

Electronic equipment is complex, becoming more complex almost by the day.

Our main objective is to ensure that the Electronics Repair Manual contains
comprehensive, instructive and up-to-date material. To help us meet this goal,
regular supplements to the book willprovide you with additional troubleshooting
and repair instructions, and technological updates.

In many cases, electronic equipment is delicate. Touch the wrong point with a
probe, or use an improper cleaning material, and what was a simple job turns into
a much more extensive one.

One home technician was trying to lubricate the tracking bars of a CD player with
a spray can ofWD-40. His intention was to cure the skipping that was occurring.
Instead he ended up destroying the main circuit board and the laser's lens.

The Electronics Repair Manual will help you avoid mistakes, and give you
plenty of repair tips and helpful advice.

Safety is the most important consideration when you are working with electron-
ics. Always take precautions for your personal safety and the safety of the
equipment on which you are working. Your manual includes a detailed safety
article which outlines the steps you should take to avoid injury. The article also
describes the measures to take in the event of an injury. It is imperative that you
only tackle those faults which you understand.

Putting this another way, you should only attempt to repair an item of electronic
equipment if you are fully confident that you understand what you arle doing.
Your Electronics Repair Manual will give you the information and confidence
to tackle even complex problems. However, you should proceed cautiously at
all times. WEKA Publishing is not responsible for any damage to health or
equipment.

Page 1
 Section 2 • Preface

2/1
I

Welcome

Many ofyou will wish to specialize in particular areas ofelectronic maintenance.

Others will wish to obtain a broader understanding of how to service electronic
equipment. The Electronics Repair Manual is designed to satisfy both needs,
providing introductory and advanced information on a variety of equipment.

We welcome responses from our readers. Your comments and suggestions help
us to determine the contents of your future supplements. In a sense, you become
a member of our editorial team. You help us to make the manual your manual
- to make it what you want it to be.

Please use the attached questionnaire to let us know your interests. Tell us which
devices, general references, indices, and technologies you would like to see
covered in the future.

Whether you are a professional technician or an enthusiast working at home, we

hope that you enjoy using the Electronics Repair Manual and wish you great
success in all of your efforts!

Sincerely,

Gene Williams
Editor, Electronics Repair Manual

Page 2
 Section 2 • Preface

2/2
How to Use
Your Manual

2/2
How to Use Your Manual

The Electronics Repair Manual contains 12 sections. Each section is further

divided into chapters.

Sections 1 to 4 cover general information: Table of Contents, lPreface,

Electronic Repair Basics, and Tools and Test Equipment. The chapters in
these sections are divided numerically, as you can see in the Table of Contents
in Section 1.

Sections 5 to 11 contain repair information on specific types of electronic

equipment, ranging from radio receivers and CD players to personal computers.
The chapters in these sections are divided alphabetically.

For example, in "Section 5: Video" you can locate information on camcorders

by looking for articles with "5/Cam" as a heading. When you need VCR
information, look for "5NCR".

This structure will help you keep your manual organized as it grows in the future,
allowing you to quickly locate needed information. Below are headings for
different sections, showing how the sections are subdivided by numbers and/or
alphabetically.

Section 3 • Electronics Repair Basics

Components
3/2 3/2 - C
3/2 - C - PC Passive Components
Electronics
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - PC - R Riesistors

Section 5 • Video

S/Cam - TR Troubleshooting and Repair

Steam S/Cam - TR - PS Power Supplies
Camcorders

Page 1
 Section 2 • Preface

/2
HoWl to Use
Yourl Manual

If you were interested in finding some basic information on resistors, the first
place you would look would be "Section 3: Electronic Repair Basics". Once
in Section 3, you would locate "Chapter 2: Electronic Fundamentals". In
example 1, you will see "3/2 Electronic Fundamentals" in the black box.

Once you are in Chapter 2, you would look under the subhead "Components",
which is again divided into"Active Components" and "Passive Components".
Since resistors are passive components, you would look into this subheading.

As you can see in example 1, the subhead abbreviation for "Components" is C.

The abbreviation for "Passive Components" is PC. Under the passive comp~
nents subheading you will find the resistors article abbreviated s "R". That is
how the article got its chapter number "3/2-C-PC-R".

The second example shows you how to locate information on troubleshooting

camcorder power supplies.

1) You would look for camcorders in "Section 5: Video" under "5/Cam".

2) All troubleshooting and repair information is abbreviated with "TR".
3) A logical abbreviation for power supplies is "PS".

The article you are looking for is labeled "S/Cam-TR-PS". The following short
list will show you some abbreviations that are used for each section:

A: An Introduction TE: Test Equipment

F: Features TR: Troubleshooting and Repair
M: Maintenance VCS: Various Case Studies

All other abbreviations reflect the starting letters of the devices, parts, and
components for which you are looking.

Section Twelve contains Reference Materials. This section is subdivided into

"12/A" for Addresses, "12/1" for Indices, and "12/S" for Schematics.

We developed this alphabetical structure for your manual to allow you to easily
insert future articles into the book, without messing up a numerical structure. As
your manual grows, you will always have a reference that's well organized, up-
to-date and easy to use.

Page 2
 Section 2 •. Preface

2/3
Safety
Procedures

2/3
Safety Procedures

Nothing is more importantthan safety. Trying to save a few dollars in repair costs
isn't worth risking electrocution.

Safety can be divided into two overall parts-your personal safety and equip-
ment safety. Even an expensive computer system can be replaced. Your health,
or your life, cannot. The most basic rule of safety is that if you think safety is for
the other guy, let the job be, too.

Keep in mind that it isn't just your own safety that is of concern. You are
responsible for the safety ofeveryone around you as well. Even ifyou re:cognize
that a certain spot inside the TV set you're working on is dangerous, someone
else may not. You might understand that the soldering iron is on and hot--a small
child coming into your work area might think that it looks like a fun toy.

Once you and those around you are safe, be sure that the equipment is safe. Once
a technician who was probing a powersupply during an initial diagnosis, touched
the probe in a way that caused a short circuit, and blew out the power supply.

Warnings • When replacing afuse, use one thatis an exactmatch. Ifthe value is too small,
the fuse is likely to blow; if the value is too high, the fuse can't provide
protection.

• NEVER use a wire or other conductor to replace a fuse-not even tempo

rari/y.

• When possible, test and diagnose withthe power offand the unit unplugged.

• Don't assume an unplugged unit is safe. Some components, particularly

capacitors, can hold lethal charges for long periods of time.

• When power has. to be applied, proceed with extreme caution. Whenever

possible, use the "One Hand Rule" (keep one hand in your pocket).

• Use insulated tools, and hold them ONLY by the insulation.

Page 1
 Section 2 • Preface

I
/3
S~fety
Pro4edures

• Wear insulated shoes.

• a
Work on nonconductive sUlface, NEVER on a metal table.

• Be sure the work area is sufficiently lighted.

• The work area in general should be clean and well organized.

• Remember that heat may also be a danger. Some components get very hot
during operation.

• Some tools, such as soldering irons, are meant to be hot. If the tip is hot
enough to melt solder, it is hot enough to cause serious burns, damage to
components and sUlfaces, and ijyou're careless the tip can melt through
wires, including the tool's power cord.

• Always use the right toolfor the job. For example, the tip ofthe screwdriver
or wrench has to fit correctly. When clipping wires, use a wire cutter (and
of the right size) not scissors.

• When replacing components, use an exact replacement.

• Remember: WHEN IN DOUBT, DON'T DO IT!

Electric:al Shock Usually there is very little danger from the DC voltage in most equipment. It is
generally of low value, in voltage and current. The greatest danger in these areas
is to the equipment itself.

However, do not throw caution to the wind. Always assume the voltage and
current are lethal, and you won't get into trouble.

Unless the device is powered by batteries, there is a power supply. This converts
AC into DC. The danger to you begins at the wall outlet and could continue well
past the power supply. (A television set, for example, takes a very high voltage
from the power supply to drive the picture tube.)

The AC in the standard wall outlet is 117 VAC (nominal) and is normally
protected by a 15 A or 20 A breaker or fuse. The purpose of the breaker or fuse
is to reduce the danger of fire. DO NOT count on them to protect you or the
equipment.

At 117 VAC, it takes just a fraction of an amp to cause your muscles to become

Page 2
 Section 2 • Preface

2/3
Safety
Procedures

paralyzed. If this happens you won't be able to let go ofwhat is causing the shock.
With just a fraction of an amp more, your heart can become paralyzed.

That fuse or breaker allows 15 or more amps to flow almost indefinitely. This
is hundreds of times what it takes to kill a person. Worse, since these !breakers
are designed to allow the heavier current draw for times when motors start, for
a second or so the amperage flowing can be much higher.

The lesson, again, is that you should not be thinking of that breaker or fuse as
a device that will protect you. It won't!

As stated above, when working around dangerous voltages and currents, you
need to be insulated from the surroundings. It is not overly cautious to work on
an insulated surface, while wearing insulated shoes on an insulated floor. Even
then, keep one hand in your pocket (the "One Hand Rule") to avoid accidentally
having yourself become part of the AC circuit. Merely keeping that other hand
back isn't enough. You might be tempted to reach forward with it. Placing it in
your pocket will force you to think 'about whatyou are doing.

Fire Hopefully you will never have to deal with this problem. If you are careful, you
never will. However, you need to be prepared, just in case.

The first step is to be sure that there is a safe and quick exit from the work area.
This is yet another reason to keep the working area clean and uncluttered. If you
have to get out of the area fast, climbing over boxes or taking the chance of
tripping on electrical cords increases the danger.

Why would you suddenly have to flee? There are two main reasons. One is that
you may not be able to get the fire under control. The other is that some electrical
fires can release poisonous gases in the air.

Even if the fire is out, it may not be safe for you to remain.

At least one fire extinguisher should be immediately at hand, and easily

accessible. This must be of the right type. For electrical fires you'll need the dry
powder type (Type C). Liquids, and water in particular, only make matters
worse.

Having a fIre extinguisher around won't do much good if you don't know how
to use it. The unit should also be serviced on a regular basis (some suggest once
per year as a minimum). Don't rely on the gauge. Even ifit shows "good" on the
dial, the unit may not be functioning.

Page 3
 Section 2 • Preface

i
/3
S~fety
Proqedures

The working area should be protected with aproper alarm system. The fire alarm,
like the fire extinguisher, should be tested regularly. Experts suggest that once
per month is not too frequent.

First Aid

It is a good idea to have a quality first aid manual. You should know the basics-
and know them well enough to apply them calmly under an emergency situation.
You might even consider taking classes. Many hospitals and medical clinics
offer free classes in CPR.

The working area should contain a complete first aid kit. As supplies are used
from it, they should be replaced. Make sure that the kit is always fully stocked,
and with fresh materials.

The Shock Victim In the event of an electrical shock the first thing to do is to disconnect the power
supply, or remove the person from the supply. Do this ONLY if it can be done
safely and without risk of shock to yourself. This may mean standing on
insulating material (if available) and pushing the live conductor with an
insulator, such as a broom handle.

If the person is not breathing, and the heart is not beating, it is essential to act as
quickly as possible. The ABC of first aid in these circumstances is:

Figure 1: Turn the person onto their back and tilt the head.

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 Section 2 • Preface

2/3
Safety
Procedures

Airway Open the airway by rolling the person on his or her back, gently lifting the chin
forward with one hand while pressing the forehead back with the other. This has
the effect of lifting the tongue forward so that it does not block the airway. (See
Figure 1).

Breathing Pinch the victim's nose with your fingers and close it. Take a deep ,hta~erb and
blow into the victim's mouth. Watch the chestto see ifitrises (Figure 2). Remove
your mouth and see ifthe chest sinks. If the chestdoes not go up and down, adjust
the position ofthe head andjaw to clearthe airway (Figure 3). Repeat the process.

Now check for a pulse as an indicator that the heart is beating (Figure 4). If it is
not, go immediately to "Circulation".

Figure 2: Pinch the nose, create a seal between your mouth and theirs, and bllow while
watching to see if their chest rises.

If the heart is beating, continue mouth-to-mouth resuscitation at a rate of about

14 times per minute until natural breathing begins again.

When natural breathing has started, put the victim in the recovery position. That
is, move the person so that the front of the body is to the ground and the head
is resting with the right side to the ground and the chin tilted to keep ~cht airway
clear (Figure 5). The right arm should be down and beside the body, with the
left arm forward. The left knee should be bent.

Circulation The mostreliable way for an amateur to check the pulse ofan unconscious person
is as follows:

PageS
 Section 2 • Preface

2/3
Safety
Procedures

Figure 3: If the chest does not rise and fall, tilt the chin again.

Figure 4: Check the pulse for sign of heartbeat.

Place two fingertips on the voice box (Adam's apple) and slide them around the
neck to either side. A pulse should be felt in either of the two carotid arteries that
run up the sides of the neck (Figure 4).

The victim must be on his or her back and on a firm surface. Kneel beside the
victim and find thepoint where the ribs join atthe bottom ofthe breastbone. Place
the heel of one hand on the breastbone about two finger-widths above this point.
(Figure 6.) Put your other hand on top of the first and get into position over the
victim with your arms straight and your shoulders directly above the breastbone.

Keeping your arms straight, press down on the breastbone about 2 inches. Relax
the pressure and repeat the process at a rate of just over one per second. Don't

Page 6
 Section 2 • Preface

2/3
Safety
Procedures

Figure 5: With breathing restored, move the person into the recovery position.

bang on the chest. Try to simulate the smooth, steady action of normal beating.
Complete 15 of these actions and then go back to the head, open the airway and
give two cycles of mouth~ o-m uth resuscitation.

Continue with 15 chest compressions followed by two mouth-to-mouth cycles,

checking for a pulse after the first minute and then repeating the entire cycle
again, with a pulse check every three minutes.

Stop the chest compressions as soon as a pulse is detected. Continue mouth-to-

mouth until natural breathing starts. If necessary, assist with the natural
breathing to help the victim return to his or her natural rate.

Figure 6: Pushing on the spot shown causes pressure on the heart.

Page 7
 Section 2 • Preface

2/3
Safety
Procedures

Figure 7: The CPR position.

PageS
I
;
 Section 3 • Electronics Repair Basics

Table of
Contents

Section 3
Electronics Repair Basics
Table of Contents
3/2 Electronics Fundamentals

3/2- C Components
3/2 - C- AC Active Components
3/2 - C- AC-A An Introduction
3/2 - C - AC- D Diodes
3/2 - C - AC - IC Integrated Circuits
3/2 - C - AC - L Logic ICs
3/2 - C - AC - LED Light Emitting Diodes
3/2 - C- AC - OpAmp OperauonalAmpHfiers
3/2 - C- AC-T Transistors
3/2 - C - AC - Ti Timers
3/2 - C - AV - Thy Thyristors
3/2 - C - AC - Tr Triacs
3/2 - C - AC - VR Voltage Regulators
3/2 - C - PC Passive Components
3/2-C- PC-A An Introduction
3/2 - C- PC - C Capacitors
3/2 - C - PC-I Inductors
3/2 - C- PC - R Resistors
3/2 - C - PC- T Transformers
3/2- 0 Ohm's Law
3/2 - PVC Power, Voltage, Current
3/2 - QUS Quantities, Units, Signals

3/3 Troubleshooting Techniques

3/4 Soldering/Desoldering

3/4- D Desoldering
3/4-S Soldering

Page 1
 Section 3 • Electronics Repair Basics

Table of
Contents

Page 2
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2
Electronic 3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - A An Introduction

3/2 - C - AC
Active Components
3/2 - C - AC-A
An Introduction

Passive components "condition" the current but cannot generate or amplify it.
Even with a transformer, where there is an apparent increase in power, the
increase in the voltage level is accompanied by a decrease in the amperage. In
an ideal (theoretical) transformer, the two balance and there is no net gain in
power. (In reality there is a net loss.)

Active components can do a variety of things to the current. They can amplify
it, modify it in a number of ways and basically make it behave in a desired
manner.

Vacuum tubes are active components. However, they have been almost entirely
replaced by semi-conductors (diodes, transistors, etc.). Semi-conductors are
smaller, lighter, or require less energy to operate and are tougher and more
capable. You may encounter tubes in old equipment or in equipment that handles
large amounts of power (such as large transmitters). Even here tubes are
disappearing, since semi-conductors can handle more power.

Page 1
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2 3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Electronic
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - A An Introduction

Page 2
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2
Electronic 3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - D Diodes

3/2 - C - AC
Active Components

3/2 - C - AC-O
Diodes

Diodes generally comprise a semiconductor P-N junction of either silicon (Si)

or germanium (Ge). In order to obtain conduction, the P-type material must be
made positive with respect to the N-type material. (The N-type connection is the
cathode.) The direction of current flow is from anode to cathode when the diode
is conducting (as shown in Figure 1). Very little current flows in the reverse
direction. (The amount of reverse current is negligible in most silicon devices.)

+ A~C _

Current flow
..
+ P N -
Anode Cathod e

Figure 1: Forward biased (conducting) diode

Diodes exhibit a low resistance to current flow in one direction and a high
resistance in the other. The direction in which current flows is referred to as the
forward direction, while negative current is called the reverse direction.When a
diode is conducting, it is said to be forward biased, and a small voltage (ideally
zero) is dropped across it. This voltage is known as the foward voltage drop. The
maximum reverse voltage that a diode can tolerate is usually specified in terms
of its reverse repetitive maximum voltage, or peak: inverse voltage (PIV).

Page 1
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - c Components
3/2 3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Electronic
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - D Diodes

-~+
No current flow

+
Anode Cathode

Depletion region.J

Figure 2: Reverse biased (non-conducting) diode

Typical values of forward current and forward voltage for commonly available
silicon and germanium diodes are given below:

Table 1 Forward Current Forward Voltage Drop

Value of Forward
Current and Silicon Silicon Germanium
(1N4148) (1N5401) (OA91)
Forward Voltage
Drop 10llA O.43V - O.12V
100llA O.58V O.55V O.26V
1mA O.65V O.60V O.32V
10mA O.75V O.65V O.43V
100mA - O.72V -
1A - O.85V -

Germanium diodes conduct at lower forward voltages than their silicon counter-
parts (typically 100 mV as compared with 600 mY) but they tend to exhibIt
considerably more reverse leakage current (1 pA as compared with 10 nA for an
applied voltage of 50 V). The forward resistance of a conducting silicon diode
is also generally much lower than that of a comparable germanium type. Thus
germanium diodes are used primarily for signal detection purposes whereas
silicon devices are used for rectification and for general purpose applications.
Typical forward and reverse characteristics for comparable germanium and
silicon diodes are shown in Figure 3.

Diodes are often divided into signal and rectifier types according to their
principal field of application. Signal diodes require consistent forward charac-
teristics with low forward voltage drop. Rectifier diodes need to be able to cope
with high values of reverse voltage and large values of forward current.

Page 2
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 ,- C Components
3/2 3/2 - C - AC
=-=...:..:..::r:.=..:..:..::::.::.=
Active Components
Electronic
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - D Diodes

Silicon (Si)
Forward current. IF
12 (mAl

10

Reverse voltage. (VRI 2

-100 -75 -50
(V) ~= :! =~d . L . J "7r_=,. ., . : r_"'I _l

Forward voltage. VF

-6 (uA)
Reverse current.lR

Figure 3: Typical characteristics for comparable silicon and germanium diodes

Consistency of characteristics is of secondary importance in such applications.

Rectifier diodes are often available in the form of a bridge (see Figure 4) which
proves full-wave rectification.

»--0+

Figure 4: Bridge rectifier

Page 3
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2 3/2 - C - AC Active· Components
Electronic
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - D Diodes

Commonly Used A = anode Tu = ambient temperature

Abbreviations c = cathode TK = temp. coefficient of the zener voltage
IF forward current t = time
IR = reverse current V = voltage
K = cathode (in some sources) VBR = breakdown voltage
Plot = total power loss VF = forward voltage
Rth = thermal resistance VR = reverse voltage
T = temperature Vz = zener voltage
TG = casing temperature PIV = peak inverse voltage
Tj = junction layer temperature VRRM = max. repetitive reverse voltage

Diode Coding Diode coding can be confusing. At times, several conventions are used simul-
taneously. For example, a diode coded AAl19 is actually a European labeling
scheme (with the first letter signifying germanium, the second showing it to be
a general purpose diode). Despite the fact that the label is European, the same
diode, with the same label, can be found in the United States.

In the European labeling:

First Letter Material second Letter Purpose

A germanium A general purpose

B silicon B tuning (varicap)
C gallium arsenide, etc. E tunnel
0 photo diodes, etc. P photovoltaic
a light emitting (LED)
T controlled rectifier
X varactor
y power rectifier
Z zener

With zener diodes, an additional letter may follow the number. This is the
tolerance rating.

A 1%
B 2%
C 5%
o 10%

Some of these conventions can be found in the United States. Cross references
for diodes that fulfill the same specifications are easily located (and are
sometimes printed on the package).

Page 4
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2
Electronic 3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - D Diodes

Also common in the United States is the IN and 2N prefix, which is generally
taken to mean that the device is from National Semiconductor, with IN being a
diode and 2N being a transistor.

To make matters more confusing, the casing type may (and often does) have more
than one designation. DO- is a military designation. A DO-7 case.is glass, 7.6 mm
long 2.5 mm in diameter. This same casing can be DO-204AA, which is military
low··cost. And the same is available as Case 51-02, which generally refers to a
consumer product.

Do not worry about this too much. Virtually every parts supplier can cross
reference. Complete cross reference guides are also available should you wish
to purchase one. These contain data about all the different semiconductors, often
up to and including ICs and CPUs. (If those are contained, pin-outs and other

K A
1411
~I
007 KlI:::JA
Cia. 2.5
+
~I '"
0015 KOA Dia.3.2

0027
I~
K([JA
Oia.5.33

4.25
K~A
~
0035
[(::J Dia. 1.85 o 0
+ ~
5.2

0041 Kf4-1 A
DDia.2.71

IAIl dimensions in mml

Bridge types

[ZJ
o+ ""' 0

K A

Figure 5: Diode casings

Page 5
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2 3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Electronic
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - D Diodes

technical data for the devices are often given.)

Motorola, one of the world's largest producers of semiconductor devices, has

more than 50 parts sales offices across the country, and a central office which
distributes literature. This includes "The Motorola Semiconductor Master
Selection Guide," which is considered by many to be the definitive reference
source on semiconductor cross-referencing and data.

Those with computers can get all this information on disk, making access even
easier.

The software is available through a Motorola sales office, through the Motorola
Literature Distribution center, and even via download from various computer
BBS around the country.

If you can't find it in your area, contact:

Motorola Literature Distribution Center

PO Box 20912
Phoenix, AZ 85036

The following are some typical diode listings and specificatiqns (R = Reverse;
F =Forward):

Example Type R Voltage F Voltage F Current (rnA)

Germanium Diodes
AA113 60 1.1 10
AA116 20 1.0 30
AA117 90 1.2 50
AA118 90 1.05 50
AA119 30 1.5 35
AA143 25 0.33 60
AA144 90 1.0 10
GD731 40 <1.0 50
GD741 40 <1.0 50
1N55A 150 <1.0 50
1N55B 180 <1.0 30
1N60 50 <1.0 30
1N87 22.5 <0.25 50
1N98A 80 <1.0 70
1N100A 80 <1.0 70
1N270 80 <1.0 -
1N276 50 <1.0 40
1N277 120 <1.0 -
(cont'd next page)

Page 6
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

Components
3/2 3/2 - C
3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Electronic
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - D Diodes

Example Type RVoltage FVoltage F Current (rnA)

Germanium Diodes
1N278 60 <1.0
(cont'd) 1N283 25 <1.0
1N695 20 <1.0 100
1N695A 25 <0.5 150
1N994 8 <1.0 20
1N995 15 <0.5 30
1N996 25 <0.8 50
1N3466 40 <1.0' 75
1N3467 15 <0.5
1N3469 35 <1.0 85

Example F Volts F Current R Current Power

Type RVolts
Silicon Diodes (rnA) (nA) (rnW)

BA170 20 1.0 150 50 300

BA201 50 1.2 150 100 500
BAV17 25 1.0 200 100 400
BAV18 60 1.0 200 100 400
BAV19 120 1.0 200 100 400
BAV20 200 1.0 200 100 400
BAV21 250 1.0 200 100 400
BAW75 35 1.0 150 100 500
BAW76 75 1.0 150 100 500
BAX13 50 1.53 48 200 500
BAX16 165 1.3 200 100 400
1N456A 30 1.0 150 <25 400
1N457 60 1.0 150 <25 400
1N458A 150 1.0 150 <25 400
1N459A 200 1.0 150 <25 400
1N483A 70 1.0 150 <25 400
1N483B 80 1.0 150 <25 400
1N484A 150 1.0 150 <25 400
1N4848 150 1.0 150 <250 400
1N485 200 1.0 150 <250 400
1N485A 200 1.0 150 <25 400
1N485B 200 1.0 150 <25 400
1N486 250 1.1 150 <250 400
1N486B 250 1.1 150 <25 400
1N914 100 1.0 75 <25 500
1N916 100 - 75 <25 500
1N4148 100 1.0 150 <25 500
1N4149 100 1.0 150 <25 500
1N4150 50 1.0 200 <100 500
1N4151 75 1.0 150 <50 500
1N4152 40 0.55 150 <50 400
1N4153 75 0.55 150 <50 400
1N4154 35 1.0 150 <100 500
1N4305 75 0.58 150 <100 400
(cont'd next page)

Page 7
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

Components
3/2 3/2 - C
3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Electronic
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - D Diodes

Example Type RVolts FVolts F Current R Current Power

Silicon Diodes (mA) (nA) (mW)
(cont'd)
1N4446 100 1.0 150 <25 500
1N4447 100 1.0 150 <25 500
1N4448 100 1.0 150 <25 500
1N4449 100 1.0 150 <25 500
1N4450 40 0.54 150 <50 400
1N4451 40 0.50 150 <50 400
1N4453 30 0.55 150 <50 400
1N4454 75 1.0 150 <100 400

Zener Diodes Zener diodes are special types of silicon diodes that exhibit consistent reverse
voltage breakdown characteristics. Zener diodes are available in various families
(according to their general characteristics, casings and power ratings) with the
reverse breakdown (zener) voltages in the 2.4 V to 91 V range.

A typical characteristic for a 5.6 V zener diode is shown in Figure 7. Note that
the forward characteristic has exactly the same shape as that of a conventional
silicon diode (conducting rapidly at 600 mY). The reverse characteristic has a
much greater slope such that the current rises very rapidly beyond the zener
voltage.

Zener diode casings are generally plastic or glass and appear identical to
conventional silicon diodes. As is the case with conventional silicon diodes, the
cathode connection is marked with a stripe (see Figure 6).

C -+l~I A

===lL:JF====
Figure 6: Zener diode symbol and typical casing

Page 8
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics
3/2 - C Components
3/2 3/2 - C - AC
Electronic Active Components
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - D Diodes

4-

3- FORWARD

2-

1-
-4 -3 -2 -1

+1 +2 +3 +4 +5 +6
-1 -

-2-

-3-
REVERSE
-4-

-5-

-6-

Figure 7: Zener diode characteristics

Page 9
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2
Electronic 3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - D Diodes

Page 10
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2
Electronic 3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - IC Integrated Circuits

3/2 - C - AC
Active Components

3/2 - C - AC -IC
Integrated Circuits

General Transistors were a remarkable invention. Devices could be made much smaller
Introduction and lighter, and less power was needed to run them. The radio that once filled
a large cabinet in the corner of a room, and that required 120 VAC, could be put
into a box small enough to fit in a pocket and powered by small batteries. Then
came the technology that made it possible to build hundreds or even thousands
of transistors, and the related components, into a small, thin plastic case.

This is the integrated circuit (IC), often called a "chip" because ofits appearance.
In electronics the IC is a mixed blessing. It allows devices to be even smaller,
while having more features, and to operate on just a trickle of electrical energy.
It also means that repair at the component level is quickly disappearing.

Many ICs are standard and have common pinouts. With the proper manual (such
as WEKA' s "The Modern Ie Databook") you can look up the particular chip to
find out which pins carry which signals. This may help you to locate which IC
has gone bad-or the failure could be caused by a cascading effect with one chip
or component elsewhere causing others to malfunction.

Another problem is that some ICs are proprietary. This means that even if you
locate which Ieis causing the trouble, you may not be able to get a replacement.
The combination of the two often puts the technician in a position in which the
"fix" is to replace an entire circuit board - and sometimes the entire device.

How the IC is structured inside, and how it is manufactured, depends on its design
and purpose.

Integrated circuits are complex circuits fabricated on a tiny slice of silicon. They
may contain the equivalent of as few as 10 or as many as 100,000 active devices
(diodes and transistors) and may be divided into two general classes-linear
(analog) or digital.

Page 1
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2 3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Electronic
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - IC Integrated Circuits

Linear ICs are designed for applications which involve voltage amplification,
signal generation and analog signal processing. Typical examples of linear
integrated circuits include the vast majority of consumer ICs used in radio,
television and hi-fi equipment, and they are also common as operational
amplifiers (used in all areas of electronics).

Digital integrated circuits are designed for use in conjunction with digital signals
(i.e., the signals consisting oftwo distinct voltage states, usually known as either
high and low, or as logic 1 and logic 0). Typical examples of digital ICs are logic
gates, digital counters and shift-registers.

Some integated circuits combine both digital and analog technology. Examples
are analog-to-digital converters (ADC) anddigital-to-analog converters (DAC),
and certain varieties of timer devices. The immensely popular 555 timer, for
example, contains two operational amplifier comparators (both considered to be
linear devices) together with a bistable stage (a digital device).

ICs are commonly used in almost every branch of electronics. Not only are they
the most cost-effective method of realizing many practical circuit configura-
tions, they also offer much greaterreliability when compared with the equivalent
circuitry based on discrete components.

Scale of Integration A relative measure of the number ofindividual semiconductor devices within an
intergrated circuit is popularly used to describe the scale of integration achieved
within digital devices. The following terminology is often used:

Scale of Integration Abbr. Number of logic gates·

Small 551 1 to 10
Medium MSI 10 to 100
Large LSI 100 to 1000
Very Large VLSI 1000 to 10,000
Super Large SLSI 10,000 to 100,000
*or equivalent circuits

Despite their obvious advantages in minimizing the component count within a

piece of equipment and reducing the overall area of the PC board required, ICs
do have some shortcomings when high currents or high voltages are involved.
Devices required to work at an appreciable power level (1 W or more) require
heat-sinking. Furthermore, at power levels in excess of 20 W, discrete devices
are generally preferred. In high-power audio applications it is, therefore, not
unusual to find hybrid circuitry which involves integrated circuit operational
amplifiers (operating as voltage amplifiers at low-power levels) working in

Page 2
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2 Active Components
_Electronic 3/2 - C - AC
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - IC Integrated Circuits

conjunction with conventional transistors or MOSFETs (to provide the neces··

sary power gain at the output).

Encapsulation The most popular form of encapsulation used for ICs is the dual-inline package.
(DIP). The package itself may be fabricated from either plastic or ceramic
material (with the latter using a glass hermetic sealant). Common DIPs have 6,
8, 14, 16, 18,20,24 or 40 pIns. >

Flat package (flatpack) construction (using both glass-metal and glass-ceramic

seals and welded construction) are popular for planar mounting on flat circuit
boards. No holes are required to accomodate the leads of such devices which are
arranged on a 0.05 inch pitch (Le., halfthe pitch used with standard DIP devices).
This form ofcasing requires special handling, and repair should not be attempted
unless the correct re-working equipment is available.

Single-inline packages (SIPs) and quad-inline packages (QIPs) are also becom-
ing increasingly popular, while TO-5, TO-72, TO-3 and TO-220 casings are also
found (the latter being commonly used with voltage regulators).

IC Coding Once again we find a coding system which demonstrates how our world is
becoming smaller. Conventions are almost interchangeable. This is made more
complicated by users often reducing the coding ofa chip to a few digits (e.g., 386)
and more complicated yet because each manufacturer may have its own code for
the same IC.

Efforts are being made to reduce this confusion, but it will take a long time.
Meanwhile, the technician is once again forced to look through cross-reference
manuals (which are fortunately easy to find and constantly updated).

Page 3
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Componen'ts
3/2 Active Components
Electronic 3/2 - C - AC
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - IC Integrated Circuits

Page 4
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2
Electronic 3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - L Logic ICs

3/2 - C - AC
Active Components

3/2 - C - AC - L
Logic les

Logic Gates

Basic Function Logic gates are digital ICs with a wide range ofapplications in electronics. Logic
gates operate using binary signals. Such signals have two states, commonly
referred to as logic 0 and logic 1. In conventional (positive) logic, the logic state
is represented by a low voltage while the logic 1 is represented by a high voltage.
In practice, the voltage levels used to represent the logical states depend on the
semiconductor technology employed, as well as the supply voltages. In normal
transistor-transistor logic (TTL) the logic 0 condition is represented by a voltage
in the range of 0 V to +0.8 V, while the logic 1 condition is represented by a
voltage in the range of +2.0 V to +5.0 V.

Logic Families The logic family to which adevice belongs is largely determined by its operational
characteristics (such as power consumption, speed, and immunity to noise). The
two basic logic families are TTL and CMOS, which are further divided into a
number of sub-families based on different manufacturing technologies. TTL
logic gates and related digital devices are found in the popular 74-series of ICs.
Each device within the family is coded with the prefix 74 and variants within the
family are identified by letters which follow the 74 prefix as follows:

Letters Meaning
none Standard TTL device
C CMOS version
F "Fast" • a high speed version
H High speed version
L Low power version
S Schottky input configuration (improved speed and
noise immunity)
AC High speed, low power
HC High speed CMOS version (CMOS inputs)
HCT High speed CMOS version (TIL inputs)
LS Low power version with Shottky inputs
ALS Advanced low power version with Schottky inputs

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 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2 3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Electronic
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - L Logic ICs

Popular CMOS logic devices fonn the 4000-series. Variants within the family
are identified by suffix letters as follows:

Suffix Meaning

none Standard CMOS device

A Standard unbuffered
B,BE Improved buffered
UB,UBE Improved unbuffered

Examples of CMOS and TIL device coding are given below:

Code Meaning

4001UBE an improved, unbuffered version of the CMOS 4001

74LS14 low power veriosn of the TIL 7414, fitted withSchottky inputs
4069B a buffered version of the standard 4069
74HC259 a high speed CMOS version of the 74259 TIL device

Logical Functions A logic gate generally has one or more inputs and a single output. Its logical
and Truth Tables function is described by the logical condition which relates its output to the
input(s). Several functions are commonly encountered including AND, NAND,
OR and NOR.

The logical function of a gate is specified in tenns of a truth table that relates the
logical state of its output to every possible combination of input. Since a digital
signal can have two states (0 or 1) a gate with two inputs can have, for example,
four different combinations of input (0 and 0,0 and 1, 1 and 0, and 1 and 1). A
gate with three inputs can have eight possible input combinations, and so on.

The American Standard (MIL/ANSI) symbols for some basic logic gates are
shown with their truth tables in Figure 3 to 7. Inverters and buffers each have one
input, exclusive-OR gates have two inputs and other basic gates (AND, OR,
NAND and NOR) are available with up to eight inputs.

Buffers Buffers do not affect the logical state of a digital signal. That is, a logic 1 input
results in a logic 1 output whereas a logic 0 input results in a logic 0 output.
Buffers are nonnally used to provide extra current drive at the output but can also
be used to regulate the logic levels present at an interface. The symbol and truth
table for a buffer is shown in Figure 1.

Inverters Inverters are used to complement the logical state. That is, a logic 1 input results
in a logic 0 output and vice versa. Inverters also provide extra current drive and,
like buffers, are used in interfacing applications.

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 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2 3/2 - C - AC
Electronic Active Components
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - L Logic ICs

ffij
y
OA~ o 0
1 1

Figure 1: Symbol and truth table for a buffer

The symbol and truth table for an inverter is shown in Figure 2.

AND Gates AND gates produce a logic 1 output when all inputs are simultaneously at logic
1. Any other input combination results in a logic 0 output. The symbol and truth
table for an AND gate is shown in Figure 3.

m
y
OR o 1
1 0

Figure 2: Symbol and truth table for an inverter

OR Gates OR gates produce a logic 1 output whenever anyone (or more) input is at logic
1. The OR gate produces a logic 0 output only when all of its inputs are
simultaneously at logic O. The symbol and truth table for an OR gate is shown
in Figure 4.

A 8 Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

Figure 3: Symbol and truth table for an AND gate

Page 3
 Section 3 • Electronic Repair Basics

3/2 - C Components
3/2 3/2 - C - AC Active Components
Electronic
Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - L LogiC ICs

NAND Gates NAND gates produce a logic 0 output only when all inputs are simultaneously
at logic 1. Any other combination produces a logic 1 output. A NAND gate,
therefore, is an AND gate with its output inverted. The symbol and truth table
for a NAND gate is shown in Figure 5.

A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

Figure 4: Symbol and truth table for an OR gate

NOR Gates NOR gates produce a logic 1 output when all inputs are simultaneously at logic
o. Any other combination produces a logic 0 output. A NOR gate, therefore, is
an OR gate with its output inverted. The symbol and truth table for a NOR gate
is shown in Figure 6.

A B y

A~ 0 0 1
B~ OR 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Figure 5: Symbol and truth table for a NAND gate

Exclusive OR Exclusive-OR gates produce a logic 1 output when one of the inputs is at logic
Gates 1 and the other is at logic O. Exclusive-OR gates produce a logic 0 whenever
both inputs have the same logical state. The symbol and truth table is shown
in Figure 7.

Monostables

Basic Function A logic device which has only one stable output state is known as a monostable.
The output of such a device is initially at logic 0 (low) until an appropriate level

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A B y

~A Y 0 0 1
B~ OR 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

Figure 6: Symbol and truth table for a NOR gate

A B y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Figure 7: Symbol and truth table for an Exclusive-OR gate

change occurs at its trigger input. This level change can be from 0 to 1 (positive
edge trigger) or (negative edge trigger) depending on the particular monostable
device or configuration.

Upon receipt of a valid trigger pulse, the output of the monostable changes state
to logic 1. Then, after a time interval determined by external C-R timing
components, the output reverts to logic O. The device then awaits the arrival of
the next trigger.

Example The most common example of a TTL monostable device is the 74121. This
device can be triggered by either positive or negative edges depending upon the
configuration employed. The chip has complementary outputs (Q and Q) and
requires only two timing components (one resistor and one capacitor).

Control Inputs Control inputs AI, A2 and B are used to determine the trigger mode and may be
connected in anyone of the following three ways:

• Al and A2 connected to logic O. The monostable then triggers on a

negative edge to B.

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• Al and B connected to logic 1. The monostable then triggers on a negative

edge applied to A2.

• A2 and B connected to logic 1. The monostable then triggers on a

negative edge applied to AI.

Unlike some other astable types, the 74121 is not re-triggerable during its
monostable timing period. This simply means that once a timing period has been
started, no further trigger pulse is recognized. In normal use, a recovery time
equal in length to the monstable pulse should be allowed before attempting to
re-trigger the device.

Usage Monostable devices are often used for stretching pulses of very short duration.
A 74121 is an ideal device to perform this function. It is be triggered by a very
short duration pulse and continues its timing period. long after the input signal
has reverted to its original state. The only requirement is that, to ensure reliable
triggering, the input pulse should have a width of at least of 50 ns.

Circuit In most practical circuit arrangements (see Figure 8) the values of the external
Arrangements timing resistor should normally lie in the range of 1.5 kil to 47 kil. The minimum
recommended value of external capacitor is 10 pF, with the maximum value
limited only by the leakage current of the capacitor employed. (In practice,
values of several hundred pF are found.)

..
I ..
C
AAAA
v
R
-.""+v

10 111 14
6
Trigger
5 Q
_ 1
-F"L.
~ Q
- L--r
1 1
3 4 7
OV

.
Figure 8: Monostable arrangement based on the 7412

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Bistables
The output of a bistable can remain indefinitely in either logical state (0 or 1).
Once set, the output will remain the same until reset.

Preset Preset
5 Q 0 Q J Q

Clock Clock

R a a K a
Clea, Clea,

R-S Ootype J-K

Figure 9: Bistable symbols

Various forms of bistables are found (see Figure 9).

R-5 Bistables The simplest form ofbistable is the R-S bistable. This device has two inputs, SET
and RESET, with complementary outputs Q and Q. A logic 1 applied to the SET
input causes the Q outputto become (orremain at) logic 1, while a 10 gic 1 applied
to RESET causes the Q output to become (or remain at) logic O. In either case,
the bistable remains in its set or reset state until an input is applied in a way that
changes the logical state.

R-8 bistables are sometimes implemented using cross-coupled NAND and NOR
gates as shown in Figure 10. These arrangements are, however, unreliable as the
output state is indeterminate when S and R are simultaneously at logic 1.

Reseto---i
10--+---00

):>-......- - 0 0
Set o----L-----/

Figure 10: Cross-coupled NAND gate bistable

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D-Type Bistables The D-type bistable has two principal inputs-D (data or delay) and CLOCK
(CK). The data input (logic 0 or 1) is clocked into the bistable such that the output
state only changes when the clock changes state. Operation is thus said to be
synchronous. Additional subsidiary inputs (which are invariably active low) are
provided which can be used to directly set or reset the bistable. These are usually
called PRESET (PR) and CLEAR (CLR). D-type bistables are used both as
latches (a simple form of memory) and as binary dividers.

,J-K Bistables J-K bistables have two clocked inputs (J and K), two dJ!ect inputs (pRESET and
CLEAR), a CLOCK (CK) input, and outputs Q and Q. As with R-S bistables,
the two outputs are complementary. That is, when one is 0 the other is 1 and vice
versa. Similarly, the PRESET and CLEAR inputs are both active low (Le., a 0
on the PRESET input sets the Q output to 1, whereas a 0 on the CLEAR input
will set the Q ouput to 0).

J-K bistables are the most sophisticated and flexible bistables, and they can be
configured as binary dividers, shift registers and latches.

Logical Levels and Noise Margins

Logic levels are the range of voltages used to represent lthe logic states 0 and 1. The
logic levels for CMOS differ markedly from those associated with TTL.

In particular, CMOS logic levels are relative to the supply voltage used while the
logic levels associated with TTL devices tend to be absolute (as shown in the
following table).

Logic Levels CMOS TTL

Logic 1 more than 2/3 VDO more than 2V

Logic 2 less than 1/3 VDO less than O.8V

Indeterminate between 1/3 VDD and between O.8V

and 2/3 VDO and 2V

(Note: VDDIS the posnive s!Jpply associated with CMOS devices.)

Noise Margin The noise margin of a logic device is a measure of its ability to reject noise. The
larger the noise margin the better the ability to perform in a noisy environment.
Noise margin is defined as the difference between the minimum values of high
state output and high state input voltage, and the maximum values of low state
output and low state input.

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5VOI--------Vcc

2V4
2VO
Noise t margin VOH MIN

VIHMIN
Indeterminate
ova VIL MAX
NOise·r margin
OV4 VOL MAX
0
OV OV
TTL

Vdd

2/3 Vdd
I Noise
margin
Vdd

VIHMIN

Indeterminate

1/3 Vdd

OV
0 I Noise
margin
VIL MAX

OV
CMOS

Figure 11 : Logic levels and noise margins for CMOS and TTL Devices

No~se marg!n = VOH(MIN) - YJH(MIN)

[
._---_-.1 NOise margm = VOL(MAX) - V IL(MAX)

That is where V OH(MIN) is the minimum value ofhigh state (logic 1) output voltage,
Vlli(MIN) is the minimum value of high state (logic 1) input voltage, V OL(MAX) is the
maximum value of low state (logic 0) output voltage, and V IL(MAX) is the
maximum value of low state (logic 0) input voltage.

The noise margin for standard 7400 series TTLs is typically 400 mV while that
for CMOS is 1/3 VDD' as shown in Figure 11.

Bus Compatible Devices

Microprocessor bus compatible digital integrated circuits invaria.bly have tri··
state outputs. These outputs can be placed in a high impedance state (Le., are
effectively disconnected) in order to avoid bus conflicts that may occur when

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several logic devices attempt to simultaneously drive the bus. Such devices have
a control input called ENABLE (EN) or CHIP SELECT (CS) which allows the
device to drive the bus. Such an input may be active high (the output of the gate
is valid when the enable or chip select input is taken to logic 1) or active low (the
output of the gate is valid when the enable or chip select is taken to logic 0). A
small circle is often used to denote an active low enable or chip select input on
the device symbol.

Fan-in and Fan-out The fan-in of a TIL logic circuit is a measure of the loading effect of its inputs in
comparison with a standard TIL gate. A TIL device with a fan-in oftwo has inputs
which are each equivalent to two standard TTL input loads. The fan-out of a logic
gate is a measure of its ability to drive further inputs. A TTL device with a fan-out
of two is capable of driving two standard TIL input loads. Clearly, at any node in
a digital logic circuit, the fan-out of the driving stage must always be greater than,
or equal to, the total fan-in of the following stages. For this reason it is essential to
ensure that a replacement device has the same (or improved) fan-out.

Supply Voltages Most TIL and CMOS logic systems are signed to operate from a single supply
voltage rail of nominally +5 V. With TIL devices, this supply rail is invariably
regulated. In most cases, the supply voltage should not fall outside the range of
4.75 V to 5.25 V.

CMOS devices can operate over a much wider range of supply voltages (3 V to
15 V), however, when operating atreduced supply voltages itis important to note
that the propagation delay (the time taken for a change of state to appear at the
output in response to a change at the input) is significantly increased. In order
to maintain peIformance at high switching speeds, it is important to use a
relatively high value of supply voltage. This explains why CMOS-based
equipment sometimes fails to peIform to specification when the supply voltage
is, for some reason, lower than normal. CMOS devices generally consume
significantly less power than their TTL counterparts. Power consumption for
CMOS devices tends to be proportional to switching speeds, whereas for TTL
it tends to remain constant. At speeds in excess of several MHz, power
consumption may approach, or even exceed, that of a comparable TIL device.
Early CMOS devices were easily damaged by stray static charges and required
careful handling, particularly during soldering and de-soldering. While modem
CMOS devices are fitted with input static protection diodes, care must still be
taken.

The absolute maximum supply voltage for TIL devices is nominally 7 V. If the
supply voltage ever exceeds this value, any TTL devices connected to the supply
are liable to destruct very quickly.

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3/2 - C - AC
Active Components

3/2 - C - AC -LED
Light Emitting Diodes

Basic Function Light emitting diodes are used for more than just display lights. Used in
conjunction with photo-sensitive components, they are terrific sensors. Most
commonly they are used as general purpose indicators. Compared with conven-
tional filament lamps and neon indicators, LEOs operate from significantly
smaller voltages and currents and are much more reliable. LEOs are available in
a variety of colors including red, yellow and green. A typical red LEO provides
a reasonable amount of light output with a forward current of as little as lOrnA.

Light emitting diodes are available in various formats, with the round types being
most common. Round LEOs are available in the 3 mm and 5 mm diameter plastic
packages (see Figure 1). Another common format is the 2mmx 5mmrectangular
structure. The viewing angle for round LEOs tends to be in the region of 20° to
40°. With the rectangular types, this is increased to around 100°.

II
A-_~f- -C

C
A
Figure 1: LED symbol and round casings

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Table 1
Parameter Type of LED
standard standard high high
efficiency intensity

Diameter (mm) 3 5 5 5
Max. forward current (mA) 40 30 30 30
Typical forward current (mA) 12 10 7 10
Typical forward voltage drop (V) 2.1 2.0 1.8 2.2
Max. reverse voltage (V) 5 3 5 5
Max. power dissipation (mW) 150 1()0 27 135
Peak wavelength (nm) 690 635 635 635

Typical characteristics for commonly available red LEDs are summarized in

Table 1 above.

In order to limit the forward current to an appropriate value, a fixed resistor is

connected in series with an LED indicator (Figure 2). The value of the. resistor
is determined from the formula:

R=

where VF is the forward voltage drop produced by the LED and V is the applied
voltage. VF is usually about 2 V, and the nearest preferred value is used for R.

Table 1
Supply Voltage series Resistance
Typical Values (IF = 10 mA nominal)
for R
3 180
5 270
6 390
9 680
12 1k
15 1.2 k
18 1.5 k
24 2.2 k

It is important to note that yellow and green LEDs generally give less light for
a given current than their standard red counterparts. To maintain an equal light
output when several LEDs are used together, different values of series resistors

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may be employed. As a rule ofthumb, series resistors for yellow and green LEDs
are between 10% and 20% lower than for red LEDs.

Finally, when replacing LEDs, it is very important to avoid inadvertent reverse

connection of the device. Reverse voltage in excess ofabout 5 V will destroy the
junction.

- -....- - - - - + v

- -.....- - -....-ov

Figure 2: Basic LED circuit

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Fundamentals 3/2 - C - AC - OpAmp Operational Amplifiers

3/2 - C - AC
Active Components
3/2 - C - AC -OpAmp
Operational Amplifiers

Basic Function Operational amplifiers (op-amps) are general purpose integrated circuits with a
wide variety of applications. Operational amplifiers can be considered to offer
a "block of gain". As amplifiers they possess near-ideal characteristics (virtually
infinite voltage gain and input resistance together with low output resistance and
wide bandwidth). The following terminology is applied to operational amplifi-
ers.

Open-loop Voltage This is the ratio of outputvoltage to input voltage measured without feedback
Gain applied. The open-loop voltage gain is given by:

AvOl = vOU!VIN
[
,-------
where A VOL is the open-loop voltage gain, Vour and VIN are the output and input
voltages repectively under open-loop conditions. In linear voltage amplifying
applications, a large amount of negative feedback is normally applied and the
open-loop voltage gain can be thought of as the internal voltage gain provided
by the device.

The open-loop voltage gain is sometimes expressed in decibels (dB) rather than
as a ratio. In this case:

Closed-loop This is the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when negative feedback is
Voltage Gain applied.

=VOU!VIN
._ - - - - - - - - - - "
[ AvCl

where A vCL is the closed-loop voltage gain, V our and V IN are output and and input
voltages respectively under closed-loop conditions. The closed-loop voltage
gain is normally very much less than the open-loop voltage gain.

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Input Resistance The input resistance is simply the ratio of input voltage to input current:

where RIN is the input resistance, VIN is the input voltage and lIN is the input
current. Note that the input of an operational amplifier is normally assumed to
be purely resistive, though this may not be the case at high frequencies where
shunt capacitance may be present.

The input resistance of operational amplifiers is very much dependent on the

semiconductor technology employed. In practice, values range from about 2 Mil
for bipolar operational amplifiers to over 1012 il for CMOS devices.

Output Resistance The output tesistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit
output current

ROUT = V OUT(OC/'OUT(SC)

where RaUl' is the output resistance, VOUl'(OC) is the output voltage and IOUl'(SC) is
the output current.

Input Offset The input offset voltage is the voltage which when applied at the input provides
Voltage an output voltage ofexactly zero. Similarly, the input offset current is the current
which, when applied at the input, provides an output current of exactly zero.
(Note that due to imperfect balance and very high internal gain, a small output
voltage may appear with no input present.)

Offset may be minimized by applying large amounts of negative feedback or by

using the offset null facility provided by certain types of op-amps (Figure 1).

Inverting input _ _ +~;I:'V

Non-inverting input ---1bl :>-- Output

-VE supply

Figure 1: Operational amplifier symbol

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