Objectives of Environmental Science

i) Acquire an awareness of the environment as a whole and its related problems.

ii) Gain a variety of experiences and acquire a basic understanding and knowledge about
the environment and its allied problems.
(iii) Acquire the skills for identifying and solving environmental problems.
(iv) Acquire an attitude of concern for the environment.
(v) Participate in improvement and protection of environment.
(vi) Develop the ability to evaluate measures for the improvement and protection of
environment.

Scope of Environmental Science

(i) Conservation and management of natural resources like forest, water, air, mineral, etc.
(ii) Conservation of Biodiversity, Ecological study
(iii) Control of environmental pollutions
(iv) Replacement of development (like green revolution, urbanization,) economic growth,
industrialization, etc. with sustainable development
(v) Control of human population.

Importance of Environmental Science

1) Helps to understand the current environmental problems.

2) It provides skills to obtain solutions for environmental problems

3) Helps to maintain ecological balance through basic operating knowledge

of environmental systems.

4) It helps to achieve sustainable development.

5) It applies economic methods, concepts of environmental policy analysis

and environmental management.

6) It helps in protection of Biodiversity.

7) It helps to educate people regarding their duties towards environmental

protection.
ECOSYSTEM

The term ecosystem was given by A.G. Tansley (1953). Ecosystem is defined as a natural
unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms (biotic factors) in an area
functioning together with all of the non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment.

An ecosystem is a self regulating group of biotic communities of species interacting with

one another and also with their non-living environment exchanging energy and matter.

The term Ecology was coined by Earnst Haeckel (1869).

The term ecology is derived from Greek words Oikos (home) and Logos( study). So it deals
with the study of organism in their natural home interacting with their environment. The
Ecology is also defined as study of the structure and functions of an ecosystem.

The ecosystem can be Natural such as forests, grasslands, deserts, and aquatic ecosystems
such as ponds, rivers, lakes, and the sea and human modified such as agricultural fields and
aquarium.

Man-made ecosystems

Aquarium Crop field

Laboratory culture Hydroponic system

Images of man-made Ecosystems

Structure of ecosystem:
1) Structural features of Ecosystem: Composition and organization of biological
communities and abiotic components constitute the structure of an ecosystem.
A. Biotic component: The plant, animal and microorganism present in an ecosystem
forms the biotic component. They are divided based on the way they get their food.

a) Producers: They generate food by their own. They can be Photo

autotrophs(mainly green plants) which produces organic matter in presence of sun
light through photosynthesis and chemo-autotrophs(produce organic matter through
chemical reaction) such as sulphur oxidizing or reducing bacteria, nitrifiers ,
methanogens.

b) Consumers: They get their food by feeding upon either plants or other organisms.
They can by divided into:
 I. Herbivores (plant eaters): They feed directly on producers for their food and also
known as primary consumers. Ex- rabbit, insects, man.

II. Carnivores ( meat eaters) : They feed on consumers and can be called secondary
consumers ( if feeds on herbivores . Example: frog) or tertiary consumers( feeds upon
secondary consumers, example: snake, big fish).

III. Omnivores: They feed on both plants and animals. Example: Humans, rat, many
birds.

c) Decomposers or Saprotrophs: They derive their nutrition by breaking down the

dead organic material to simpler organic compounds and ultimately into inorganic
nutreints. Examples: Bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes are decomposer.
Decomposition is a vital function in nature as without this all the nutrient would be
tied up in dead matter and no new life will be produced.

Most ecosystem are highly complex and consist of an extremely large number of individuals
of a wide variety of species. Some species of plant and animals are extremely rare and may
occur only at a few locations. These are said to be endemic to these area.
B) Abiotic component:
It include air, water, soil and can be divided into:

1) Climatic component: include, sunlight and shade, average temperature, rainfall, wind
pattern, humidity of a particular area. Most of the climatic parameters occurs in the lower
atmosphere known as troposphere.

2) Edaphic component: Soil is the major source of mineral nutrients for plants and other
organisms. Soil fertility is determined by nutrient availability, the water holding capacity and
aeration of the soil.

So overall abiotic component can be divided into:

1) Physical factors: It include climatic, edaphic, geographical factor such as latitude and
altitude, Soil type, water availability, water current etc. The variation in these physical
parameter decide the type of ecosystem characteristics. The solar flux, temperature
and precipitation pattern shows mark difference in a desert ecosystem, tropical or
tundra ecosystem.

2) Chemical factors: Availability of major essential nutrient such as carbon, nitrogen,

Flow chart of structure of ecosystem
phosphorous, level of toxic substances, salts affects the functioning of an ecosystem.

Ecosystem

Biotic (living) Abiotic (non-living)

Producers Consumers Decomposers Climatic Edaphic

• Green plants Microorganisms, factors factors
• Sulphur bacteria Earthworm
Rainfall, Sunlight, • Soil texture
Wind, Humidity etc • Soil minerals
• Soil moisture

Herbivore Carnivore Omnivore

Rabbit, Cow, Sheep Snake, Lion, Jackal Humans, Chicken , Rats
 2) Function of Ecosystem
Function of ecosystem can be understood by:

1) Food chains : Sequence of eating and being eaten

2) Food Webs: Interconnected Food chains

3) Biogeochemical cycles: Flow of any specific nutrient in an ecosystem

Food chains: The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food
chain. All organism, living or dead are potential source of food for some other organism and
thus there is essentially no waste in the functioning of a natural ecosystem.

Example of food chain:

Grass grasshopper Frog Snake Hawk ( Grassland

ecosystem)

Phytoplankton water fleas small fish Tuna ( Pond ecosystem)

Lichens reindeer Man ( Arctic tundra)

Each organism in the ecosystem is assigned a feeding level or trophic level depending upon
its nutritional status. So in grassland ecosystem grass constitute the 1st trophic level,
grasshopper 2nd, frog 3rd and snake and hawk occupy the 4rd and the 5th trophic levels,
respectively.

The decomposer consume the dead matter of all these trophic level.

In nature we come across two type of food chain in ecosystem:

1) Grazing food chain: It starts with green plants( primary producer) and culminates in
carnivores. Examples:
a) Grazing Food chain

Goat Jackal Lion

Plants
Producer Herbivore Carnivore Carnivore
 2) Detritus food chain: It start with dead organic matter which the detritivores and
decomposer consumes. Partially decomposed dead organic matter and even the
decomposers are consumed by detritivores and their predators. Example:

Dead leaves Woodlouse Crow

Food web:
Food chain in ecosystem are rarely found to operate in isolated linear sequence. Rather they
are found to be interconnected and usually form a complex network with several linkages and
are known as food web. Food web is a network of food chain where different types of
organisms are connected at different trophic levels, so that there are number of option of
eating and being eaten at each trophic level.
Significance of food chains and food webs:
1) Food chain and food webs play significant role in ecosystem as flow of energy and
nutrient cycling take place through food chain and food webs.

2) Food chain and food webs also help in the maintaining and regulating the
population size of different animals thus maintains the ecological balance.

3) Food chain shows a unique property of biological magnification of some chemicals.

Pesticides for examples DDT or other chemical which are non-biodegradable in
nature. Such chemicals are not decomposed or excrete out so their concentration
keeps on increasing at each successive trophic level. This phenomenon is know as
biomagnification or biological magnification.

Trophic structure: The producer and consumer are arranged in the ecosystem in a
definite manner and their interaction along with population size are expressed
together as trophic structure. Each food level is known as trophic level

Biomagnification:
“Biomagnification or biological magnification is the process of accumulation of certain
chemicals in living organisms to a concentration higher than that occurring in the inorganic,
non-living environment.”

Big fish Fish eating bird

4 DDT : 0.5 ppm 5 DDT : 5 ppm

Small fish

3 DDT : 0.05 ppm

Shrimp
2 DDT : 0.005 ppm

See weed 1 DDT : 0.0005 ppm

Food chain showing process of biomagnification
Causes of Biomagnification

Industrial waste
Pesticide application

Causes

Mining activities Organic contaminants

Plastic pollution

Effects of Bio-magnification
Biomagnification makes humans more prone to cancer, kidney problems, liver failure, birth
defects, respiratory disorders, and heart diseases.

a) Human Health:

• Consumption of sea food has been linked to cancer.

• Mercury toxicity causes nervous disorders, impaired vision, hearing and speech.

• Consumption of excess of heavy metals causes kidney failure, brain damage, birth

defects, heart diseases and mutation.

b) Effect on Aquatic animals

• The ingestion and accumulation of metals in the tissues of marine organisms have
an adverse effect on their development and reproduction.

• Contamination of water bodies with toxic chemicals such as Selenium and mercury
include damage to the reproductive systems of fish.

• Few fishes would mean less food to other creatures that depend on them for
survival.

• Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are highly concentrated in water bodies and

have the same effect on aquatic animals.
 c) Effects on Food Chain

• Accumulation of substances that cause Biomagnification can disrupt the natural

food chain

• The toxic chemicals found their way into the soil and water bodies as a result of
runoff, they are then assimilated into the primary consumers’ tissues after
consumption.

• The primary consumers such as plants are then consumed by secondary

consumers which in turn are consumed by other organisms. The chain continues
up to the highest trophic level leading to Biomagnification.

• However, if a group of organisms was to die due to the toxic substances the
natural flow of the food chains becomes disrupted. This may have a long-term
effect which might not be noticed in the short term.

Effective Solutions to control Biomagnification

 Elimination of the use of some heavy metals

 Ban on heavy metals used in petroleum and other industries.

 Innovative technology should be developed for coal plants to eliminate

mercury reductions

 Cleaning of contaminated locations

 Identification of areas affected by toxic substances from solid waste

 Treatment and rehabilitation of soil of such areas.

 Promotion and implementation of waste decreasing plans.

 Role of institutions using toxic substances

 Health sectors especially the dental departments should eliminate the use of

mercury-containing items.

 The government should also evacuate and securely store indoor regulators

 and thermometers that contain mercury.

  Cautious use of treated wood
 Woodwork industries should avoid the use of CCA and ACZA additives (It
contains Arsenic).
 Paint such wood with unleaded paint.

 Repaint/ removal of lead paints from walls

 Old homes are painted with lead paints.

 Redesigned, repaint or remove the aged paints from walls.
 The drinking water should be covered to prevent the lead dust from getting in.

 Other solutions

 Proper disposal of cooking oil, grease, household chemicals, and medications

 Also, when doing the laundry, phosphates bleaches, and soaps are
recommended because they lack metal traces.

Biogeochemical cycles
Nutrient Cycling: Nutrient cycling is another functional aspect of ecosystem. Nutrient like
Carbon, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphate moves in a circular path through biotic and abiotic
components and therefore known as biogeochemical cycle. The nutrient too move through
food chain and ultimately reach the detritus compartment( containing dead organic matter)
where various micro-organism carry out decomposition. In the decomposition process dead
organic matter converted into inorganic substances by microbial decomposition which are
again used up by plant

Types of Biogeochemical cycles

a) Gaseous cycle
 Reservoir pool is mostly atmosphere or hydrosphere
 These are very quick
 These are perfect cycles
 Examples: C, N, O2 cycles

b) Sedimentary cycle
 Reservoir pool is mostly lithosphere
  These are slow
 These are imperfect cycles
 Examples: P and S

Carbon cycle
CO2 in atmosphere

Air sea gas

exchange

Volcanic activity
Ocean water
Weathering of

photosynthesis
terrestrial rocks

Respiration
Organic carbon Organic carbon Human activity
Soil Carbon
Leaching/ runoff Ocean

Ocean sediments
Microbial Respiration
Fossil Carbon
and decomposition

Uplifting

Nitrogen cycle
About Nitrogen:-
 Nitrogen exist in atmosphere as N2 gas with highest concentration.
 Nitrogen is an essential element in living organisms.
 It is used in formation of proteins and DNA in living organisms.
 Nitrogen is a limiting nutrient in nature.
 Human activities have affected the cycling of Nitrogen in nature
 NITROGEN CYCLE
N2 in atmosphere

+N
O O
N2 N
+ O2
O
N NO2
3NO2 + H2O 2HNO3 + NO

Plant uptake Food chain Industry and Vehicle

NO3-N
Nitrate N Amino acids(R-NH2) Fertilizer industry
Organic N

Pond
Eutrophication

Decomposer

NH4-N
Ammonium N
NO2-N
Nitrite N

The main component of the nitrogen cycle starts with the element nitrogen in the air.

Nitrogen in the air becomes a part of biological matter mostly through the actions of
bacteria and algae in a process known as nitrogen fixation. Legume plants such as
clover, alfalfa, and soybeans form nodules on the roots where nitrogen fixing bacteria
take nitrogen from the air and convert it into ammonium, NH4. The ammonia is
further converted by other bacteria first into nitrite ions, NO2, and then into nitrate ions,
NO3. Plants utilize the nitrate ions as a nutrient or fertilizer for growth. Nitrogen is
incorporate in many amino acids which are further reacted to make proteins.

Ammonia is also made through a synthetic process called the Haber Process. Ammonia
may be directly applied to farm fields as fertilizer. Ammonia may be further processed
with oxygen to make nitric acid. The reaction of ammonia and nitric acid produces
ammonium nitrate which may then be used as a fertilizer. Animal wastes when
decomposed also return to the earth as nitrates.

To complete the cycle other bacteria in the soil carry out a process known as
denitrification which converts nitrates back to nitrogen gas.
 OXYGEN CYCLE
O2 in Atmosphere

Photosynthesis

Death and decay

Uptake by water

Respiration

Respiration
Food chain
Hydrosphere

Biosphere

Weathering
Burial

Lithosphere

The oxygen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of oxygen within
and between its three main reservoirs: the atmosphere (air), the biosphere (living things), and
the lithosphere (Earth's crust).

By far the largest reservoir of Earths oxygen is within the silicate and oxide minerals of the
crust and mantle (99.5%). Only a small portion has been released as free oxygen to the
biosphere (0.01%) and atmosphere (0.36%).

The main source of atmospheric oxygen is photosynthesis, which produces sugars and
oxygen from carbon dioxide and water:

6CO2 + 6H2O + energy → C6H12O6 + 6O2

The main way oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via respiration and decay, process in
which animal life and bacteria consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Chemical
weathering of exposed rocks also consumes oxygen
 WATER CYCLE

Source: https://gpm.nasa.gov

Ecological Pyramids:
Ecological pyramids were first devised by British ecologist Charles Elton(1927). Ecological
pyramids is graphical representation of trophic structure and function of an ecosystem,
starting with producers at the base and successive trophic level forming the apex is known as
an ecological pyramid. It is of three types:

1) Pyramid of numbers:

It represent the number of individual organisms at each trophic level. It may be

upright or inverted pyramid of number depending upon the type of ecosystem and
food chain. Example:
 Top carnivores
Hawks, other Hyper parasite Fleas, microbes
birds
Parasite Lice, bugs
Frogs, birds
Carnivores Herbivores Birds
Herbivores Insects Producer Trees

Producers Grasses Parasitic food chain( Inverted)

Grassland ecosystem ( upright)

2) Pyramid of Biomass:

It is based upon the total biomass (dry weight) at each trophic level in a food chain. It
can be upright or inverted. Example:

Tertiary Carnivores Big fish

Carnivores
Carnivores Small fish
Snake, frog, birds
Herbivores insect

Herbivores Squirrel, rabbit, insect producer

Producer Tree, herbs, grasses

Pond ecosystem
Forest ecosystem

3) Pyramid of energy:

The amount of energy present at each trophic level is considered for this type of
pyramid. It is always upright, because there is huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the
form of heat and respiration at each successive trophic level. Thus at each energy
level only 10% of the energy passes on.

0.1 Top carnivores

Carnivores(1)

Herbivores(10)

Producer(100)

Pyramid of energy