Fundamentals of

Surveying Workbook

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University of Science and Technology of Southern Philippines

College of Engineering and Architecture
Civil Engineering Department

FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
WORKBOOK

PREPARED BY: Dr. Israel A. Baguhin

Dr. Vera Karla S. Caingles
Engr. Nestor E. Ybañez
Engr. Jonathan B. Calibara
Engr. Aniceto C. Neri, Jr.
Engr. Lorrizza S. Zafra

Prep’d Chk'd
Rev. Issue date Description Apv’d.
by by
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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 TYPES OF SURVEYS 4

2 SURVEYING METHODS 4

3 BENCHMARKS 5

4 DISTANCE MEASUREMENT: TACHYOMETRY (STADIA SURVEYING) 5

4.1 Illustrative Problem no. 1 9

4.2 Illustrative Problem no. 2 11

4.3 Fieldwork No. 1: Determination of Tacheometer or Stadia Constants 13

4.4 Miscellaneous Problems 15

5 STATIONING 16

6 LEVELLING 16

6.1 Levelling Instruments 19

7 ELEVATION MEASUREMENT: EARTH’S CURVATURE AND ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION 24

7.1 Illustrative Problem 26

7.2 Miscellaneous Problems 28

8 ELEVATION MEASUREMENT: DIRECT LEVELLING 29

8.1 Illustrative Problem No. 1 29

8.2 Fieldwork No. 2: Two Peg Test 32

8.3 Miscellaneous Problems 37

9 ELEVATION MEASUREMENT: DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING 38

9.1 Illustrative Problem 39

9.2 Fieldwork No. 3: Levelling by Rise and Fall Method 41

9.3 Fieldwork No. 4: Levelling by Height of Collimation Method 50

9.4 Miscellaneous Problems 60

10 PROFILE LEVELLING 61
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10.1 Sample Problem 62

10.2 Fieldwork No. 5: Profile Levelling 64

10.3 Miscellaneous Problem 67

11 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY 69

11.1 Sample Problems 73

11.2 Practice Solving 73

12 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING 74

12.1 Sample Problem 80

12.2 Miscellaneous Problems 83

APPENDIX A: COMMON HAND SIGNALS USED IN SURVEYING 84

APPENDIX B: REFERENCES 86
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1 TYPES OF SURVEYS

Plane surveys disregard the curvature of the earth. A plane survey is appropriate if the area is
small. This is true when the area is not more than approximately 12 mi (19 km) in any one
direction. Geodetic surveys consider the curvature of the earth. Zoned surveys, as used in various
State Plane Coordinate Systems and in the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) system, allow
computations to be performed as if on a plane while accommodating larger areas.

2 SURVEYING METHODS

• A stadia survey requires the use of a transit, theodolite, or engineer’s level, as well as a
rod for reading elevation differences and a tape for measuring horizontal distances. Stadia
surveys are limited by the sighting capabilities of the instrument as well as by the terrain
ruggedness.
• In a plane table survey, a plane table is used in conjunction with a telescopic instrument.
The plane table is a drawing board mounted on a tripod in such a way that the board can
be levelled and rotated without disturbing the azimuth. The primary use of the combination
of the plane table and telescope is in field compilation of maps, for which the plane table
is much more versatile than the transit.
• Total station surveys integrate theodolites, electronic distance measurement (EDM), and
data recorders, collecting vertical and horizontal data in a single operation. Manual total
stations use conventional optical-reading theodolites. Automatic total stations use
electronic theodolites. Data collectors work in conjunction with total stations to store data
electronically. Previously determined data can be downloaded to the data recorders for
use in the field to stake out or field-locate construction control points and boundaries.
• Triangulation is a method of surveying in which the positions of survey points are
determined by measuring the angles of triangles defined by the points. Each survey point
or monument is at a corner of one or more triangles. The survey lines form a network of
triangles. The three angles of each triangle are measured. Lengths of triangle sides are
calculated from trigonometry. The positions of the points are established from the
measured angles and the computed sides.
Triangulation is used primarily for geodetic surveys. The use of triangulation for
transportation surveys is minimal. Generally, triangulation is limited to strengthening
traverses for control surveys.
• Trilateration is similar to triangulation in that the survey lines form triangles. In trilateration,
however, the lengths of the triangles’ sides are measured. The angles are calculated from
the side lengths. Orientation of the survey is established by selected sides whose
directions are known or measured. The positions of trilaterated points are determined from
the measured distances and the computed angles.
• Photogrammetric surveys are conducted using aerial photographs. The advantages of
using photogrammetry are speed of compilation, reduction in the amount of surveying
required to control the mapping, high accuracy, faithful reproduction of the configuration
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of the ground by continuously traced contour lines, and freedom from interference by
adverse weather and inaccessible terrain. Disadvantages include difficulty in areas
containing heavy ground cover, high cost of mapping small areas, difficulty of locating
contour lines in flat terrain, and the necessity for field editing and field completion.
Photogrammetry works with ground control panels that are three to four times farther apart
than with conventional surveys. But a conventional survey is still required in order to
establish control initially.

3 BENCHMARKS

Benchmark is the common name given to permanent monuments of known vertical positions.
Monuments with known horizontal positions are referred to as control stations or triangulation
stations. A nail or hub in the pavement, the flange bolts of a fire hydrant, or the top of a concrete
feature (e.g., curb) can be used as a temporary benchmark. The elevations of temporary
benchmarks are generally found in field notes and local official filings.
Official benchmarks (monuments) installed by surveyors and engineers generally consist of a
bronze (or other inert material) disk set in the top of a concrete post/ pillar. (Bronze caps in iron
pipes were once used, but these have limited lives due to corrosion.) Stainless steel pins and
invar rods are also used. Bronze disks and identification plates are stamped, at the minimum, with
the name of the agency or the state registration number of the individual setting the benchmark.
Vertical positions (i.e., elevations) are measured above a reference surface or datum, often taken
as mean sea level. For small projects, a local datum on a temporary permanent benchmark can
be used.

4 DISTANCE MEASUREMENT: TACHYOMETRY (STADIA

SURVEYING)

Tachyometric distance measurement involves sighting through a small angle at a distant scale.
The angle may be fixed and the length measured (stadia method), or the length may be fixed and
the angle measured (European method). Stadia measurement consists of observing the apparent
locations of the horizontal crosshairs on a distant stadia rod. (See Figure 1a below) The interval
between the two rod readings is called the stadia interval or the stadia reading.

F = principal focus
f = focal length
o = optical center
i = distance between stadia hairs
c = distance from the optical center to center of instrument
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By ratio and proportion (referring to Fig 1b):

f d
=
i S
f
d= S
i
D = d+f+c
f
D = S + (f + c)
i
f
= stadia interval factor
i
f + c = stadia constant or instrument factor
S = 𝑅2 − 𝑅1 = stadia interval of intercept

Figure 1: Horizontal Stadia Measurement

Fig 1a

Fig 1b

If the sighting is inclined, as it is in Fig. 2, it is necessary to find both horizontal and vertical
distances. These can be determined from the following derivation of formula, in which vertical
distance is measured from the telescope to the sighting rod center. The height of the instrument
above the ground must be known to calculate the elevation of the object above the ground.
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Figure 2: Inclined Stadia Measurement

Derivation of formulas:

By ratio and proportion:

V = (d + f + c) sin α
f d f
= V = [ s cos α + (f + c)] sin α
i s cos α i
f f sin 2α
d = s cos α V= s + (f + c) sin 𝛼
i i 2
H = (f + c + d) cos α

f
H = s cos2α + (f + c) cos α
i
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Errors in Stadia Surveying

1. Stadia interval factor not that assumed

2. Rod / staff not of standard length
3. Incorrect stadia interval
4. Rod not held plumb
5. Unequal refraction

Requisites for a Good Transit Use for Stadia Surveying

1. The telescope is of excellent quality, with good illumination.

2. The magnifying power should be about 25 to 30.
3. The stadia hairs should be fixed and should be set accurately so that f = 100
i
4. The transit should have a good compass needle.
5. The transit should have a complete vertical circle.
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4.1 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM NO. 1

A survey party proceeded to do their stadia survey work as follows: the transit was set up at a
point A and with the line of sight horizontal, took the readings with the rod points B and C, which
were then measured to have tape distances from A to 200 m and 60 m respectively. Compute the
stadia interval factor.

Rod B Rod C
Stadia Interval 2.001 m 0.600 m

Solution:

Stadia interval factor:

Rod C Rod B

= 2.001

f
D = S + (f + c)
i
f
K = = stadia interval factor
i
R = (f + c) = stadia constant
(f + c) = 0.30
D1 = KS1 + R
D2 = KS2 + R
D2 − D1 = (KS2 + R) − (KS1 + R)
D2 − D1 = K(S2 − S1)

D2 − D1
K=
S2 − S1
200 − 60
K=
2.001 − 0.600

K = 𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝟑 (stadia interval factor)

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Observations:
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4.2 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM NO. 2

1. A transit with a stadia constant equal to 0.30 is used to determine the horizontal distance
between points B and C, with a stadia intercept reading of 1.85 m, the distance BC is
equal to 182.87 m. Compute the stadia interval factor of the instrument.
2. Using the same instrument, it was used to determine the difference in elevation between
B and D having a stadia intercept reading of 2.42 m at D at a vertical angle of +6°30’.
Compute the difference in elevation of B and D.
3. Compute also the horizontal distance between B and D

Solutions:

1. Stadia interval factor:

f
D = S + (f + c)
i
f
182.87 = (1.85) + 0.30
i
f
= 𝟗𝟖. 𝟔𝟗
i

2. Difference in elevation between B and D: S = 2.42

H.I.
f sin 2α
V= s + (f + c) sin α
i 2 V
sin 13° D

V = 98.69(2.42) + 0.30 sin 6.5°

2
V = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟗𝟎 𝐦 6 30'

H.I.

3. Horizontal distance between B and D:

f
H= s cos2α + (f + c) cos α
i

H = 98.69(2.42) cos26.5° + 0.30 cos 6.5°

H = 𝟐𝟑𝟔. 𝟎𝟕 𝐦
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Observations:
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4.3 FIELDWORK NO. 1: DETERMINATION OF TACHEOMETER OR STADIA

CONSTANTS
f
The values for stadia interval factor ( ), and stadia constant (f + c) are usually given by the
i
manufacturers but this is not always the case. It is sometimes necessary to measure them in an
old or unfamiliar instrument. The simplest way, both for external and internal focusing instruments,
is to regard the basic formula as being a linear one of the form:
f
D = S + (f + c)
i
Where:
D is the horizontal distance
S is stadia interval

Procedure:

1. On a fairly level site, measure out a line 100 m to 120 m long, setting pegs at 25 to 30
meter intervals.
2. Set up at one end and determine two distances using tacheometer or theodolite, one
short and one long. Hence f and (f + c) may be determined.
i
3. Record the rod readings for the upper stadia, center and lower stadia on at least 3
stations and tabulate the input data similar to the following table:

Readings Intervals
Station Upper Lower
Center Upper Lower Total
stadia stadia
30.00 1.433 1.283 1.133 0.15 0.15 0.330
55.00 1.710 1.435 1.160 0.275 0.275 0.550
90.00 2.352 1.902 1.452 0.450 0.450 0.900

For Station @ 30.00: For Station @ 90.00:

f f
30.00 = (1.433 − 1.133) + (f + c) 90.00 = (2.352 − 1.452) + (f + c)
i i
f eq. 1 f
30.00 = (0.30) + (f + c) 90.00 = (0.90) + (f + c) eq. 2
i i

Solving these two equations we can arrive: f = 100 and (f + c) = 0

i
Any combination of equations gives the same result, showing that the telescope is analytic over
this range, to all intents and purposes.
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Photos during the conduct of the activity:

Observations & Findings:

CONCLUSION:
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4.4 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS

1. In Sample Problem No. 1, the distance from the centre of the instrument to the principal
focus was recorded as 0.30 m. Then they went on to survey other points, with some of the
data recorded as follows: with the transit at point D, two points E and F were sighted.

Rod E Rod F
Stadia interval 2.120 m 3.560 m
Vertical angle +4°22’ -3°17’

a) Compute the horizontal distance DE and DF. Assume elevation of D is 100m. (Ans.
210.92 m, 354.88 m)
b) Compute the difference in elevation between points D and E and points D and F.
(Ans.16.11 m, 20.36 m)

2. The upper and lower stadia hair readings on the stadia rod held at station B were observed
as 3.50 and 1.00 m respectively, with the use of a transit theodolite with an interval
focusing telescope and having a stadia interval factor of 99.5. The height of the instrument
above station A is 1.45 m and the rod reading is taken at 2.25 m. If the vertical angle
observed is -23°34’, determine the following:

a) Inclined stadia distance. (Ans. 228 m)

b) Difference in elevation between the two stations. (Ans. 91.96 m)
c) The elevation of station B, if the elevation of station A is 155.54 m above mean sea
level. (Ans. 63.58 m)

3. A transit with a stadia interval factor of 100.8 was set at C on the line between points A
and B and following stadia readings were observed.

Position of Vertical
Hair Readings (m)
Rod Angle
Upper Middle Lower
Rod at A +15°35’ 1.330 1.175 1.020
Rod at B -8°08’ 1.972 1.854 1.736

If the stadia constant is 0.381 m, determine the following:

a) Length of line AB. (Ans. 53.05 m)

b) Difference in elevation between points A and B. (Ans. 12.259 m)
c) Find the horizontal distance from the transit to the rod held at B. (Ans. 23.69 m)
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5 STATIONING
In route surveying, lengths are divided into 100 ft or 100 m sections called stations. The word
“station” can mean both a location and a distance. A station is a length of 100 ft or 100 m, and the
unit of measure is frequently abbreviated “sta”. (30 m and 1000 m stationing are also used.) When
a length is the intended meaning, the unit of measure will come after the numerical value; for
example, “the length of curve is 4sta.” When a location is the intended meaning, the unit of
measure will come before the number. For example, “the point of intersection is at sta 4.” The
location is actually a distance from the starting point. Therefore, the two meanings are similar and
related.
Interval stakes along an established route are ordinarily laid down at full station intervals. If a
marker stake is placed anywhere else along the line, it is called a plus station and labelled
accordingly. A stake placed 825 ft (251 m) from station 0+00 is labelled “8+25” (2+51). Similarly,
a stake placed 2896 ft (883 m) from a reference point at station 10+00 (10+00) is labelled “38+96”
(18+83).

6 LEVELLING

Basic Principles
Levelling is the process by which differences in height between two or more points can be
determined. Its purpose may be to provide heights or contours on a plan, to provide data for road
cross-sections or volumes of earthworks, or to provide a level or inclined surface in the setting out
of construction works.

Definitions:

Level surface
This is a surface such that the direction of gravity is normal to it at all points. Since gravity is
variable over the earth's surface, this surface will be irregular.

Horizontal surface
This will form a tangent to the level surface at one point. For most practical purposes using sights
of less than 150m the horizontal line approximates very closely to the level line, both being lines
on their respective surfaces.

Datum surface
This is an arbitrary level surface to which the heights of all points are referred. This may be the
National Datum or local datum point established on a construction site.

Line of Sight
This is the optical line produced by the telescope of the instrument used for sighting. In this
particular case the line is approximately horizontal.
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Figure: Earth’s Curvature and Elevation

Levels can be used for:

• Determining the height of a particular point

• Determining differences in height between points
• Determining the contours of a land profile
• Providing data for road cross-sections
• Providing data to calculate volumes for earthworks
• Setting out level surfaces for construction
• Setting out inclined surfaces for construction

Factors Which Influence the Use of Levels:

• Clear lines of sight needed between known and unknown points. There is no need to
physically travel between the target and reference points.
• Height precision is dependent upon the precision of instrument length of the line of sight.
• Height accuracy is maintained through proper adjustment of the level and correct field
procedures.

Methods of Eliminating Errors in Levelling:

1. Imperfect adjustment of instrument:

This could be eliminated by adjusting the instrument of by balancing the sum of foresight
and backsight distances.
2. Rod not standard length:
This could be eliminated by standardizing the rod and apply correction same as for the
tape.
3. Parallax:
This could be eliminated by focusing carefully.
4. Bubble not centered at instant of sighting:
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This could be eliminated by checking the bubble before making each sight.
5. Rod not held plumb:
This could be eliminated by waving the rod or using rod level.
6. Faulty of reading the rod:
This could be eliminated by double checking each rod reading before recording.
7. Faulty turning point:
This could be eliminated by choosing definite and stable points.
8. Variation of temperature:
This could be eliminated by protecting the level from the sun while making observations.
9. Earth’s curvature:
This could be eliminated by balancing each backsight and foresight distance, or apply the
computed correction.
10. Atmospheric refraction:
This could be eliminated by balancing each backsight and foresight distance, also take
short sights well above ground and take backsight and foresight readings quick
succession.
11. Settlement of tripod of turning points:
This could be eliminated by choosing stable locations, and taking backsight and foresight
readings in quick succession.

Common Mistakes in Levelling:

1. Confusion in numbers in reading and recording.

2. Recording B.S. on the F.S. column and vice-versa.
3. Faulty additions and subtractions.
4. Rod not held on the same point for both B.S. and F.S.
5. Wrong reading of the Vernier when the target rod is used.
6. Not having target set properly when the long rod is used.
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6.1 LEVELLING INSTRUMENTS

To determine the difference in height between different points it is necessary to produce a line of
sight. This requires the use of an instrument. In surveying, this instrument is known as a surveyor’s
level, often generically known as a dumpy level although, as we will see, this is not strictly correct.
All of levels consist of a telescope with a cross hair or gun sight, mounted on a device that enables
us to orient the device in a horizontal plane.
There are three types of levels:
• Dumpy levels
• Tilting levels
• Automatic levels

The differences between the three types being in the way in which the instruments are designed
to be adjusted to give a horizontal line.

6.1.1 Dumpy Level

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6.1.2 Tilting Level

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6.1.3 Automatic Level

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6.1.4 Levelling Staff / Rod

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Classes of Level:

Levels normally fall into one of three classes.

Precise
Very accurate instruments for geodetic or any other very precise levelling. It should be possible
to level such an instrument to within ±0.2".

Medium Accuracy
These are used for engineering surveys. They may be tilting or automatic instruments capable
of being levelled within the range of 1/2 - 1".

Builders
Low accuracy, short range Levelling such as setting out on building sites. Although described as
being low accuracy instruments, this is relative to the other classes of levels and the results
obtained with this class of instruments will be well within the tolerances required on the majority
of construction sites.

Precision of Levelling
The precision of the height measurement made by a level is directly related to the precision of the
levelling bubble through propagation of error. The error in height subtended by a small error in
the angle at the level is linked through the distance from the instrument to the staff:
From the rule for the length of a circular arc: ℎ = 𝑑
For a precise level is smaller because the level bubble is more sensitive. Therefore the precision
of the height reading on the staff is better than that of a standard tilting or automatic level.

Errors / Calibration
The main source of instrumental error in levels is known as collimation error as it affects the line
of sight, also known as the line of collimation. The error occurs if the line of sight, indicated by the
cross hairs in the eyepiece of the telescope, is not parallel to the horizontal when the instrument
is levelled. The test that we undertake in order to determine the amount of error and then eliminate
it from measurements is known as the two peg test.
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7 ELEVATION MEASUREMENT: EARTH’S CURVATURE AND

ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION
Levelling is the act of using an engineer’s level (or other levelling instrument) and rod to measure
a vertical distance (elevation) from an arbitrary level surface.
If a level sighting is taken on an object with actual height ha, the curvature of the earth will cause
the object to appear taller by an amount hc. (See Fig. 3.) In Eq. 4, x is measured distance along
the curved surface of the earth.

1
hc = (7.84 x 10−8 )x2 m [SI] Eqn 4a
m
1 2
h = (2.39 x 10−8 )x [U.S.] Eqn 4b
c ft ft

Figure 3: Curvature and Refraction Effects

Atmospheric refraction will make the object appear shorter by an amount hr.

1
hc = (10.8 x 10−9 )x2 m [SI] Eqn. 5a
1m
h = (3.3 x 10−9 )x2
[U.S.] Eqn. 5b
c ft ft

The effects of curvature and refraction are combined into a single correction, hrc. As shown in Eq.
6, the correction is a positive by convention. As shown in Eq. 6, the correction is a positive by
convention. Whether the correction increases or reduces a measured quantity depends on the
nature of the quantity. To determine if rod readings, elevations at the rod base, and the elevations
of the instrument should be increased or decreased by hrc, it is helpful to draw the geometry.

1
hrc = |hr − hc | = (6.76 x 10−8 )x2 m [SI] Eqn. 6a
m
1
h = |h − h | = (2.1 x 10−8 )x2 [U.S.] Eqn. 6b
rc r c ft ft

The corrected rod reading (actual height) is

ha = Robserved − hrc Eqn. 7

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D1 D2

Conditions:

h → height in meters of the line of sight at the intervening hill C above sea level.
h1 → height in meters of the station occupied A above sea level.
h2 → height in meters of the station observed B above sea level.
D1 → distance in km of the intervening hill C from A.
D2 → distance in km of the intervening hill C from B.

Since h1, h and h2 are vertical heights and considering the effects of curvature and refraction at A
and B, as reckoned from a tangent (horizontal) line at sea level vertically below C, the figure can
be reconstructed in its plane sense.

A
(h1 - 0.067 D12) - (h2 - 0.067 D22)
(h1 - 0.067 D12)

(h2 - 0.067 D22)

Solving for h by similar triangles (ratio and proportion):

h = h2 + (h − h ) − 0.067 D D
D +D
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7.1 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM

A man’s eyes are 1.75 m above sea level can barely see the top of the lighthouse which is at
the certain distance away from a man.

a) What is the elevation of the top of the lighthouse above sea level if the lighthouse is 20
km away?
b) How far is the lighthouse from the man in meters if the top of the lighthouse is 14.86 m
above sea level?
c) What is the height of the tower at a distance 20 km away from the man that will just be
visible without the line of sight approaching nearer that 1.75 m to the water?

Solution:
a) Elevation of the top of the lighthouse:

1.75 = 0.067 K12

K1 = 5.11 km
h = 0.067 K22
K2 = 20 − 5.11
K2 = 14.89 km
h = 0.067 (14.89)2
h = 14.86 m. above sea level

b) Distance of the lighthouse to the man:

h1 = 0.067 K12
1.75 = 0.067 K12
K1 = 5.11
h2 = 0.067 K22
14.86 = 0.067 K22
K2 = 14.89 m
D = K1 + K2 = 5.11 + 14.89 = 20 km

c) Height of the tower at a distance of 20 km away from the man.

h1 = 0.067 (20)2
h1 = 26.8 m
H = h1 + 1.75
H = 26.8 + 1.75
H = 28.55 m
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Observations:
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7.2 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS

1. CE Board Nov. 2004

Given:
Station Elevation (m) Distance (km)
Alpha 680 Alpha to Bravo = 12
Bravo 645 Bravo to Charlie = 15
Charlie 620

a) Compute the elevation of the line of sight at station Bravo with the instrument placed
at station Alpha such that station Charlie would be visible from station Alpha
considering the effect of curvature and refraction correction. (Ans. 641.27 m)
b) Assuming that the station Bravo will obstruct the line of sight from station alpha while
observing station Charlie and a 4 m tower is constructed on top station bravo. Compute
the height of equal towers at station alpha and station Charlie in order that the three
stations as observed from station alpha will still be intervisible. (Ans. 7.7 m)
c) Without constructing any tower at station bravo, what height of tower must be
constructed at station Charlie so that both station Bravo and Charlie would be visible
from station alpha. (Ans. 8.33 m)

2. Elevation of triangulation station A is 250 m while that of B is 685 m. In between stations

A and B is a mountain C with elevation 325 m. The height of transit placed at A is 1.2 m.
The distance AC is 30 km and BC is 50 km. Determine the height of the tower that can be
constructed at B such that the line of sight will just pass through the mountain C with a
clearance of 1.5 m. (Ans. 37 m)

3. Point P is between points Q and R. The distances of Q and R from point P are 1000 m
and 2000 m, respectively. Measured from point P, the angle of elevation of point R is 8°30’,
while that of point Q is θ. The difference in the elevations of Q and R is 44.4 m, with R
being lower than Q. Considering the effects of curvature and refraction, the value of θ is
nearest to: (Ans. 18°58’)
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8 ELEVATION MEASUREMENT: DIRECT LEVELLING

A telescope is part of the sighting instrument. A transit or theodolite is often referred to as a
“telescope” even though the telescope is only a part of the instrument. (Early telescoping
theodolites were so long that it was not possible to invert, or “transit,” them. Hence the name
“transit” is used for inverting telescopes.) An engineer’s level (dumpy level) is a sighting device
with a telescope rigidly attached to the level bar. A sensitive level vial is used to ensure level
operation. The engineer’s level can be rotated, but in its basic form it cannot be elevated. An
alidade consists of the base and telescopic part of the transit, but not the tripod or levelling
equipment.
In a semi-precise level, also known as a prism level, the level vial is visible from the eyepiece end.
In other respects, it is similar to the engineer’s level. The precise or geodetic level has even better
control of horizontal angles. The bubble vial is magnified for greater accuracy.
Transits and levels are used with rods. Levelling rods are used to measure the vertical distance
between the line of sight and the point being observed. The standard rod is typically made of
fiberglass and is extendable. It is sometimes referred to as a Philadelphia rod. Precise rods, made
of wood-mounted invar, are typically constructed in one piece and are spring-loaded in tension to
avoid sagging.
With direct levelling, a level is set up at a point approximately midway between the two points
whose difference in elevation is desired. The vertical backsight (plus sight) and foresight (minus
sight) are read directly from the rod. HI is the height of the instrument above the ground, and hrc
is the correction for refraction and curvature.

Referring to Fig. 4, and recalling that hrc is positive,

yA−L = RA − hrc,A−L − HI Eqn. 8

yL−B = HI + hrc,L−B − RB Eqn. 9

Figure 4 Direct Levelling

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The difference in elevations between points A and B is

yA−B = yA−L + yL−B

= RA − RB + hrc,L−B − hrc,A−L Eqn. 10

If the backsight and foresight distances are equal (or approximately so), then the effects of
refraction and curvature cancel.

yA−B = RA − RB Eqn. 11

8.1 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM NO. 1

In a two peg test using a dumpy level, the following observations were taken:

Instrument at C Instrument at D
Rod reading on A 1.103 m 0.568 m
Rod reading on B 0.991 m 0.289 m

Point C is equidistant from A and B. Point D is 12 m from A and 72 m from B.

a) What is the true difference in elevation between A and B?

b) With the level in the same position at D, to what rod reading on B should the line of sight
be adjusted?
c) What is the corresponding rod reading on A for a horizontal line of sight with instrument
still at D?

Solution:

a) True difference in elevation between A and B:

1.103 + e = x + 0.991 + e
x = 0.112 m

e e
B 0.991 m

1.103 m x
A
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b) Rod reading on B with level at D:

2m

0.568 + e1 = e2 + 0.289 + 0.112

0.568 + e1 = e2 + 0.401
e2 − e1 = 0.167 eq. 1
By similar triangles:
e1 e2
=
12 72
e2 = 6 e1 eq. 2
Substituting eq. 1 from eq. 2:
6e1 − e1 = 0.167
5e1 = 0.167
e1 = 0.0334 m
Solving e2 from eq. 2:
e2 = 6(0.0334)
e2 = 0.2004 m

Rod reading on B = 0.289 + 0.2004

Rod reading on B = 0.4894 m

c) Rod reading on A to have a horizontal line of sight with instrument still at D:

Rod reading on A = 0.568 + 𝑒1

Rod reading on A = 0.568 + 0.0334
Rod reading on A = 0.6014 m

Observations:
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8.2 FIELDWORK NO. 2: TWO PEG TEST

All instruments are subject to errors of calibration and adjustment. In the case of levelling
instruments the main source of instrumental error is where the line of sight, produced by the cross
hairs in the telescope, is not parallel to the horizontal line of collimation produced by the
manufacture of the instrument. This error is known as collimation error as it affects the line of
collimation. The test that we undertake in order to determine the amount of error and then
eliminate it from our measurement is known as the two peg test.
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Photos during the conduct of the activity:

Observations & Findings:

CONCLUSION:
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8.3 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS

1. In the two peg test method of a dumpy level the following observations were taken:

Instrument Instrument
set-up near A set-up near B
Rod reading
1.505 m 0.938 m
on A
Rod reading
2.054 m 1.449 m
on B

line of sight
e

horizontal line
1.505
2.054 m
A

a) What is the difference in elevation between A and B? (Ans. 0.53 m)

b) If the line of sight is not in adjustment, determine the correct rod reading on A with
the instrument still set-up at B. (Ans. 0.919 m)
c) Determine the error in the line sight. (Ans. 0.019 m)

2. In the two peg test of a dumpy level, the following observations were taken:
Rod reading on A Rod reading on B
Instrument at A 1.506 m 2.024 m
Instrument at B 0.938 m 1.449 m
What is the correct difference elevation in elevation between A and B? (Ans. 0.5145 m)

3. To make a peg adjustment, the following notes were taken:

Wye level at A Wye level at B
Rod reading at P 0.632 1.867
Rod reading at Q 2.543 3.432
Point 1 is midway between P and Q. Point 2 is on the same line as P and Q but 30 m from
P and 230 m from Q. With the Wye level at point 1, what is the rod reading at Q for the
level sight? (Ans. 2.716 m)
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9 ELEVATION MEASUREMENT: DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING

Differential levelling is the consecutive application of direct levelling to the measurement of large
differences in elevation. There is usually no attempt to exactly balance the foresights and
backsights. Therefore, there is no record made of the exact locations of the level positions.
Furthermore, the path taken between points need not be along a straight line connecting them,
as only the elevation differences are relevant. If greater accuracy is desired without having to
accurately balance the foresight and backsight distance pairs, it is possible to eliminate most of
the curvature and refraction error by balancing the sum of the foresights against the sum of the
backsights.

The following abbreviations are commonly used with differential levelling.

B.M. Benchmark or monument
T.P. Turning point
F.S. Foresight (also known as a minus sight)
B.S. Backsight (also known as a plus sight)
H.I. Height of the instrument (also known as Height of collimation, H.C.)
I.S. Intermediate sight
Definitions

In these notes we look at the procedures to be used in order to perform a level traverse or level
run, the purpose of which is to determine the difference in height between points a long way apart
or with a change in height greater than the length of the level staff.

• Reduced level or Relative Level (R.L.) → The height of a point above the selected
datum.
• Mean Sea Level (M.S.L.) → This is the datum most frequently used.
• Backsight (B.S.) → The first reading taken by an observer at every instrument station.
• Foresight (F.S.) → The last reading taken at an instrument station
• Intermediate sight (I.S.) → Any reading taken at an instrument station which is NOT a
permanent stable reference point.
• Bench Mark (B.M.) → A point of known Reduced Level (R.L.). Usually a permanent
stable reference point.
• Temporary Bench Mark (T.B.M.) → Where only relative heights are required or a bench
mark is required within area of work T.B.M. is established.
• Change Point (C.P.) or Turning Point (T.P.) → The point at which the position of the
instrument is changed, making it both a backsight and foresight.
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Procedural Rules:

1. Always commence and finish a level run on a Benchmark (B.M. or T.B.M.). The
Benchmark at the start may be different than that at the finish.
2. The length of foresight and backsight should be as equal as is practical.
3. The length of the lines of sight should be kept less than 100 m and more conventionally
50 m.
4. Staff readings of less than 0.5 m should be avoided to prevent errors due to atmospheric
refraction.
5. Turning points should be located on suitable ground, for example the top of a pointed
rock, or a nail placed in a footpath or road.

H.I. (or H.C.) is the distance between the instrument axis and the datum. For differential levelling,
the datum established for all elevations is used to define the HI. However, in stadia
measurements, H.I. may be used (and recorded in the notes) to represent the height of the
instrument axis above the ground.

9.1 ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEM

From the given data of a differential levelling as shown in the tabulations:

Sta. B.S. F.S. Elev.

1 5.87 392.25
2 7.03 6.29
3 3.48 6.25
4 7.25 7.08
5 10.19 5.57
6 9.29 4.45
7 4.94

a) Find the difference in elevation of station 7 and station 5.

b) Find the difference in elevation of station 7 and station 4.
c) Find the elevation at station 3.

Solution:

Note:
H. I. = Elev. +B. S.
Elev. = H. I. −F. S.
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Sta. B.S. H.I. F.S. Elev.

1 5.87 398.12 392.25
2 7.03 398.86 6.29 391.83
3 3.48 396.09 6.25 392.61
4 7.25 396.26 7.08 389.01
5 10.19 400.88 5.57 390.69
6 9.29 405.72 4.45 396.43
7 4.94 400.78
∑ B.S. = 43.11 ∑ F.S. = 34.58

Arithmetic Check:
∑ B.S. - ∑ F.S. = 43.11 – 34.58 = 8.53
Last Elev. – First Elev.:
400.78 − 392.25 = 8.53

a) Difference in elevation of station 7 and station 5:

Diff. in elevation of station 7 and station 5 = 400.78 − 390.69
Diff. in elevation of station 7 and station 5 = 10.09 m

b) Difference in elevation of station 7 and station 4:

Diff. in elevation of station 7 and station 4 = 400.78 − 389.01
Diff. in elevation of station 7 and station 4 = 11.77 m

c) From the computed tabulation above:

Elevation of station 3 = 392.61

Observations:
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9.2 FIELDWORK NO. 3: LEVELLING BY RISE AND FALL METHOD

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Photos during the conduct of the activity:

Observations & Findings:

CONCLUSION:
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9.3 FIELDWORK NO. 4: LEVELLING BY HEIGHT OF COLLIMATION METHOD

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Photos during the conduct of the activity:

Observations & Findings:

CONCLUSION:
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9.4 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS

1. In the plan below shows a differential levelling from bench mark to another bench mark,
along each line represents a sight in the actual rod reading. The direction of the field work
is indicated by the number of turning points.
a) Compute the elevation of TP2. (Ans. 39.644 m)
b) Compute the elevation of BM2. (Ans. 40.938 m)
c) Compute the elevation of TP3. (Ans. 34.762 m)

TP1 TP2

BM1
EL. 33.971 TP3 BM2

2. The following shows a tabulated data of levelling notes using rise and fall method.

Rod Readings Reduced Rod

B.S. I.F.S. F.S. level station

3.755 346.75 BM1

2.895 1
1.742 2
1.683 3
2.729 4
2.057 BM2

a) Compute the rise or fall at station 2. (Ans. 1.153 m)

b) Compute the reduced level at station 3. (Ans. 348.822 m)
c) Compute the reduced level of BM2. (Ans. 348.448 m)
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10 PROFILE LEVELLING
As the name suggests, it shows a profile, that is, a line depicting ground elevations at a vertical
section along a survey line. This is necessary before a railroad, highway transmission line,
sidewalk or sewer line can be designed. Usually a line of level is run along the center line of the
proposed work as shown in Figure below. Level is taken every 15 m or 30 m interval, at critical
points where there is a sudden change of levels, at the beginning or end of the curve. The basic
objective is to plot accurately the elevation of the points along the line of levels. The procedure is
exactly the same as in the differential levelling. It is necessary to take staff readings along the
centre line, book them properly in the level book, compute the R.L.’s of different points and apply
suitable arithmetic checks. It is also necessary to start from a B.M. of known R.L. also close with
a known R.L. so that suitable field checks are applied. It is, however not essential to set-up the
instrument along the centre line. It can be placed anywhere if necessary, off the centre line, so
that the large number of readings can be taken and foresights and backsights are made
approximately equal. It is now necessary to plot the profile of longitudinal section. To show the
distortions of the ground and elevations are plotted on a much larger scale after taking a suitable
datum than the longitudinal distances.

After the longitudinal or profile section is drawn, it is necessary to have a smooth surface: this is
known as grade line which is selected in various considerations like: (i) minimum amount of cutting
and filling of earth works; (ii) balancing the cut and fill; and (iii) keeping the slope within the
allowable limit.
If points A and G are joined by a straight line the slope of the line becomes (99.705 – 99.535)/180
or 1/1059 which is very small and is within allowable limit. This may not, however,
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ensure equal volumes of cut and fill and suitable adjustments of grade line may be necessary to
ensure this condition.

10.1 SAMPLE PROBLEM

The levelling shown in the field sheet given below was undertaken during the laying out of a sewer
line. Determine the height of the ground at each observed point along the sewer line and
calculated the depth of the trench at points X and Y if the sewer is to have a gradient of 1 in 200
downwards from A and B and is to be 1.280 m below the surface at A.

B.S. I.S. F.S. Distance (m) Remarks

3.417 B.M. 98.002 m
1.390. 1.774 0 Point A
1.152 20
3.551 1.116 40 Point X
0.732 1.088 60
2.384 3.295 80
1.801 100
1.999 120 Point Y
1.936 2.637 140 Point B
1.161 B.M. 100.324

Solution:
Details of Field sheet
R.L. of Distance
B.S. I.S. F.S. Rise Fall R.L. Remarks
sewer (m)
3.417 98.002 B.M. 98.002 m
1.390. 1.774 1.643 99.645 98.365 00 Point A
1.152 0.238 99.883 20
3.551 1.116 0.036 99.919 98.165 40 Point X
0.732 1.088 2.463 102.382 60
2.384 3.295 2.563 99.819 80
1.801 0.583 100.402 100
1.999 0.198 100.204 97.765 120 Point Y
1.936 2.637 0.638 99.566 140 Point B
1.161 0.775 100.341 B.M. 100.324
∑ 13.410 ∑ 11.071 ∑ 5.738 ∑ 3.399
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Arithmetic check:
∑ B.S. - ∑ F.S. = 13.410 – 11.071 = 2.339
∑ Rise - ∑ Fall = 5.738 – 3.399 = 2.339
Last R.L. – First R.L. = 100.341 – 98.002 = 2.339

The tables show the problem and solutions.

R.L. of sewer line at A = 99.645 – 1.280 = 98.365 m

40
At X, 40 m from A R. L. = 98.365 − = 98.165 m
200

120
At Y, 120 m from A R. L. = 98.365 − = 97.765 m
200

Hence depth of trench at X = 99.919 – 98.165 = 1.754 m

Depth of trench at Y = 100.204 – 97.765 = 2.439 m

Observations:
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10.2 FIELDWORK NO. 5: PROFILE LEVELLING

Procedure:

Set numbered stakes at 15 m or 30 m intervals on the proposed line. Begin the levels at an
assigned benchmark and close on another, or on the temporary benchmark. Readings on the
ground are taken to the nearest tenth of a meter only (2 decimal places), and resulting elevations
are computed to tenths only. Foresight readings are taken at any notable changes in slope on the
line between the stakes; the distance to such points being paced, or estimated by the rodman
and called to the levelman. The levelman should not waste time by using undue care on ground
readings, but all turning points should be solid objects and the readings on these points taken
with the same care as in differential levelling. Show the check on the computations.

The input and output data would look something like the following:
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Tabulation
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Photos during the conduct of the activity:

Observations & Findings:

CONCLUSION:
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10.3 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEM

1. From the given profile levelling notes:

STA. B.S. F.S. I.F.S. ELEV.
BM1 0.95 225.50
1 3
2 2.3
TP1 3.13 0.64
3 2.7
4 2.8
5 3.1
6 0.5
7 0.8
TP2 2.16 1.28
8 0.9
9 1.2
10 1.7
11 2.8
TP3 0.82 2.37
TP4 1.35 3.50
12 3.0
BM2 1.24

a) What is the difference in elevation between station 5 and 2? (Ans. 1.6 m)

b) Compute the elevation of TP2. (Ans. 227.66 m)
c) Compute the elevation of BM2. (Ans. 224.88 m)
d) Plot the profile of the tabulated results.
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2. The figure shows a schematic arrangement of a profile level route from BM1 and BM2. The
values indicated represent backsight, foresight and intermediate foresight reading taken
on stations along the route. Elevation of BM1=328.70 m.

a) Find the difference in elevation between stations 5 and 9.

b) Find the elevation of TP2.
c) Find the elevation of BM2.
3
2

4
1 TP1
3.43
H.I. (FS)

2.2 H.I.
5
(IFS)
BM2
BM1
El. 328.70 m
6

11 TP2
H.I.

9
10
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11 TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY
Topographic Survey is a survey made in order to secure important data from which a
topographic map could be made.

Scheme of work of a Topographic Survey:

1. Establishment of a horizontal control by measuring angular and linear measurements of

a center point.
2. Establishment of a vertical control by determining the elevation of control points by
levelling or by using plane table.
3. Determining the elevations and location of some important features as many deem
necessary for the preparation of a topographic map.
4. Computations of elevations, distances and angles as obtained from the previous field
work undertaken.
5. Preparation of the topographic map, which is actually a representation of the terrestrial
relief i.e. the configuration of earth’s surface.

Methods of Representing Relief:

1. Relief models
2. Shading
3. Hachure lines
4. Forms lines
5. Contour lines

Contour – an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface.

Contour line – a line on the map joining points of the same elevation.
Contour interval – on a given map, successive contour lines represents elevations which differ
by a fixed vertical distance called contour interval.
Hachure – artificial shade lines drawn in the direct of steepest slope for the purpose of
representing relief.
Saddle – a dip at the conjunction of two ridges.
Thalwegs – are the lines where the two sides of a valley meet.

Plotting of Contour

In a topographic map the elevations of different points are shown by means of contours. From the
study of the contours the surface features such as hills, mountains, depressions or undulations of
the earth can be easily understood. A contour line is an imaginary line containing points of equal
elevation and it is obtained when the surface of the ground is intersected by a level surface. This
can be understood by studying the contours of a hill. Suppose a hill is cut by
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imaginary level surfaces at 90.00, 100.00, 110.00, and 120.00. Then the plan of a cut surfaces
will give the contour line. The contour lines will be circular if the level surfaces cut a vertical cone,
elliptical if they cut a sloping cone, straight lines if the surface is uniformly sloping.
The vertical distance between any two successive contours is known as contour interval. The
contour interval is kept constant for a contour plan; otherwise interpretation of contour will be
difficult. The contour interval depends on, (i) nature of the ground, (ii) scale of the map, (iii)
purpose and extent of survey, (iv) time and expense of field and office work.
The contour interval should be small when the ground is flat, the scale of the map is large, the
survey is detailed survey for design work and long-time and large cost can be accepted.
The contour interval may be large when the ground is of steep slope, the scale of the map is
small, the survey is preliminary and the survey is to be completed in a short time and cost should
be small.

Characteristics or Properties of Contour

1. All points on the same contour have the same elevation.

2. Every contour closes upon itself either within or outside the limits of the map.
3. On uniform slopes, the contour lines are spaced uniformly.
4. A single contour cannot lie between two contour lines of higher or lower elevation.
5. Along plane surfaces (such as those of railroad cuts and fills) the contour lines are
straight and parallel to one another.
6. As contour lines represent level lines, they are perpendicular to the line of steepest
slope. They are perpendicular to ridge and valley lines where they cross such lines.
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7. On steep slopes contours a closely spaced and on gentle slopes, contours are spaced far
apart.
8. As contour lines represent contours of different elevation on the ground, they not merge
or cross one another on the map. Except in cases where there is an overhanging cliff or
cave, or bridge abutments.
9. A closed contour indicates either a summit or depression. A hachured, closed contour line
indicates a depression.
10. A contour never splits.
11. Contours of different elevation never meet except on a vertical surface such as
overhanging cliff or cave.

Five Most Common Types of Ground Formation:

1. Depression
2. Summit or Hill
3. End of Ridge
4. End of Valley
5. Saddle
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Four Systems of Ground Points for locating Contours:

1. Control point system:

The ground points form an irregular system along ridge and valley lines and at other critical
features of the terrain. The ground points are located in plan by radiation of intersection
with transit or plane table and their elevations determined by trigonometric levelling or
sometimes by direct levelling.
2. Cross Profile System:
The ground points are on relatively short lines transverse to the main traverse. The
distances from the traverse to the ground points are measured with the tape and the
elevation of the ground points are determined by direct levelling.
3. Trace Contour System:
In this system, the contours are traced out on the ground. The various contour points
occupied by the rod are located by radiation using a transit or a plane table.
4. Checker Board System:
This is used in areas whose topography is smooth. The tract is then divided into squares
or rectangles with stakes set at the corners. The elevation of the ground is determined at
these corners and at intermediate critical points where changes in slope occur, usually by
direct levelling.

Observations:
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11.1 SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. A line on a map was drawn at a scale of 5 : 100,000. If a line in the map is 290 mm long,
the actual length of the line is.
2. The scale on the lap is 1 : x. A lot having an area of 640 sq. m is represented by an area
of 25.6 cm2 on the map. What is the value of x?
3. The scale of the map is 1 cm = 50 m. The distance scaled on the map between two
adjacent contours is 18 mm. The slope of the ground between two adjacent contours is
16.67 mils; determine the contour interval in the ground.

Solution:

1. Actual length of the line 25.6 1 2

= ( )
640 × 1002 x
Scale = 5:100,000 = 1:20,000
Actual dimension = 290(20,000) x = 500
Actual dimension = 5,800,000 mm
Actual dimension = 5,800 m = 5.8km 3. Contour interval in the ground

2. Value of x
x
Since the map is similar actual, by
similar area:
1.8(50) = 90
Map area 1 2 x(1000)
=( ) = 16.67
Actual Area x 90
x = 1.5 m

11.2 PRACTICE SOLVING

1. On the map drawn to scale of 1 cm = 40 m, determine the horizontal distance between

the two adjacent contours having a contour interval of 0.5 m if the slope of the ground is
250 m/s
2. On a map having a scale of 1 cm = 50 cm with a contour interval of 2 m. if the slope of the
ground is 3%, determine the horizontal distance between the two adjacent contours in
mm.
3. A topographic map has a contour interval of 0.5 m and a scale of 1:1500. If the two
adjacent contours are 25 mm apart on the map, determine the slope of the ground
between the two adjacent contours in grads.
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12 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING
Purpose of Hydrographic Surveying:

1. To determine shore line of harbours, lakes and rivers from which to draw an outline map
of the body of water
2. To determine by means of soundings, the submerged relief of ocean bottoms.
3. To observe tidal conditions for the established of standard datum.
4. To obtain data, in case of rivers, related to the studies of flood control, power
development, water supply and storage.
5. To locate channel depths and obstruction to navigators.
6. To determine quantities of underwater excavations.
7. To measure areas subject to scour or silting.
8. To indicate preferred locations of certain engineering works by stream discharge
measurement.

Methods of locating Sounding:

1. By means of a boat towed at uniform speed along a known range line at equal intervals
of time.
2. By means of range line and an angle from the shore.
3. By means of range line and an angle from the boat.
4. Two angles from the shore.
5. Two angles taken simultaneously at the boat using a sextant, and three stations on the
shore.
6. By transit and stadia.
7. By intersection of fixed ranges.
8. By a wire stretched along a river at known distances

A Hydrographic Map contains the following informations:

1. Data used for elevation.

2. High and low water lines.
3. Sounding usually in feet and tenths, with a decimal point occupying the exact plotted
location of the point.
4. Lines of equal depths, interpolated from soundings. On navigation charts the interval of
line of equal depth is equal to one fanthom or six feet.
5. Conventional signs of land features as in topographic maps.
6. Light houses, navigation light, buoys, etc., either shown by conventional signs of letter
on the map.
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Methods of Plotting Soundings:

1. Two Polar Contractor

2. Two tangent Protractors
3. Tracing Cloth Method
4. Three Arm Protractor
5. Plotting Charts

Special Hydrographic Surveys

A. Measurement of dredged materials:

1. Measurement in place:
Soundings of fixed section are taken both before and dredging and the change in the
cross-sectional area is obtained by calculation or by using a planimeter. The volume
of the material removed is computed using the borrow pit method or by the end-area
method.
2. Scow measurement:
Each scow is numbered and the capacity of each is carefully determined. When the
scow is filled to the capacity the inspector records the full measurements. Materials
scow is sometimes measured by the amount displaced in loading.

B. Measurement of Surface Current:

Certain engineering problems require important information about the direction and
velocity of currents at all tidal stages. This is done by locating the path and computing the
velocity of floats from points whose locations are known and can be determined. Floats
should be designed to give minimum wave resistance and to extend underwater to a
sufficient depth to measure the current in question. The direction of the current may be
determined by sextant angles from the boat between known signals and the float.

C. Wire drag or Sweep:

This method is used in harbour or a bay where coral reefs and pinnacle rocks are likely to
occur. This consists of a wire of any length up to 120 m which may be set at any desired
depth. Depths are maintained by means of buoys placed at the wires and whose length
can be adjusted. The drag is pulled through the water by means of a power launches
steering diverging forces to keep the drag taut. When an obstruction is met, the buoys are
shown with the position of two straight lines intersecting at the obstruction. This
intersection is located by sextant observations to reference points on the shore. Sounding
are taken for the minimum depth.

D. Determination of stream slope:

To determine surface slope, a gauge is installed on each side of the stream at the end of
the section. The zeroes of the gauge are connected to permanent benchmarks on the
shore. The gauges are read simultaneously at ten to fifteen minutes for six to eight hours.
The mean of these elevations at that point of the stream. The difference in elevation
between the ends of the section divided by the distances is the slope.
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Capacity of Existing Lakes or Reservoirs:

1. Contour Method:
A traverse is run from a shore line and the desired shore topogtaphy are located by stadia.
Take sufficient number of soundings by any method suited for the particular job and plot
the subaqueous contour. The areas enclosed between contours are determined by
planimeter. The average area of two consecutive contours multiplied by the contour
interval gives the partial volume. The summation of the partial volumes gives the total
volume.

2. Parallel Cross-section Method:

The outline of the water line is obtained as in the contour method. The water line is then
plotted and divided into approximate trapezoids and triangles. Soundings are taken along
the boundary lines between each station and are plotted on cross-section paper. A
perpendicular distances between sections are then obtained by the end-area method. The
summations of these partial volumes give the total volume.

Two General Methods of Determining the Capacity of a Lake or Reservoir:

1. Contour Method
a) End-area method
b) Prismoidal formula

2. Parallel Cross-section Method

c) End-area method
d) Prismoidal formula

Contour Method

a) End-Area Method
h
h
(A1 + A2 )h
V1_2 = h
2 h

(A2 + A3)h
V2_3 =
2
(A3 + A4)h
V3_4 =
2
(A + A5)h
V4_5 = 4
2
Total V = V1_2 + V2_3 + V3_4 + V4_5
h
V = (A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5)
2
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h
V= (A + 2A2 + 2A3 + 2A4 + A5)
2 1

The area A1, A2, etc. are determined by using a planimeter and h represents the
contours interval. Area below A5 is neglected.

b) Prismoidal Formula:
L
V = (A + 4Am + As)
6

In this case the middle area Am is the Area A2 and A4 while L is equivalent to 2h.

2h
V1 = (A1 + 4A2 + A3)
6
2h
V2 = (A3 + 4A4 + A5)
6
Total V = V1 + V2
h
V = (A1 + 4A2 + A3 + A2 + 4A4 + A5)
3
h
V = (A1 + 2A3 + 4A2 + 4A4 + A5)
3

Observations:
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Parallel Cross-Section Method:

a) End-area Method: h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6

Parallel ranges are laid out across the

lake and soundings are taken along the A7
A1
ranges. From the observed soundings the
corresponding cross-sections could be
plotted and its corresponding areas would
then be computed.

(A1 + A2)h1 (A5 + A6)h5

V1 = V5 =
2 2
(A2 + A3)h2 (A6 + A7)h6
V2 = V6 =
2 2

(A3 + A4)h3 Total Volume:

V3 =
2 = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4
(A + A5)h4 + V5 + V6
V4 = 4
2
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b) Prismoidal Formula:

h1 h2 h3 h4 h5 h6
The problem arises here in the
determination of Am, since the
distances between parallel
sections are not equal, it is A7
A1
therefore necessary to evaluate or
interpolate the values of Am.

h1
V = (A + 4A + A )
1
6 1 m 2
h2
V = (A + 4A + A )
2 m 3
6 2
h3
V = (A + 4A + A )
3
6 3 m 4
h4
V = (A + 4A + A )
4
6 4 m 5
h5
V = (A + 4A + A )
5
6 5 m 6
h6
V = (A + 4A + A )
6
6 6 m 7

Total Volume: = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 + V5 + V6

Observations:
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12.1 SAMPLE PROBLEM

From the current meter notes taken on the Pasig River, the main outlet of the Laguna Lake. All
measurements are in meters.

Depth Time Velocity

Dist. Depth Rev.
Obs. (sec.) (m/sec)
33 (WE) 0
0.5 49.0 70 0.32
45 2.5
2.0 50.0 50 0.22
0.65 49.8 90
60 3.3 0.24
2.65 55.0 60
75 2.0 1.20 53.0 60 0.21
85 (WE)

a) Compute the total discharge in litres per second

b) Compute the total cross sectional area in sq. m.
c) Compute the mean velocity in m/sec.
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Solutions:

a) Total discharge Total Q = 26.44 cu. m⁄sec

1 cu. m = 1000 liters
(0.32 + 0.22) Total Q = 26440 liters⁄sec
Va =
2

Va = 0.27 m⁄sec b) Total area:

(0.40 + 0.24) 12(2.5)
Vb = A1 =
2 2

Vb = 0.32 m⁄sec A1 = 15.00

Vc = 0.21 m⁄sec (2.5 + 3.3)(15)

A2 =
2
Velocity: A2 = 43.50

(0 + 0.27) (3.3 + 2)(15)

V1 = A3 =
2 2

V1 = 0.135 m⁄sec A3 = 39.75

(0.27 + 0.32) (2)(10)

V2 = A4 =
2 2
V2 = 0.295 m⁄sec A4 = 10.00
(0.32 + 0.21)
V3 =
2 A = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4

V3 = 0.265 m⁄sec A = 15 + 43.5 + 39.75 + 10

(0 + 0.21)
A = 108.25 sq. m
V4 =
2

V3 = 0.105 m⁄sec c) Mean Veloctiy:

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Q
V=
Discharge: Q = AV A
Q1 = 15(0.135) = 2.03 26.44
V=
Q2 = 43.5(0.295) = 12.83 108.25
Q3 = 39.75(0.265) = 10.53 V = 0.244 m/sec
Q4 = 10(0.105) = 1.05
Total Q = 2.03 + 12.83 + 10.53 + 1.05

Observations:
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12.2 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS

1. Below are the current meter notes for a river.

Dist. From Depth of Depth of No. of Time in Velocity at

I.P. water observation Rev. sec point
9.50 W.E.
20.00 1.25 0.75 35 20.0 0.450
30.00 1.70 0.34 55 20.5 0.739
1.36 50 17.2 0.720
40.00 2.30 0.46 95 21.0 1.251
1.84 90 19.4 1.243
50.00 2.85 1.71 75 14.3 0.852
60.00 1.55 0.93 50 20.00 0.524
70 0.90 0.18 35 22.0 0.473
78.35 W.E.

a) Compute the velocity at distance of 30 m from I.P.

b) Compute the distance in lit/sec.
c) Compute the mean velocity in section.

2. The areas bounded by the waterline of the reservoir and the contour at an interval of 1.7
m are as follows: A1 = 15,430 m2; A2 = 12980 m2, A3 = 10,650 m2, A4 = 8,540 m2, A5 =
5,270 m2 and A6 = 2,180 m2. Calculate the volume of the reservoir in cu.m using
prismoidal formula.

h
h
h
h
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APPENDIX A: COMMON HAND SIGNALS USED IN SURVEYING

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APPENDIX B: REFERENCES
• Fundamentals of Surveying by S.K. Roy
• Elementary Surveying by William Horace Rayner
• Elementary Surveying Plane Surveying by Prof. Mostafa Rabah
• Engineering Reference Manual for the PE Exam Fourteenth Edition by Michael R.
Lindeburg, PE
• Surveying for Civil & Geodetic Licensure Exam by Besavilla