Introduction > A fuel is a substance that produces large amount heat energy either through combustion or through nuclear reaction. This large amount of heat energy can be used economically for domestic and industrial purposes. > Fuel that produces heat energy by combustion are termed as ‘chemical fuels". . During the process of combustion of a chemical fuel the atoms of Carbon, Hydrogen, Sulphur efc combine with oxygen with simultaneous liberation of heat. In the process of combustion, the chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy. The concept generally applied to those materials which storing energy in the form of chemical energy that could be released through combustion only when needed. For example Wood, Coal , charcoal coke petrol etc. Fuel +0, Products +Heat +0, —> C0, + Heat 2H2 + 02 ——92H,0 +Heat vy However combustion is not always necessary for a fuel to produce heat. Energy can also be liberated by fission or fusion cf nuclei. This energy is much greater than the energy released by chemical fuel and such type of fuel are known as nuclear fuel. For example plutonium, uranium etc.CLASSIFICATION OF FUEL Fuel can be classified on the basis of their (i) occurrence and (ji) Physical state (i) On the basis of occurrence fuel are also classified in to two categories. (@) Primary Fuel or Natural Fuels: These are found to occur in nature and are used either processing to a certain extent or without processing but the chemical comical constitution of fuel does not alter. These are also known as fossil fuels. For example: Wood, peat, lignite, coal, petroleum, natural gas etc. (b) Secondary fuel or derived fuel: These are the fuel that are derived from primary fuels by further chemical processing For example coke, kerosene, producer gas, water gas etc. Both primary and secondary fuels may be further classified based upon their physical state as. (2) Solid fuels, (0) Liquid fuels. (©) Gaseous fuels.CLASSIFICATION OF FUEL FUEL (_ OCCURENCE } (PHYSICAL STATE )CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD FUEL 4. HIGH CALORIFIC VALUE A good fuel should have high calorific value i.e. it should produce large amount of heat on burning. 2, MODERATE IGNITION TEMPERATURE: Ignition temperature: the lowest temperature to which fuel must be pre-heated so that it stats burning smoothly. If gnition temp. is low, the fuel catches fire easily. Low ignition temperature is dangerous for storage and transportation of fuel, High temperature ‘causes difficulty in handling. So ,a good fuel should have moderate ignition temperature 3. LOW MOISTURE CONTENT: ‘A good fuel should have low moisture content as moisture content reduces the calorific value 4, LOW NON-COMBUSTIBLE MATTER CONTEN ‘A good fuel should have low contents of non-combustible material as non-combustible matter is left in form of ash which decreases the calorific value of fuel 5, MODERATE RATE OF COMBUSTION: The temperature of combustion of fuel depends upon the rate of combustion. Ifthe rate of combustion is low, then required high temperature may not be reached soon. On the other hand, too high combustion rate causes high temperature very quickly.CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD FUEL 6, MINIMUM SMOKE AND NON-POISONOUS GASES: (On burning, fuel should not give out objectionable and poisonous gases. In other words, gaseous products should not pollute the atmosphere. Gases like CO, SO,, H,S etc. are some of harmful gases. 7.CHEAP: ‘A good fuel should be cheap and readily available. 8, EASY TRANSPORTATION: AA good fuel should be easy to handle and transport at low cost 9. CONTROLLABLE COMBUSTION: Combustion of fuel should be easy to start or stop when required 10. NON SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION: Combustion of fuel should be non-spontaneous otherwise it can cause fire hazards. 11, LOW STORAGE COST: ‘A good fuel should be easily stored at low cost. ‘Comparison of solid, liquid and gaseous fuel CS CALORIFIC VALUE Less calorific value (CV) and High CV and TE than solid High CV and TE than solid thermal efficiency (TE) due to fuels fuels high ash and moisture content CONTROL OF Not easily controlled Easily controlled by regulating Easily controlled by COMBUSTION They possess moderate liquid flow. For quid fuel temperature variation and air ignition temperature. combustion takes place supply. Combust is very fast Combustion is slow butt can readily. for gaseous fuel ‘not controlled. APPLICATIONS Not used in Internal Used in ICE Used in ICE combustion engine (ICE) MERITS 1. Have moderate ignition 1. Combustion products are 1. Complete combustion temperature clean and dust and soot occurs so no release of 2. Low production cost as are free smoke or ash particles noteeasily explosive so 2. Needless ir for complete 2. Preheating can be done to easily transported and combustion overcome the heat of stored 3. Easily fred and combustion extinguishedComparison of solid, liquid and gaseous fuel foasiiad DEMERITS ee Pees Cee 1. Need excess airfor 1. High production costso 1. High production cost so combustion so not stored easily not stored easily uncontrollable 2. Require special 2. Highly inflammable so 2. They block air combustion bumers risky circulation during thus releasing offensive combustion thus odour accelerates corrosion 3. Flue gases are released containing dust and soot particlesCALORIFIC VALUE It is defined as the total amount of heat (expressed in calories or kilo calories) liberated burnt complete It depends upon the nature of the fuel and the selative proportions of the elements present. If moisture is present there is considerable reduction the calorific value of a fuel. The calorific value may be theoretically calculated from the chemical composition of the fuel. If both hydrogen and oxygen are present, it may be assumed that all the oxygen are already combined with 1/8 of its weight of hydrogen to form water. This fraction is then deducted from the hydrogen content ofthe fuel in the calculation. Thus for a fuel containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur, the calorific value of the fuel is given by DULONG FORMULADetermination of calorific value from Dulong formula (Theoretically) Calorific value =1/100 [8080 C + 34500 {H ~ O/8 } +2240 S) kcallkg Where, C = % of Carbon, CV = 8080 H=% of Hydrogen, CV = 34500 0=% of Oxygen, and ‘S = % of Sulphur, CV = 2240 UNITS FOR heat BTU —The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 Ib (pound) of water by 19F. 1 BTU = 252 Cal = 1054.6 J = 1054.6 X 10’ erg 2. Calorie - The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1° C. 1 Calorie = 4.815 J = 4.815 X10" erg 3. Kilocalories: The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C. 1 Kcal = 1000 CalUnits of calorific value The units of calorific value for solid liquid and gascous fuels are given below. System Solid / Liquid fuels Gaseous fuels Gs calories/gm sie cm? MKS | KealiKe Keal/m? BTU BTUJMb BTU These units can be interconverted as follows 1 cal/g =1 Keal/kg = 1.8 B.T.U./Ib 1 Keal = 0.1077 B-T.U,/f2 1B.T.U, /ft = 9.3 Keal/m?GROSS AND NET CALORIFIC VALUE With fuels containing hydrogen, two calorific values are distinguished, the gross and the net calorific value GROSS OR HIGH CALORIFIC VALUE (GCV OR HCV) (Gross calorific value also known as higher calorific value). It_is defined as the total amount of heat produced when a unit quantity (mass or volume) of fuel is burnt completely and the products of combustion are cooled to room temperature. Usually all fuel contains hydrogen. During combustion, the hydrogen present in the fuel is converted in to steam. When the combustion products are cooled to room temperature, the steam gets condensed in to water and heat that equals to the latent heat of condensation of the steam evolved. This heat gets included in the measured heat and so its value is high. Hence itis called higher calorific value.NET OR LOWER CALORIFIC VALUE (NCV OR LCV) Net calorific value is the heat produced when unit quantity (mass/volume) of a fuel is burnt completely and the products of combustion are allowed to escape. Under normal working conditions, when a fuel is burt water vapour escape along with hot combustion gases. Hence heat available lesser than the gross calorific value. So net calorific value also known as low calorific value. ‘Thus LCV = HCV — Latent heat of water vapour formed. As 1 part by weight of hydrogen gives 9 parts by weight af water, H,+%0,+H,O “LCV = HCV — Weight of hydrogen in fitel x 9 x latent heat of steamGROSS CALORIFIC VALUE AND NET CALORIFIC VALUE Dulong's formula for calorific value from the chemical composition of fuel is : HCV= w [8,080 C + 34,500 (H — Se 2,240 S] kcal/kg where C, H, O, and § are the percentages of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur in the fuel respectively In this formula, oxygen s assumed tobe present in combination with hydrogen as water, and Lev = [HCV- 4587) kcalkg LCV =[HCV- 0.09 H x 587] kcalkg This is based on the fact that 1 part of H by mass gives 9 parts of H,O, and latent heat of steam is 587 kcal/kg.Example 1: 2kg of coal sample was burnt in a bomb calorimeter. The heat liberated was estimated and found to be 14114 Kcal. Calculate the calorific value of the coal samole. Ans: Heat liberated on burning of 2 kg coal = 14114 Kcal Therefore, heat liberated on the combustion of 1Kg coal = ite 7057 Kcal. Example 2 : The gross calorific value of a fuel containing 8% of hydrogen was found to be 9230 Keallkg. calculate net calorific value. Ans NCV = GCV -0.09 xH x Latent heat of steam [As we know latent heat of steam is 587 Kcal/kg] NCV = [9230 -0.09 x8 x 587) Keal/kg = 9230 — 422.64 = 8807.36 KoallkgExmple3: Calculate the gross and net calorific values of a coal sample having the following composition C= 80% 3.5%; N= 2.5% and ash 4.4% Solution () G.C.V = 1/100[8080 C+34500(H - 0/8)+2240 S] Keallkg = 4/400[8080 X 80 + 34500(7 - 3/8)+2240 X3.5] Kcal/kg ~ 8828.0 Keallkg (ll) N.C.V = G.C.V- [0.09H X 587] Keallkg = 8828 — [0.09 X7X 587] Kcalikg = 8458.2 k callkgNumerical problem 3: A coal sample has the following composition by weight. 2.5%. Net calorific value of the fuel was found to be 8490 kcal/kg. Calculate the % of H and GCV. > Rev lve +o:095x 549] Keats 9 Nol = Leases snen] Keeifg @ ecg * Dany heme crane wd cn ein cacesce eats pe zeoxs] Het JaLsenenso + vaseocn-§) +2240¥04] e/g fg, [727290 + 34500 ~ 129975 + HOS] Keat/ ig fs ayen Hog Moy = [763-825 + 345M] kea/ig — omfg enc ot nin: el ance 9 sesh soak = sane 8s 8a aman 138608 ao ean = wsiaey Hey = [Nev o-oahy 507] tent/ig > S40 452.88 efpase sone x 48728] Ket/icg oe aaiadae) ? C= 90%, 0= 3%, $= 0.5%, N= 0.5 % and ash =Solid fuel: Coal Solid fuel: Solid fuel refers to several types of solid materials that are used to produced energy. For example wood, coal etc. Coal: Coal is regarded as a fossil fuel produced from large accumulations of vegetable debris due to partial decay and alteration by the action of heat and pressure over millions of years. Coal is a highly carbonaceous matter that has been formed as a result of alteration of vegetable matter (¢.g., plants) under certain favourable conditions. It is chiefly composed of C, H, N, S and O, besides non-combustible inorganic matter. Types of Coal : Coals are classified on the basis of their rank. Rank is defined as the degree or extent of maturation and is therefore a qualitative measure of carbon contents. Peat, lignite and sub-bituminous coals are referred as low rank coals while bituminous coals and anthracites are classed as high rank. In European. terminology, the lignite and sub-bituminous coals are called soft coals while bituminous coals and anthracite coals are termed as hard coals.Analysis of Coal There are two methods: proximate analysis and ultimate analysis. 1. Proximate Analysis: It includes the determination of moisture, volatile matter, ash and fixed carbon. This gives quick and valuable information regarding commercial classification and determination of suitability for a particular industrial use. 2. Ultimate Analysis: It includes the determination of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen in coal. It is used for the determination of elements present in the coal and also known elemental analysis. This analysis gives exact results and are useful in calculating the calorific value of coal using Dulong's formula. Proximate analysis L. Moisture Content (MC) : 1gm of powdered and air-dried coal sample in crucible is heated at 105-1 10°C in an electric air oven for | hour. Then the sample is cooled to room temperature and weighed again. The loss in weight represents moisture. The loss in weight of the sample is found out and percentage of moisture is calculated as % of moisture,Proximate analysis Calculation: Let the weight of coal sample = W gm Weight after heating for I hour =W, gm Loss in weigh that is weight of moisture = (W —W,) % of Moisture = x 100% ossin weight of the sample = Weight of coal sample taken * 100% Significance of Moisture content (i) Moisture in coal evaporates during the burning of coal and it takes some of the burning of coal and it takes some of the liberated heat in the form of latent heat of evaporation. Therefore, moisture lowers the effective calorific value of coal (i) Moisture quenches the fire in the furnace. Hence, lesser the moisture content, better the quality of coal as a fuel. (iii) It increases the consumption of coal for heating purpose. So presence of higher amount of moisture in coal lengthens the time of heating. (iii) However, presence of moisture, up to 10%, produces a more uniform fuel-bed and less of "fly-ash,Proximate analysis 2, Yolatile matter: The volatile matter present in the coal may be combustible gases such as H, CO, CH,, and other hydrocarbons or non combustible gases such as CO, and N,. It does not include moisture of the coal It is determined by heating known weight of moisture free coal in a silica crucible covered with a vented lid at 950+ 20°C for 7 min in a muffle furnace. The crucible is then taken out and cooled inside a desiccator and weighed again. Complete removal of volatile matter is judged by bubbling the gas through a water seal. Loss in weight give the weight of the volatile matter and % of volatile mater is calculated. Let the weight of coal sample = W gm Let the weight of coal sample after heating for 1 hr that is weight after removal of moisture is = Wz g Let the weight of sample after removal of volatile matter = W, gm So, % of volatile matter x 100 Weight of coal sample takenProximate analysis Significance of volatile matter: > Volatile matters are the CH,, Hydro carbons, and CO, and incombustible gases like CO, and NO, in coal. Thus the ‘volatile matter is an index of the gaseous fuels present. Typical range of volatile matter is 20 to 35%. Coal containing high % of volatile matter burns with a long flame, high smoke and low calorific value A high % of volatile matter indicates that a large amount of fuel is bumt as gas. Presence of non-combustible gases in undesirable since they do not add to the heat value. vyvvy For efficient use of fuel the outgoing combustible gas (volatile matter) has to be burnt by supplying secondary air. This requires a large combustion space. v If the furnace volume is small or flame is short, a large amount of volatile matter will escape unburnt v Coal with greater % of volatile matter (Say more than 40%) do not form coke well. Presence of low volatile matter (less than 10%) do not cake at all end and not form good quality coke. Coal having medium (20-30%) volatile matter are capable of forming hard and strong coke during carbonization. > High volatile mater containing coal useful in coal gas manufacture because volatile mater in a coal denotes the proportion of coal that will be converted into gas and tar products by heat. Where as for preparation of metallurgical coke, coal with low volatile matter is preferred.Proximate analysis 3. Analvsis of As After the removal of moisture and volatile matter the residual coal in the crucible in is further heated without lid in a muffle furnace at 700 + 50° C for + hour The crucible is then taken out, cooled first in air, then in desiccator and weighed. The heating, cooling and weighing is to be repeat untill a constant weight is obtained. The residue is reported as ash on percentage-basis. % of Ash can be calculated as Let the weight of coal sample = W gm Let the weight of ash formed =W, gm % ofash Yeotash <——Weishtofashleft 4, ~~ Weight of coal sample takenProximate analysis Significance of Ash (@ Ash in the combination product of mineral matter in the coal. It consists mainly SiO,, Al,O, and Fe,0; with varying amount of other oxides such as Na,O, CaO, MgO ete. High ash content in coal is undesirable because it has lower calorific value. (ii) Ash is a useless, non-combustible matter, which reduces the calorific value of coal. Moreover, ash causes the hindrance to the flow of air and heat, thereby lowering the temperature. Presence of higher amount of ash in coal causes obstruction to air supply; thereby the burning of coal becomes irregular. Hence, lower the ash content, better the quality of coal. (ii) The presence of ash also increases transporting, handling and storage costs. The presence of ash also causes early wear of furnace walls, burning of apparatus and feeding mechanism.4. Fixed Carbon (FC) The amount of carbon left is burnt by a primary current of air from hot bed of the fuel. Fixed carbon: Percentage of fixed carbon = 100 - % of (moisture + volatile matter + ash) Significance Fixed carbon: Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, greater is its calorific and better the quality coal. Greater the percentage of fixed carbon, smaller is the percentage of volatile matter. This also represents the quantity of carbon (in coal) that can be burnt by a primary current of air drawn through the hot bed of a fuel.Example 2. A sample of coal was analysed as follows: Exactly 2.5 g was weighed in a silica crucible, after heating for 1 hr. at 110°C the residue was weighed to be 2.415 g. Next the crucible was covered with a rented lid and strongly heated for exactly 7 mins. at 1000°C. The residue was weighed to be 1.528 g. Then the crucible was heated without cover until a constant weight to 0.245 g was obtained. From the above data calculate the proximate analysis of coal. Poentage of motte Weigh of coal sample ben = 2.500 g Weight air heating at 110C = 2.415 g ‘Loss of weight = weght of moisure «2.500 2.415 = 0.085 teh of moire ‘weight of coal ken” 0.085, Fp 100 = 3.455 % moisture» 3.4% 6 moisure 100 Gi) Perencage of volatile matter Weight of raid ai ening 950» 128g Loss oF weight « 7 weigh weiheof volte mater 24151528 0.875,weight of volatile matter 9% volatile matter « —“CBHt of volatl . ‘eight oF coal sample taken 100 4 volatile matter = 35.4896 (Gil) Percentage of ash weight of residue left ee ‘weight oF coal sample taken “1° bash = 9.89% (iv) Percentage of iced carbon = 100% of ( moisture + volatile matter + ash) = 100-G.4+35.48 69.8) = 100 ~48.68 = 51.32% 9 fixed carbon = 51.3296ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL It includes the determination of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen in coal. It is used for the determination of elements present in the coal and also known elemental analysis. This analysis gives exact results and are useful in calculating the calorific value of coal using Dulong's formula. 1. Carbon and hydrogen: About 1-2 g of accurately weighed coal sample is burnt in a current of oxygen in a combustion apparatus. C and H present in the coal sample are converted into CO, and H,O respectively. The gaseous products of combustion are absorbed respectively in KOH and CaCl, tubes of known weights. The increase in weights of these are then determined. Coal sample Aico 0:-* fre fom molar snd co, Aakydioue KOHCalculations: C+0, > C0, 2KOH + CO, > K,CO, +H,0 H,+#0, 9H CaCl, +7H,O > CaCl, 7H,0. Lec the weight of coal sample taken = x gm. Increase in weight of KOH tube = y gm. Increase in weight of CaCl, tube = z gm. Now, 44 gm of CO, contains 12 gm of C. gm of CO, contains Bos emokc. 22, 9% Catbon = = x2x100 or, percentage of carbon = 12,4 Inctease in weight of KOH tube 44 weight oF coal sample takenULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL Similarly 18 gm of H,O contains 2 gm of H zgm of HO contains 2% pm of H 18 9 of Hydrogen = 2. 7.199 Box __ Increase in weight of CaCl, tube ‘Weight of coal sample taken Percentage of hydrogen = x100 Significance of Carbon and hydrogen: Greater the percentage of carbon and hydrogen better is the coal in quality and calorific value. However, hydrogen is mostly associated with the volatile matter and hence, it affects the use to which the coal is put. Also higher percentage of carbon in coal reduces the size of combustion chamber required. The amount of carbon, the major combustible consti! fent of coal, depends on the type of coal and its percentage increases with rank from lignite to anthracite. Thus, percentage of carbon forms the basis of classification of coal.ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL Analysis of Nitrogen: Nitrogen present in coal sample is estimated by Kjeldahl’s Method. About 1 g of accurately weighed powdered ‘coal is heated with concentrated H,SO, along-with K;SO,(catalyst) in a long-necked flask(called Kjeldahl's flask). Nitrogen present in the coal gets converted to (NH,)»SO, quantitatively. Heat Nitrogen + H:S0, ———> (NH.);SO+ (From coal) After the solution becomes clear, it is treated with excess of NaOH or KOH and the liberated ammonia is distilled over and absorbed in a known volume of standard HSO, (say ~%) solution. ‘The unused aci is then determined by back titration with standard NaOH solution. From the volume of acid used by ammonia liberated, the percentage of N in coal is calculated. (NH,):S04 + 2NaQH ——— 2NHs + Na2SO4 + 2H20. NHs + H2S0s—— (NH4)2SO4ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL Analysis of Nitrogen:ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL Analysis 0} rogen calculation: Volume offf,S0 ji Normality of ac As we know, Equivalents of H,SO, used = Equivalent of NH, formed. Equivalents off1,S0, used = N,V, Equivalents of NH formed.= N,V). Generally IN solution of NH; mean 1 gm equivalentNHy in 1 Litre Since, 1000 mL. I N solution of NH; contains 17 gm NH, = 14 gm of N N,V, of NH; will contain = Volume of H,S0, x Normality of H,S0, x 1.4 Weight of coal sample taken ignificance of Nitrogen: Nitrogen has no calorific value and hence its presence in coal is undesirable. Thus. a good quality coal has very little nitrogen content. » % of nitrogen =ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL 3. Analysis of Sulphur: A_known amount of coal is bumt completely in a bomb calorimeter in a current of oxygen. Sulphur in the coal is oxidized to sulphates. The ash form of the bomb calorimeter is extracted with dilute HCI. The acid extract is the treated with BaCl; solution to precipitate sulphate as BaSO,. This precipitate is filtered, washed and heated to constant weight, From the weight of BaSO4 formed, S is estimated as follows, 5s 2+ soy M+ m.S0, 32 233 Let che weight of coal sample = W gm Weight of BaSO, = gm 233 gm of BaSO,= 32 gof'S 32 xgmoF BS, - 22 32, Weight of BSO. 9g %S = 755 Weight of coal takenULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF COAL Significance of > Although Sulphur increases the calorific value of fuel, yet its presence is undesirable because it gets oxidized to SO, and SO, which causes environmental pollution > Sulphur containing coal is not suitable for preparing metallurgical coke. Presence of Sulphur in coke used in the iron industry affects the quality and properties of steel. 4. Determination of Ash: determination is carried out as in proximate analysis 5. Determination of Oxygen: Percentage of © ~ 100 - Percentage of (C +H +S +N +ash) Significance of Oxyger > Oxygen content decreases the calorific value of coal. High oxygen-content coals are characterized by high inherent moisture, low calorific value, and low coking power. > Moreover, oxygen is in combined form with hydrogen in coal and thus, hydrogen available for combustion is lesser than actual one. An increase in 1% oxygen content decreases the calorific value by about 1. 7% and hence, oxygen is undesirable. Thus, a good quality coal should have low percentage of oxygen