Bài giảng: TRƯỜNG ĐIỆN TỪ (CT361)

(ELECTROMAGNETICS)

Chapter 1: Waves and Phasors

(Sóng và Phức vector)

Giảng viên: GVC.TS. Lương Vinh Quốc Danh

Bộ môn Điện tử Viễn thông, Khoa Công Nghệ
E-mail: lvqdanh@ctu.edu.vn

Luong Vinh Quoc Danh 1

 Examples of EM Applications

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Electromagnetic waves
• Produced by the movement of electrically charged
particles
• Can travel in a “vacuum” (they do NOT need a medium)
• Travel at the speed of light
• Also known as EM waves
Electric field

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 The Nature of Electromagnetism

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 Electric fields – Coulomb’s Law

Electrical force acting on charge q2 Electric field intensity:

due to charge q1:

ε0 : Electrical permittivity of free space, equal to 8.854 x 10-12 F/m

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 Magnetic fields – Biot-Savart Law
- Discovered as early as 800 B.C. by the Greeks.
- A certain stone attracts pieces of iron, called magnetite (Fe3O4).

Magnetic field induced by a

current in a long wire

Magnetic permeability of free space

Magnetic field intensity H:

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 Velocity of Light
Velocity of light in free space:

µ = µr µ0 ; µr : Relative magnetic permeability of the material

ε = εr ε0 ; εr : Relative electric permittivity of the material

Velocity of light in non-vacuum:

1 Example: speed of light
v= in glass: ~ 2 x 108 (m/s)
µε
Usain Bolt: world
record holder at the
2009 Berlin World
Championships. His
top speed is 12.27
m/s!

Source: http://www.planet-science.com 10
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 Static and Dynamic Fields

A static distribution of charges produces an electric field.

Charges in motion (an electrical current) produce a magnetic field.
A time-varying electric field will generate a time-varying magnetic field, and
vice versa.

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 Material Properties

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 Traveling Waves
Waves are a natural consequence of many physical processes: waves and
ripples on oceans and lakes, sound waves traveling through air, electromagnetic
waves that constitute light, earthquake waves...

Sinusoidal waves in a lossless medium:

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 Traveling Waves (cont.)

Phase velocity (propagation velocity):

ω: angular velocity of wave

β: phase constant

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 Phase Lead & Lag

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 Traveling Waves (cont.)
Sinusoidal waves in a lossy medium:

Attenuation factor

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Energy Decay of the 2004 Sumatra Tsunami in the World Oceans

http://www.pac.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/science/oceans/tsunamis/documents/PAG-2011_Rabinovich_et_al.pdf 17
 Electromagnetic Spectrum

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 Light Spectra

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 Review of Complex Numbers

Complex number z is written in the form:

z = x +jy (1.35) Rectangular
coordinates
Where x = Re(z)
y = Im(z)
jθ
z is written in POLAR form: z = z ∠θ = z e
Euler’s identity:

Complex conjugate of z:

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 Properties of Complex Algebra

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 Properties of Complex Algebra (cont.)

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 Phasors
Phasor analysis is a useful mathematical tool for solving problems
involving time-periodic sources.

Phasor counterpart of

Phasor Vs, contains amplitude and phase information but is independent

of the time variable t.
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 Time & Phasor Domains

It is much easier to
deal with
exponentials in the
phasor domain than
sinusoidal relations in
the time domain

Just need to track

magnitude/phase,
knowing that
everything is at
frequency ω
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 Bài giảng: TRƯỜNG ĐIỆN TỪ (CT361)
(ELECTROMAGNETICS)

Chapter 2: Transmission Lines

(Đường dây truyền sóng)

Giảng viên: GVC.TS. Lương Vinh Quốc Danh

Bộ môn Điện tử Viễn thông, Khoa Công Nghệ
E-mail: lvqdanh@ctu.edu.vn

Luong Vinh Quoc Danh 1

Content

• Lumped-Element (phần tử tập trung) Model of Transmission

Lines
• Transmission-Line Equations
• Wave Propagation on a Transmission Line
• Input Impedance (trở kháng ngõ vào) of the Lossless Line
• Special Cases of Lossless Line
• Power Flow on a Lossless Transmission Line
• Transients (Quá độ) on Transmission Lines

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 General

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Role of Wavelength
Transmission line parameters, equations
A B

Vg(t) VAA’(t) VBB’(t)

L
A’ B’

Recall: λ=c/f, and ω = 2πƒ

VBB’(t) = VAA’(t-td) = VAA’(t-L/c)

= V0cos(ω(t-L/c))
= V0cos(ωt- 2πL/λ),

If λ >> L, VBB’(t) ≈ V0cos(ωt) = VAA’(t),

If λ <= L, VBB’(t) ≠VAA’(t) The circuit theory has to be replaced.

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 Propagation Modes

Electric and magnetic fields

oscillate together but perpendicular
to each other and the
electromagnetic wave moves in a
direction perpendicular to both of
the fields. TEM modes
(Transverse ElectroMagnetic)

• TE modes (Transverse Electric) no electric field in the direction of propagation.

• TM modes (Transverse Magnetic) no magnetic field in the direction of propagation.

• Hybrid modes nonzero electric and magnetic fields in the direction of propagation.

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Propagation Modes (cont.)

TEM transmission lines

Metal
Metal strip conductor

Metal ground
Dielectric spacing

d) Strip line e) Microstrip line

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 Lumped-Element Model

• Represent transmission lines as parallel-wire configuration

A B
Vg(t) VAA’(t) VBB’(t) Load

A’ B’
∆z ∆z ∆z

R’∆z L’∆z ∆z L’∆

R’∆ ∆z R’∆z L’∆z
Vg(t) G’∆z C’∆z ∆z
C’∆ C’∆z
∆z
G’∆
G’∆z

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Transmission line equations

• Represent transmission lines as parallel-wire configuration

i(z,t) i(z+∆z,t)

∆z
R’∆ ∆z
L’∆
V(z,t) ∆z
G’∆ V(z+ ∆z,t)
∆z
C’∆

FOUR transmission line parameters: Resistance R’ (Ω/m); Inductance L’ (H/m);

Capacitance C’ (F/m); Conductance G’ (S/m)

• Kirchhoff’s voltage law:

V(z,t) = R’∆z i(z,t) + L’∆z ∂ i(z,t)/ ∂t + V(z+ ∆z,t), (2.12)

i(z,t) = G’∆z V(z+ ∆z,t) + C’∆z ∂V(z+ ∆z,t)/∂t + i(z+∆z,t), (2.15)

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 Transmission line equations (cont.)
• Transmission line equations

i(z,t) i(z+∆z,t)
R’∆z L’∆z
V(z,t) G’∆z C’∆z V(z+ ∆z,t)

V(z,t) = R’∆z i(z,t) + L’∆z ∂ i(z,t)/ ∂t + V(z+ ∆z,t), (2.12)

-V(z+ ∆z,t) + V(z,t) = R’∆z i(z,t) + L’∆z ∂ i(z,t)/ ∂t

- ∂V(z,t)/∂z = R’ i(z,t) + L’ ∂ i(z,t)/ ∂t, (2.14)

Rewrite V(z,t) and i(z,t) as phasors, for sinusoidal V(z,t) and i(z,t):
jωt jωt
V(z,t) = Re( V(z) e ), i (z,t) = Re( i (z) e ),

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Transmission line equations (cont.)

• Transmission line equations

i(z,t) i(z+∆z,t)
R’∆z L’∆z
V(z,t) G’∆z C’∆z V(z+ ∆z,t)

Recall:
jωt
di(t)/dt = Re(d i e jωt )/dt = Re(i jωe ),

- ∂V(z,t)/∂z = R’ i(z,t) + L’ ∂ i(z,t)/ ∂t, (2.14)

- dV(z)/dz = R’ i(z) + jωL’ i(z), (2.18a)

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 Transmission line equations (cont.)

• Transmission line equations

i(z,t) i(z+∆z,t)
R’∆z L’∆z
V(z,t) G’∆z C’∆z V(z+ ∆z,t)

i(z,t) = G’∆z V(z+ ∆z,t) + C’∆z ∂V(z+ ∆z,t)/∂t + i(z+∆z,t), (2.15)

- i (z+ ∆z,t) + i (z,t) = G’∆z V(z + ∆z ,t) + C’∆z ∂ V(z + ∆z,t)/ ∂t

- ∂ i(z,t)/∂z = G’ V(z,t) + C’ ∂ V(z,t)/ ∂t, (2.16)

Rewrite V(z,t) and i(z,t) as phasors, for sinusoidal V(z,t) and i(z,t):
jωt jωt
V(z,t) = Re( V(z) e ), i (z,t) = Re( i (z) e ),

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Transmission line equations (cont.)

• Transmission line equations

i(z,t) i(z+∆z,t)
R’∆z L’∆z
V(z,t) G’∆z C’∆z V(z+ ∆z,t)

Recall:
jωt jωt
dV(t)/dt = Re(d V e )/dt = Re(Vjωe ),

- ∂i(z,t)/∂z = G’ V(z,t) + C’ ∂ V(z,t)/ ∂t,

- d i(z)/dz = G’ V(z) + jωC’ V(z), (2.18b)

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 Telegrapher’s equation
• Telegrapher’s equation in phasor domain

i(z,t) i(z+∆z,t)
R’∆z L’∆z
V(z,t) G’∆z C’∆z V(z+ ∆z,t)

- dV(z)/dz = R’ i(z) + jωL’ i(z), (2.18a)

- d i(z)/dz = G’ V(z) + jωC’ V(z), (2.18b)

Take d /dz on both sides of eq. (2.18a)

- d²V(z)/dz² = R’ di(z)/dz + jωL’ di(z)/dz, (2.19)

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Telegrapher’s equation (cont.)

• Telegrapher’s equation in phasor domain

- dV(z)/dz = R’ i(z) + jωL’ i(z), (2.18a)

- d i(z)/dz = G’ V(z) + jωC’ V(z), (2.18b)

- d²V(z)/dz² = R’ di(z)/dz + jωL’ di(z)/dz, (2.19)

substitute (2.18b) to (2.19)

d²V(z)/dz² = (R’ + jωL’) (G’+ jωC’)V(z), or

d²V(z)/dz² - (R’ + jωL’) (G’+ jωC’)V(z) = 0, (2.20)

d²V(z)/dz² - γ²V(z) = 0, (2.21)

γ² = (R’ + jωL’) (G’+ jωC’),

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 Telegrapher’s equation (cont.)
• Telegrapher’s equation in phasor domain

i(z,t) i(z+∆z,t)
R’∆z L’∆z
V(z,t) G’∆z C’∆z V(z+ ∆z,t)

- dV(z)/dz = R’ i(z) + jωL’ i(z), (2.18a)

- d i(z)/dz = G’ V(z) + jωC’ V(z), (2.18b)

Take d /dz on both sides of eq. (2.18b)

- d² i(z)/dz² = G’ dV(z)/dz + jωC’ dV(z)/dz, (*)

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Telegrapher’s equation (cont.)

• Telegrapher’s equation in phasor domain

- dV(z)/dz = R’ i(z) + jωL’ i(z), (2.18a)

- d i(z)/dz = G’ V(z) + jωC’ V(z), (2.18b)

- d² i(z)/dz² = G’ dV(z)/dz + jωC’ dV(z)/dz, (*)

substitute (2.18a) to (*)

d² i(z)/dz² = (R’ + jωL’) (G’+ jωC’)i(z), or

d² i(z)/dz² - (R’ + jωL’) (G’+ jωC’) i(z) = 0,

d² i(z)/dz² - γ²i(z) = 0, (2.23)

γ² = (R’ + jωL’) (G’+ jωC’),

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 Wave Equations

• Wave equations

d²V(z)/dz² - γ²V(z) = 0, (2.21)

d² i(z)/dz² - γ²i(z) = 0, (2.23)

γ = α + jβ
β, Complex propagation constant

α = Re (R’ + jωL’) (G’+ jωC’) , Attenuation constant (Np/m)

β = Im (R’ + jωL’) (G’+ jωC’) , Phase constant (Rad/m)

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Telegrapher’s equation (cont.)

Solving the second order differential equation (2.21), (2.23):

+ -γz - γz
V(z) = V0 e + V0 e (2.26a)
-γz
+ I0 e γz
+ -
i(z) = I0 e (2.26b)

where:
-
V+0 and V0 are determined by boundary conditions.
- + -
I0+ and I0 are related to V0 and V0 by characteristic impedance Z0.

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 Characteristic impedance Z0

• Characteristic impedance Z0

+ γ
I0 = +
V0
(R’ + jωL’)

- -γ
I0 = -
V0
(R’ + jωL’)

Define characteristic impedance Z0

recall:
+
V0 (R’ + jωL’)
Z0 ≡ + = γ = (R’ + jωL’) (G’+ jωC’)
I0 γ

(R’ + jωL’) (Ω) , (2.29)

= (G’+j ωC’)

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Example

• Example 2-1, an air line :

R’ = G’ = 0, Z0 = 50 Ω, β = 20 rad/m, f = 700 MHz

L’ = ? and C’ = ?

Solution:
(R’ + jωL’) L’
Z0 = = C’ = 50Ω
(G’+j ωC’)

γ = (R’ + jωL’) (G’+ jωC’) = jω L’C’

γ = α + jβ,

β = ω L’C’ = 20 rad/m

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 Lossless Transmission Lines
• Lossless transmission line :

γ = α + jβ,
= (R’ + jωL’) (G’+ jωC’)

If R’<< j ωL’ and G’ << jωC’,

Then:

(2.35)

(2.36)

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Lossless Transmission Lines (cont.)

Wavelength

Phase velocity

(2.39)

(2.40)

Wavelength

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 Reflection Coefficient

+ - jβz
V(z) = V0 e -jβz + V0 e
+ -
V0 -jβz V0 j β z
i(z) =
Z0 e - Z0 e
(2.44)

VL = + -
V(z) = V0 + V0
z=0
+ -
iL = i(z) V0 V0
z = 0 = Z0 - Z0
+ -
VL V0 + V0 +
ZL = = V0 ZL - Z0
+
V0
-
V0 - =
iL - Z0 V0 ZL + Z0
Z0

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Reflection Coefficient (cont.)

• Voltage reflection coefficient :

• Current reflection coefficient :

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 Reflection Coefficient (cont.)
• Example 2-2 :

A
RL = 50 Ω
f = 100 MHz Z0 = 100 Ω
A’ CL = 10pF
z=0

ZL = RL + j/ωCL = 50 – j159 (Ohms)

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Standing Waves
• From (2.44), we have:

-
V0
with Γ = +
V0

+ -jβz jθr jβz

|V(z)| = |V0| | e + |Γ| e e |
+ 1/2
= |V0| [1+ | Γ|² + 2|Γ|cos(2βz + θr)] (2.52)
~
|V(z)| is a function of z.
~
• A similar expression can be derived for |I(z)|
~ + 1/2
|I(z)| = |V0|/|Z0| [1+ | Γ|² - 2|Γ|cos(2βz + θr)]

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 Standing Waves (cont.)

The repetition period

of the standing wave
pattern is λ/2.

When voltage is a
maximum, current is a
minimum, and vice
versa.

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Figure 2.11 27

Standing Waves (cont.)

• Special cases
1. ZL= Z0, Γ = 0
+
|V(z)| = |V0|

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 Standing Waves (cont.)
2. ZL= 0, short circuit, Γ = -1
+ 1/2
|V(z)| = |V0| [2 + 2cos(2βz + π)]

3. ZL= ∞, open circuit, Γ = 1

+ 1/2
|V(z)| = |V0| [2 + 2cos(2βz )]

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Standing Waves (cont.)

• Voltage maximum
+ 1/2
|V(z)| = |V0| [1+ | Γ|² + 2|Γ|cos(2βz + θr)]

+
|V(z)|max = |V0| [1+ | Γ|], (2.54)

when 2βz + θr = - 2nπ. (2.55)

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 Standing Waves (cont.)
• Voltage minimum

The first voltage minimum occurs at

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Voltage standing-wave ratio VSWR

|V(z)| max 1 + | Γ|
S≡ = (2.59)
|V(z)| min 1 - | Γ|

S = 1, when Γ = 0,
S = ∞, when |Γ| = 1,

Example 2-4: 50-Ohm transmission line, ZL = 100 + j50 (Ω). Find Γ, SWR.

Converting the numerator and denominator to polar form and then simplifying yields

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 Input Impedance of the Lossless Line
Ii A B
Zg
Vg(t) Z0 VL
Vi ZL

l
z=-l z=0
Vi(z)
Zin(z) =
Ii(z)
+ -jβz jβz j2βz -j2βl
V0(e + Γe ) (1 + Γe ) (1 + Γe )
Z0 = Zin(-l) =
= +
-j βz jβz j2βz Z0 -j2βl Z0
V0(e - Γe ) (1 - Γ e ) (1 - Γe )

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Example 2-6
A 1.05-GHz generator circuit with series impedance Zg = 10-Ω and voltage source
given by Vg(t) = 10 sin(ωt +30º) is connected to a load ZL = 100 +j5 (Ω) through
a 50-Ω, 67-cm long lossless transmission line. The phase velocity is 0.7c. Find
V(z,t) and i(z,t) on the line.

Solution:
Since, Vp = ƒλ, λ = Vp/f = 0.7c/(1.05 x 109) = 0.2 m.
β = 2π/λ, β = 10 π.
Γ = (ZL-Z0)/(ZL+Z0), Γ = 0.45exp(j26.6º)
-j2βl
(1 + Γe )
Zin(-l) =
-j2βl Z0 = 21.9 + j17.4 Ω
(1 - Γe )

+ Zin(-l)
V0[exp(-jβl)+ Γexp(jβl)] = Vg
Zin(-l) + Zg

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 Short-circuited Line
Ii A B
Zg
Vg(t) Zscin Z0 VL ZL = 0

l
z=-l z=0

ZL= 0, Γ = -1, S = ∞

V(z) = V0(e-jβz - e jβz ) = -2jV+0sin(βz)

+ (2.67)
V0 -jβz jβz
) = 2V+
Z 0 (e + e
I(z) = 0cos(βz)/Z0

sc
V(-l) (2.68)
Zin = = jZ0.tan(βl)
I(-l)

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Short-circuited Line (cont.)

V(-l)
Zin = = jZ0tan(βl)
i(-l)

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 Short-circuited Line (cont.)

V(-l)
Zin = = jZ0tan(βl)
i(-l)

L
• If tan(βl) >= 0, the line appears inductive, jωLeq = jZ0tan(βl),

• If tan(βl) <= 0, the line appears capacitive, 1/(jωCeq)= jZ0tan(βl),

C

• The minimum length results in transmission line as a capacitor:

-1
l = 1/β[π- tan (1/ωCeqZ0)],

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Example 2-7
Choose the length of a shorted 50-Ω lossless line such that its input impedance
at 2.25 GHz is equivalent to the reactance of a capacitor with capacitance
Ceq = 4pF. The wave phase velocity on the line is 0.75c.

Solution:

Vp = λƒ, ⇒ β = 2π/λ = 2πƒ/Vp = 62.8 (rad/m)

tan (βl) = - 1/ωCeqZ0 = -0.354,

-1
βl = 2πl / λ = tan (-0.354) + nπ = - 0.34 + nπ

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 Open-circuited Line (cont.)
Ii A B
Zg
Vg(t) Zoc Z0 VL
in ZL = ∞

l
z=-l z=0

ZL = 0, Γ = 1, S = ∞
-jβz jβz
V(z) = V0 (e + e ) = 2V+0cos(βz)
+ (2.72)
V0 -jβz jβz
) = 2jV+0sin(βz)/Z0
Z 0 (e - e
I(z) =

oc V(-l) (2.73)
Zin = = -jZ0.cot(βl)
I(-l)

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Open-circuited Line (cont.)

oc V(-l)
Zin = = -jZ0.cot(βl)
I(-l)

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 λ/2
Line of Length nλ

tan(βl) = tan[(2π/λ)(nλ/2)] = 0,

-j2βl
(1 + Γe )
Zin(-l) =
-j2βl Z0 = ZL
(1 - Γe )

Any multiple of half-wavelength line doesn’t modify the load impedance.

A B
Zg
Vg(t) Z0
Zin ZL

l = nλ/2
z=-l z=0

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Quarter-wave Transformer
Quarter-wave transformer: l = λ/4 + nλ/2

βl = (2π/λ)(λ/4 + nλ/2) = π/2 ,

-j2βl -j π
(1 + Γe ) (1 + Γe) (1 - Γ)
Zin(-l) = Z = Z = Z0²/ZL
= (1 + Γ) Z0
-j2βl 0 -j π 0
(1 - Γe ) (1 - Γe )

Example 2-9:
A 50-Ω lossless transmission is matched to a resistive load impedance with ZL = 100 Ω via a
quarter-wave section, thereby eliminating reflections along the feed line. Find the
characteristic impedance of the quarter-wave transformer.

Zin = Z0²/ZL= 50 Ω
Z01 = 50 Ω Z0 ZL = 100 Ω
½ ½
λ/4 Z0 = (Zin.ZL) = (50*100) = 70.71 Ω

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 Power Flow
• Instantaneous power
i i
P(t) = v(t) i(t) = Re[V iexp(jωt)] Re[ i exp(jωt)]
+ + +
= Re[|V0|exp(jφ )exp(jωt)] Re[|V0|/Z0 exp(jφ+)exp(jωt)]
+ +
= (|V0|²/Z0) cos²(ωt + φ ) (2.81)

r r
P(t) = v(t) i(t) = Re[V rexp(jωt)] Re[ i exp(jωt)]
- + -
= Re[|V0|exp(jφ )exp(jωt)] Re[|V0|/Z0 exp(jφ+)exp(jωt)]
+
= - |Γ|²(|V0|²/Z0) cos²(ωt + φ++ φr) (2.82)

Luong Vinh Quoc Danh

43

Time-Average Power
Time-domain approach:

Net average power delivered to load:

44
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 Time-Average Power (cont.)
Phasor-domain approach:

+
Pav = (1-|Γ|²) (|V0|²/2Z0)

Luong Vinh Quoc Danh

45

Transient on transmission line

• Step function U(t)

U(t)
U(t) = 1, if t >= 0; U(t) = 0, if t < 0

46
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 Transient of a step function
Rg = 4 Z0

ZL = 2Z0

At t = 0+, immediately after closing the

switch in the circuit in (a), we have:

Luong Vinh Quoc Danh

47

Transient of a step function (cont.)

Voltage distributions on a lossless transmission line at t = T/2, t = 3T/2 and t =
5T/2

48
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 Transient of a step function (cont.)
As t approaches ∞, the ultimate value of V(z,t) is the same at all locations on
the transmission line, and is given by:

Where x = ΓLΓg

By applying (2.132), equation (2.131) can be written as follows:

Steady state voltage

Luong Vinh Quoc Danh

49

Transient of a step function (cont.)

Current distributions on a lossless transmission line at t = T/2, t = 3T/2 and t =
5T/2

Steady state current:

50
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 Bounce Diagram

Γg = 3/5, ΓL = 1/3, z = l/4

Luong Vinh Quoc Danh

51

Bounce Diagram (cont.)

Γg = 3/5, ΓL = 1/3, z = l/4

Demo: Transmission line Simulator

52
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 Bài giảng: TRƯỜNG ĐIỆN TỪ (CT361)
(ELECTROMAGNETICS)

Chapter 3: Vector Analysis

(Giải tích Vector)

Giảng viên: GVC.TS. Lương Vinh Quốc Danh

Bộ môn Điện tử Viễn thông, Khoa Công Nghệ
E-mail: lvqdanh@ctu.edu.vn

Luong Vinh Quoc Danh 1

Content

• Basic Laws of Vector Algebra

• Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
• Transformations between Coordinate Systems
• Gradient of a Scalar Field
• Divergence of a Vector Field
• Curl of a Vector Field
• Laplacian Operator

2
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 Basic Laws of Vector Algebra

(3.3)

3
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Basic Laws of Vector Algebra (cont.)

Equality of two vectors:

Vector Addition and Subtraction:

C=B+A=A+B
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
= ( x Ax + y Ay + z Az ) + ( x B x + y B y + z B z ) = x ( Ax + B x ) + y ( Ay + B x ) + z ( Az + B z )

4
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 Position and Distance Vectors

Position Vector:
From origin to point P

Distance Vector:
Between two points

5
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Vector Multiplication
Dot Product -> Scalar

6
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 Vector Multiplication (cont.)
Cross Product -> Vector

(3.28)

7
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Vector Multiplication (cont.)

Scalar Triple Product

(3.29)

Vector Triple Product

(3.33)

8
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 Coordinate Systems

• Cartesian
• Cylindrical
• Spherical

Differential Length, Area, and Volume

10
 Example 3-5

12
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 Transformation between Coordinate Systems
• To solve a problem, we select the coordinate system that best
fits its geometry

13
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 Example 3-8

Solution
Using the relations: Leads to:

15
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Global Positioning System

GPS comprises a constellation

of 24 satellites. Each is in a 12
hour orbit at a height of
20,000 km above the ground.

Each GPS satellite sends radio signals down to Earth all the time. The GPS
receivers on the ground pick up these signals. A computer in each receiver
compares the arrival times of signals from different satellites. It can then
calculate the position from this information.
Source: http://www.suntrek.org/solar-spacecraft/satellites-rockets/what-satellites-do/gps-satellites.shtml

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 Gradient of a Scalar Field
Example: Temperature Distribution T(x,y,z)

- The direction of ∇T is along the

maximum increase of T.
- The magnitude of ∇T is equal
to the maximum rate of change
of T.

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Directional Derivative

18
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 Divergence of a Vector Field
Total flux crossing a closed surface S:

Net outward flux per unit volume:

(3.95)

Scalar -> Vector

19
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Divergence of a Vector Field (cont.)

Physical meaning of Divergence
Imagine the two vectors below give the velocity of fluid flow.

An explosion outwards. The Flow inward. The origin is a sink.

origin is a source of fluid.

The divergence measures the outflow per

unit volume of a vector field at a point.
20
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 Divergence Theorem

Useful tool for converting integration over a volume

to one over the surface enclosing that volume, and
vice versa.

21
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Curl of a Vector Field

r r
Circulation = ∫ B.dl ,
b c

Circulation = ∫ xˆB0 . xˆdx + ∫ xˆ B0 . yˆ dy

a b
d a

+ ∫ xˆB0 . xˆ dx + ∫ xˆ B0 . yˆ dy
c d

= 0, (3.100)

Circulation of a uniform field is zero.

Uniform field

22
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 Curl of a Vector Field (cont.)

r µ I
B = φˆ 0 ,
2πr
r r 2π µ 0 I
Circulation = ∫ B.dl = ∫ φˆ .φˆdφ ,
0
2πr
= µ0 I , (3.102)

23
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Curl of a Vector Field (cont.)

24
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 Curl of a Vector Field (cont.)
Physical meaning of Curl
- The curl measures the rotation of a vector field.
Imagine placing a ball in a flow, holding its position fixed, allowing
it to spin freely.
If the ball spins, it indicates rotation.
We indicate the direction of the rotation by the axis of rotation
using the right-hand rule (Fingers with rotation, thumb indicates
direction).

25
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh

Stokes’s Theorem

Luong Vinh Quoc Danh

 Laplacian Operator

Laplacian of a Scalar Field

Laplacian of a Vector Field

(3.112)

Useful Relation

27
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Quick Review

• Coordinate Systems
• Unit vector
• Differential length, surface, volume
• Transformation between coordinate systems
• Gradient
• Divergence
• Divergence theorem
• Curl
• Stokes theorem
• Laplacian

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Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 Bài giảng: TRƯỜNG ĐIỆN TỪ (CT361)
(ELECTROMAGNETICS)

Chapter 4: Electrostatics
(Tĩnh điện học)

Giảng viên: GVC.TS. Lương Vinh Quốc Danh

Bộ môn Điện tử Viễn thông, Khoa Công Nghệ
E-mail: lvqdanh@ctu.edu.vn

Luong Vinh Quoc Danh 1

Content

• Maxwell’s Equations
• Charge and Current Distributions
• Coulomb’s Law
• Gauss’s Law
• Electric Scalar Potential
• Electrical Properties of Materials
• Electric Boundary Conditions

2
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 Maxwell’s Equations
Modern Electromagnetism is based on a set of FOUR fundamental relations
known as Maxwell’s Equations:

James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879),

a Scottish physicist and
mathematician, produced a
Where D = εE ; B = µH ; J = σE mathematically and scientifically
definitive work which unified the
subjects of electricity and
magnetism and established the
foundation for the study of
electromagnetics.

3
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Historical Notes
Charles A. de Coulomb (1736-1806): Measured electric and magnetic forces.
André M. Ampere (1775-1836): Produced a magnetic field using current – solenoid.
Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855): Discovered the Divergence theorem – Gauss’
theorem – and the basic laws of electrostatics.
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827): Invented the Voltaic cell.
Hans C. Oersted (1777-1851): Discovered that electricity could produce magnetism.
Michael Faraday (1791-1867): Discovered that a time changing magnetic field
produced an electric field, thus demonstrating that the fields were not independent.
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879): Founded modern electromagnetic theory and
predicted electromagnetic wave propagation.
Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (1857-1894): Confirmed Maxwell’s postulate of
electromagnetic wave propagation via experimental generation and detection and is
considered the founder of radio.

4
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 Static Fields

Static fields: This happens when all charges are permanently fixed in space, or
move at a steady rate so that ρv and J are constant in time.

Maxwell’s Equations reduce to: ( )

There is no interconnection between electric and magnetic fields.

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Charge and Current Distributions

Charge Densities:
Volume charge density ρv:

Where ∆q is the charge contained in ∆v.

Surface charge density ρs:

Where ∆q is the charge present across an elemental surface area ∆s.

Line charge density ρl:

6
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 Example 4-2: Surface charge distribution
Surface charge density ρs increases linearly with r
from zero at the center to 6 C/m2 at r = 3 cm. Find
the total charge present on the disk surface.

Solution:

Since ρs is symmetrical with respect to the angle φ,

it depends only on r and is given by

7
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Charge and Current Distributions (cont.)

Current Density:

The amount of charge ∆q flowing through ∆s is:

The corresponding current is:

Convection current density

8
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 Review
• Convection current: current is generated by the actual
movement of electrically charged matter. Convection current
occurs in dielectrics such as liquid, vacuum. Convection current
does not satisfy Ohm’s law.
Example: Wind-driven charge cloud, electron beams in a CRT.

In a perfect dielectric, σ = 0 J = σE = 0
• Conduction current: Conduction current occurs in
conductors. Conduction current occurs due to the drift motion
of electrons. Conduction current obeys Ohm’s law.

Current density: J =σE (A/m2) (4.67)

Conductivity: (S/m) (4.66)

In a perfect conductor, σ = ∞ E = J/ σ = 0
9
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Review
How fast do electrons move in wires?

Source: http://www.qrg.northwestern.edu/projects/vss/docs/power/2-whats-electron-flow.html

See Example 4-8

10
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 Faraday Cage

Cell phone and AM/FM radio in ...and in the closed cage

the open cage
Experiment: A Faraday cage blocks long wavelength EM waves but does not block
short wavelength EM waves.

Principle: Shielding of electromagnetic waves by a screen enclosure depends on the

wavelength of the EM waves and the size of the holes.
Source: http://victoria.ac.nz/physics-resource-centre/demos/Circuits_and_Electromagnetism/Faraday_Cage/FaradayCage.htm
11
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Coulomb’s Law
Electric field intensity E:
(4.13)

Electric force acting on a test

charge q’ is given by:

Electric flux intensity D:

With

εr : relative permittivity (or dielectric constant) of the material.

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 Electric Field due to Multiple Point Charges

(4.19)

13
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Example 4-3

Solution:

14
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 Demo

Four point charges on the

corners of a square, with Q1
= Q3 = 1C, and Q2 = Q4 = -
1C

15
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Electric field due to charge distributions

(4.21a)

16
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 Example 4-4: Electric field of a ring of charge

17
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Gauss’s Law

The surface S enclosing v is called a Gaussian surface.

18
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 Gauss’s Law (cont.)

Divergence theorem

(4.26)

19
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Using Gauss’s Law

20
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 Electric Scalar Potential

Fext: external force needed to

move the charge along the
positive y-direction.

Fext = - Fe = - qE

Work (công) needed to move a charge q:

dW = − qE ⋅ dl (4.36)

Differential electric potential (or differential voltage):

dW
dV = = − E ⋅ dl (J/C or V) (4.37)
q
21
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Electric Scalar Potential (cont.)

22
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 Relating E to V

Flow inward. The origin is a sink.

23
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Electric Potential Due to Charges

In electric circuits, we usually select a convenient node that
we call ground and assign it zero reference voltage. In free
space and material media, we choose infinity as reference
with V = 0. Hence, at a point P

For a point charge, V at range R is:

24
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 Electric Potential Due to Charges (cont.)

N
1 qi
Multiple Charges: V=
4πε
∑i =1 R − Ri
(4.46)

Charges distributions:

25
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Example 4-7

26
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 Example 4-7 (cont.)

27
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh

Poisson’s Equation

ρv
∇⋅E =
ε
E = −∇V
ρv
Laplacian ∇ ⋅ (∇V ) = −
ε
∇ 2 ≡ ∇ ⋅ (∇V )
2 ρv
∇ V =− (4.60)
ε
Poisson’s Equation

28
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 Electrical Properties of Materials

29
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Dielectric Materials

No free electrons

30
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 Polarization Field

P = electric flux density induced by E

Độ cảm điện

31
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Electric Breakdown

32
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 Boundary Conditions

Tangential Component Normal Component

33
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Summary of Boundary Conditions

Electric field inside a perfect conductor is ZERO !

34
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 Conductors

The electric field lines point directly away from the conductor surface when ρs is
positive and directly toward the conductor surface when ρs is negative.

Fig. 4.20
When a conducting slab is placed in an external electric field E0, charges that
accumulate on the conductor surfaces induce an internal electric field Ei = - E0
The total field inside a conductor is zero.
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Conductors

Fig. 4.21

When a metallic sphere is placed in an electrostatic field, negative charges

will accumulate on the lower hemisphere and positive charges will
accumulate on the upper hemisphere.

The presence of the sphere causes the field lines to bend to satisfy the
condition given by Eq. (4.101); that is, E is always normal to the surface
at the conductor boundary.
36
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 Bài giảng: TRƯỜNG ĐIỆN TỪ (CT361)
(ELECTROMAGNETICS)

Chapter 5: Magnetostatics

(Từ tĩnh học)

Giảng viên: GVC.TS. Lương Vinh Quốc Danh

Bộ môn Điện tử Viễn thông, Khoa Công Nghệ
E-mail: lvqdanh@ctu.edu.vn

Luong Vinh Quoc Danh 1

Content

• Magnetic Forces and Torques

• The Biot-Savart Law
• Magnetic Forces Between Two Parallel Conductors
• Maxwell’s Magnetostatic Equations
• Ampere’s Law
• Magnetic Boundary Conditions

2
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 Magnetostatics

Maxwell’s Equations: If we take out the time

dependence ( )

3
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Comparison

4
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 Force and Torque
Magnetic force:
(5.3)

| Fm| = Fm = q.u.B.sinθ

Electromagnetic (Lorentz) force:

+ Fe in the direction of E; Fm perpendicular

to B.
+ Fe independent on u; Fm = 0 if u = 0.

5
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Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

Moving charges Current
Differential force dFm
on a differential current I dl:
(5.9)

Total force on a segment of

current:
Fm = I ∫ dl × B
l
For closed contour C in a
uniform B field:

(5.11)

6
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 Example 5-1: Force on a semicircular conductor
(a) Determine F1 on the straight B = yB0
section of the wire and (b) the
force F2 on the curved section. dl = rdφ

Application of Equ. (5.12) with l = x2r

gives:

The net force on the closed loop is ZERO: F1 = - F2

7
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Magnetic Torque on a Current-Carrying Loop

Torque (momen xoắn)

T = torque, d = moment arm, F = force

Right-hand rule:

8
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 Magnetic torque on current loop
Magnetic field in the plane of the loop:

B = xB0

9
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Magnetic torque on current loop (cont.)

No forces on arms 2 and 4 (I and B

are parallel, or anti-parallel)

Magnetic torque:

Area of loop
 Inclined Loop
For a loop with N turns and whose
surface normal is at angle θ relative to
B direction:
(5.18)

Magnetic Moment
(5.19)

11
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Biot-Savart Law
Magnetic field induced by
a differential current:

(5.21)

For the entire length:

12
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 Magnetic Field due to Current Densities

I dl Js ds J dV

13
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Example 5-2:
Magnetic Field of Linear Conductor

14
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 Example 5-2:

15
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Example 5-3
Magnetic Field of a Loop
Magnitude of field due to dl is

dH is in the r–z plane , and therefore it has

components dHr and dHz

z-components of the magnetic fields due to dl

and dl’ add because they are in the same
direction, but their r-components cancel

Hence for element dl:

16
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 Example 5-3 (cont.)

For the entire loop:

17
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Applications: Electromagnets
Applications: Electromagnets

Applications: Electromagnets
 Magnetic Dipole

Because a circular loop exhibits a magnetic field

pattern similar to the electric field of an electric dipole,
it is called a magnetic dipole

21
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Forces on Parallel Conductors

Parallel wires attract if their currents are in the same direction,

and repel if currents are in opposite directions.
22
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 Demos

Anti-parallel Linear Currents Parallel Linear Currents

Maxwell’s Magnetostatic Equations

Gauss’s Law for Magnetism

There is no magnetic charge (or

magnetic monopole) Magnetic
poles always occur in pairs.

24
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 Maxwell’s Magnetostatic Equations (cont.)

Ampere’s Law

(5.47)

26
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 Example 5-5: Internal Magnetic Field
For r < a

27
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Example 5-5 (cont.)

For r > a

28
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 Magnetic Field of Toroid
Applying Ampere’s law over contour C

Ampere’s law states that the line

integral of H around a closed
contour C is equal to the current
traversing the surface bounded by
the contour.

The magnetic field

outside the toroid is
zero. Why?
29
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh

Example 5-6 (cont.)

The net current flowing through the surface of the

contour is zero because an equal number of current coils
cross the surface in both direction. Hence, H = 0 in the
region exterior to the toroidal coil.
30
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 Boundary Conditions

31
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Applications: Magnetic recording

32
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 Bài giảng: TRƯỜNG ĐIỆN TỪ (CT361)
(ELECTROMAGNETICS)

Chapter 6: Maxwell’s Equations for Time-Varying Fields

Giảng viên: GVC.TS. Lương Vinh Quốc Danh

Bộ môn Điện tử Viễn thông, Khoa Công Nghệ
E-mail: lvqdanh@ctu.edu.vn

Luong Vinh Quoc Danh 1

Content

• Dynamic Fields
• Faraday’s Law
• Stationary Loop in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field
• The Ideal Transformer
• Moving Conductor in a Static Magnetic Field
• Moving Conductor in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field
• Displacement Current
• Boundary Conditions for Electromagnetics

2
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 Maxwell’s Equations

Faraday’s Law: Time varying magnetic field Electric field.

Ampère’s Law: Time varying Electric field Magnetic field.

3
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Faraday’s Law
- Michael Faraday conducted the
experiments in his Lab in London.
- Joseph Henry discovered the
matter at about the same time
(1831).

Electromotive force (voltage) induced

by time-varying magnetic flux:

4
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 Three types of EMF

5
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Stationary Loop in Time-Varying B Field

(6.8)

6
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 Example 6-1

7
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Example 6-1 (cont.)

8
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 9
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Ideal Transformer
 Moving Conductor in a Static B Field
Magnetic force on charge q moving
with velocity u in a magnetic field
B:
(6.22)

This magnetic force is equivalent to the

electrical force that would be exerted on
the particle by the electric field Em given
by

(6.23)

This, in turn, induces a voltage

difference between ends 1 and 2,
with end 2 being at the higher
potential. The induced voltage is
called a motional emf

11
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Moving Conductor in a Static B Field (cont.)

A: area
12
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 Example 6-3: Sliding Bar

Note that B = zB0 x, B increases

with x.

The length of the loop is related

to u by x0 = ut. Hence

13
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EMF in an Airliner
These questions are about the potential difference induced across the wings of
an aeroplane flying through the Earth’s magnetic field. An airliner is flying due
East from North America to Europe. The Earth’s magnetic field acts at 70° to the
horizontal, and has a strength of 1.7 x 10–4 (T).
The charge on an electron = – 1.6 x 10–19 C. The aircraft’s speed is 270 m/s. The
wing span of the aircraft is 60 m.
North

Earth’s
B-field 70°

– +

14
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 EMF in an Airliner (cont.)
The wings cut the flux lines of the Earth’s magnetic field, inducing an emf
between the wing tips. As the aircraft flies through the field, the north-
pointing tip of the wing becomes positively charged and the south-pointing tip
becomes negatively charged.

Vertical component of B field = (1.7 x 10–4 ) cos 20° = 1.6 x 10–4 (T).

emf = vLB
= 270 m s −1 × 60 m × (1 .6 × 10 − 4 T)
= 2 . 6 V.

15
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Static Charges on Airplane’s Wings

Aircraft have wire static

dischargers on their trailing
wing tips so that the electrical
charge that builds up in the
plane as it travels can be
safely and continuously
discharged into the air.
Without the dischargers, this
static charge could damage
sensitive computer
instruments onboard.

16
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 Example 6-5

17
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh

EM Generator EMF
As the loop rotates with an angular
velocity ω about its own axis, segment 1–2
moves with velocity u given by

(6.31)

Also: (6.32)

Segment 3-4 moves with velocity –u. Hence:

18
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 Applications: EMF Sensors

• Piezoelectric crystals generate a voltage across them proportional to

the compression or tensile (stretching) force applied across them.

• Piezoelectric transducers are used in medical ultrasound,

microphones, loudspeakers, accelerometers, etc.

• Piezoelectric crystals are bidirectional: pressure generates emf, and

conversely, emf generates pressure (through shape distortion).
19
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Displacement Current

This term is This term must

conduction represent a current
current IC
Application of Stokes’s theorem gives:

20
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 Displacement Current (cont.)

Define the displacement current as:

The displacement
current does not involve
real charges; it is an
equivalent current that
depends on δD/δδt

21
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Capacitor Circuit

Given: Wires are perfect

conductors and capacitor insulator
material is perfect dielectric. For Surface S2:
I2 = I2c + I2d
For Surface S1:
I2c = 0 (perfect dielectric)
I1 = I1c + I1d

(D = 0 in perfect conductor)

Conclusion: I1 = I2 22
Luong Vinh Quoc Danh
 23
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Boundary Conditions

24
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