2.

0 TRANSMISSION LINE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

A transmission line is a structure used to guide the flow of electromagnetic energy from
one point to another point. This line may be of any physical structure; that is, it may be made of
two parallel wires or two parallel plates or coaxial conductors, or it may be of hollow conductor
variety (waveguides). The general characteristics of electromagnetic wave propagation in these
lines are the same. The preference depends only on the frequency of wave propagation and the
use of which these lines are put to.

2.2 BASIC TRANSMISSION LINE EQUATION

In general, if we examine a transmission line, we will find four parameters, i.e series resistance
(R), series inductance (L), Shunt capacitance (c) and shunt conductance (G), distributed along
the whole length of the line. If R, L, C and G represent these primary constants per unit length
of the line, then the unit length of the line may be represented by an equivalent circuit of the type
shown in fig 2.1 naturally, a relatively long piece of line would contain several such identical
sections as shown in fig 2.2 below.

Fig 2.1 Equivalent circuit of a unit length of transmission line.

 Fig 2.2 along piece of line as a multiple sections of unit lengths.

The series impedance and shunt admittance per unit length of the line are given by:
z = R +jwL ------------------------------------2.1
Y = G + jwc ---------------------------------2.2
The expressions of voltage and current per unit length are, respectively;
dv = -(R+jwL) I -------------------2.3
dz

dv = -(G+ jwc) I -------------------2.4

dy

When negative sign indicates decrease in voltage and current as z increases. The current and
voltage are measured from the receiving end; i.e at receiving end, Z = O and line extends in
negative Z-direction.
Differentiating equation (2.3) and (2.4) and combining them give,

d2 v = 2
‫ ﻻ‬V -------------------2.5
dz²

d 2I = ‫ ﻻ‬-------------------2.6
2 I
2
dz
These are wave equations of voltage and current respectively propagating on the line; where

‫=ﻻ‬ ZY = (R + jwL) (G + jwc -------------------2.7

is called the propagation constant which is in general a complex quantity and so may be defined
as:

‫ =ﻻ‬+
2.8------------------------- 2
+ 2
= ‫ﻻ‬

, called the attenuation constant, is the real part of eqn, 2.8, and ; the phase constant is the
imaginary part. Thus, propagation constant ‫ ﻻ‬is a measure of the phase shift and attenuation per
unit length along the line. Separating ‫ ﻻ‬into real and imaginary parts, we have,

= (R2 + w2 L2) (G2 + w2 c2) + (RG + w2LC ½ -----------2.9

and = (R2 + w2 L2 )(G2 + w2 c2 ) - (RG + w2LC ) ½ -------------3.0

is measured in decibels or nepers per unit length of the transmission line (1neper = 8.686
decibels).
is the phase shift per unit length of transmission line and is measured in radians per unit length
of this line.
Now, = 2 /λ1 or λ1 =2 /β---------------------3.1

Where is the distance along the line corresponding to a phase change of

2 ——radians. The phase velocity V p = fλ1, where f is the signal frequency. The solutions of
voltage and current wave eqn 2.5 and 2.6 may be written as
+
V = V1 + V2 -------------------------3.2
 D+Z –Z
+ +
and I = I1 I1 --------------------3.3
+ -
These solutions are shown as the sum of two waves, the first term indicates the wave travelling
in positive z-direction, i.e incident wave, and the second term indicates the wave traveling in the
negative z – direction, i.e reflected wave.

CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE
A voltage (rf) applied across the conductors of an infinite line causes a current I to flow. By this
observation, the line looks like an impedance which is denoted by Zo and is known as
characteristic impedance Zo.
Zo = V1
I1

The expression for current I, using eqns 2.3 and 2.4, is given by

I = I V = - I
+
(- + V2 ----------3.4
(R + JWL) Z (R + JWL)
I =I, - I e+

For infinite line there are no reflections, that is V2 and I2 are zero. So we have

Where Ro and Xo are the real and imaginary parts of Z o. Ro should not be mistaken for R while
R is in ohms per meter; Ro is in ohms.

We can see that the finite transmission line terminated by its Zo fig 2.3 a has input impedance
also equal to Zo; that is, the finite line of characteristic impedance Zo has an input Zo when it is
terminated in Zo.
(1) A line terminated in its characteristic impedance will absorb all the power and there will
be no reflection and hence it behaves as an infinite line.

(2) One can obtain the expression for input impedance of line when it is terminated in an
impedance ZL as shown in fig 2.3b located at Zo as

Where,
Vs=Voltage at the sending end
Is=Current at the sending end
L =Length of the line
Zo=Characteristic impedance
VR=Voltage at the receiving end location at Zo
IR= Current at the receiving end

If the line is short-circuited (ZL = 0), we have short – circuited input impedance, Z se, given by
(VR =0).

Zse = Zo tanh ‫ﻻ‬Z -----------------------------------(3.8)

The open-circuited input impedance (ZL = ),

Zoc, Can be found by putting ZL = and (Zoc means Z Open Circuited)
IR = 0 in eqn ------------------------------------------------(3.7)

Zoc= Zo coth ‫ﻻ‬Z-------------------------------------(3.9)

The product of eqns (3.8) and (3.9) gives

Zo = Zoc x Zse --------------------------------(4.0)

COMMON TYPES OF TRANSMISSION LINES

(a) Parallel plates transmission line: This type of transmission line consists of two parallel
slab (or air) of uniform thickness. The plates port waves. If a finite width is used, this
may become impractical since leakage may occur from the sides of the parallel palate
guide, sometimes a thin conducting strip is placed in the centre of the dielectric slab, and
this then becomes stripline.

Stripline is of more practical use, since the electromagnetic energy may effectively be
trapped in a region surrounding the strip.

(b) Two-wire transmission line; this transmission wires separated by a uniform distance.
Examples are overhead power and telephone lines.

(c) Coaxial transmission line; this consists of a liners conductor and a coaxial outer sheath
separated by a dielectric medium. This structure has the magnetic fields entirely within a
homogeneous dielectric medium no stray fields are generated by a coaxial transmission
line, and very little external interference is coupled into the transmission lines. This is
often used a TV cables, and also a input cables to high-frequency precision measuring
instruments.
(d) Microstrip lines; Microstrip transmission line is a kind of high-grade printed circuit
construction, consisting of a track of copper or gold on an insulating substrate. There is a ground
plane on the other side of the insulating substrate, formed from similar conductor. Fields
propagate in both the dielectric and air, and therefore the fields are not purely in nature.
Howevers, for a high dielectric constant, and the fields are said to be quasi-TEM so that we may
use TEM approximations in characterizing the fields and waves on the microstrip-line. It is one
of the most popular planer transmission lines; because it can easily be manufactured by
photolithographic techniques and it easily integrated with other passive and active microwave
devices.
SHORT-CIRCUITED AND OPEN-CIRCUITED LINES
In our last discussions, the input impedance of a lossless transmission line of length was
determined in
the form.

Zin = Zo ZL+jzo tan L

Zo+jZL tan L -------------------------------4.1

Where Zo denotes the characteristic impedance, ZL is the load impedance, and is the phase
constant.
In this lecture, we specialize this result to several solutions to illustrate how the frequency-domain
voltage and current phasors are related on transmission lines. Since we are working with
frequency- domain parameters, it will be understood that the excitation and responses are
sinusoidal at the same frequency and that all the initial transients have died down.

SHORT-CIRCUITED LINE
First consider a short-circuited line of length L as in equation (4.1) can be specialized using Z L =
O to obtain

Zin = jZo tan ( L) ----------------------------------------4.2

We immediately make two observations. First, the lossless, short-circuited line has purely
imaginary input impedance. Equivalently, it is purely reactive. This is consistent with the
physical nature of a system that contains no energy-dissipating mechanism and therefore cannot
absorb energy.
The second observation is that because of the tangent function of eng, (4.2) the input reactance of
the line can assume any value from –as to + . Figure 2.9 shows a plot of the input reactance as
a function of its length L.
Fig 2.3 input reactance of a short-cir-cuited transmission line.
By adjusting the length of a short-circuited line, it can be made to assme any value of capacitance
or inductances (capacitor exhibit negative-value of reactance, while inductors have positive
reactance). This properly is useful at high frequencies, where traditional inductors and capacitors
have unreliable values due to parasitic reactance. Consequently, in high frequency circuits,
short-circuited transmission line can be used in place of these components. (such lines are
sometimes referred to as stubs).

From an inspection of fig. 2.9, we also observe that the short-circuited transmission line appears
to be an open-circuit. When its length is λ/4 where λ is the line wavelength,

λ = 2π ----------------------- (4.3)
β

The line also acts as an open circuit whenever its length is an odd multiple of λ/4. On the other
hand, whenever the line’s length is λ/4 or a multiple of λ/4 it appears to be a short circuit. The
explanation, for this behavior lies with the voltage and current waves on the line;
OPEN-CIRCUITED LINE
As a second special case consider a line terminated by an open circuit (Z L = ). A specialization
of equation (4.1) to an open circuit yields.

Zin = -jZo cot (βL) --------------------------------------------------------- (4.4)

In common with the short-circuited line, the open circuited line has a purely imaginary input
impedance, and can assume any value of reactance from - to + . Consequently, by adjusting
its length, it can also be made to manic any value of capacitance or inductance. We observe that
the open-circuited line appears to be a sort circuit whenever its length is an odd multiple of λ/4,
and it appears to be an open circuit whenever its length is a multiple of λ/2. Figure 3.0 shows a
plot of the input reactance as a function of its length L.

MATCHED LINE
As a third special case we consider a matched termination (Z L =Z0). In this condition, equation
(4.1) Simplifies to:

Zin = Z0 ------------------------------------------ (4.5)

Thus, a matched line always has input impedance equal to its characteristic impedance. This is
usually the desired situation, since it eliminates reflections from the load and ensures complete
power transfer to the load. In practice transmission lines are matched as closely as possible,
keeping in mind that in many situations y systems must be used over a range of frequencies and
it is generally not possible to realize a perfect matched over a range of frequencies.
QUARTER-WAVE LINE
In the previous discussion, we observed that something seems to happen when the lines are
multiple of λ/4 or λ/2 in length. To evaluate equation (4.1) for the case of a quarter-wave line,
we observe that if L = λ/4,

βL = 2π λ/4 = π/2 ----------------------- (4.6)

λ

Since tan π/2

in equation (4.1) reduce
Zin = (Z0)2 /ZL -------------------------------------------- (4.7)
As observed previously, a quarter-wave line converts a short-circuit load into an open circuit,
and vice versa. Equation (4.7) indicates that it also convert
s any real-valued load impedance (any resistance) into another real-valued impedance. This
property is sometimes useful for matching a load resistance RL to a line with characteristic
impedance Zo.

TRANSIENTS

The time-varying currents and voltages resulting from the sudden application of sources, usually
due to switching, are called transients.

An electric switch is turned on or off in some circuit (for example in a circuit consisting of
resistance and inductance), transient currents or voltages (quickly changing current or voltage)
will occur for a short period after these switching actions. After the transient has ended, the
current or voltage in question returns to its steady state situation (or normal steady value).
Duration of transient phenomena are over after only a few micro or millisecond or few seconds
or more depending on the values of circuit parameters (like R,L, and C). The situation relating to
the sudden application of dc voltage to circuits possessing resistance (R), inductance (L), and
capacitance will now be investigated. It is needless to mention that transients also occur in a.c
circuit but they are not included in this lesson.

STUDY OF D.C TRANSIENTS AND STEADY STATE RESPONSE OF A SERIES R-L

CIRCUIT

By considering fig.1 below which shows an ideal inductor, like an ideal voltage source, has no
resistance and is excited by a d.c voltage source vs.
Fig.1. An Ideal inductor connected to a constant voltage source.

The switch ‘S’ is closed at time‘t’=o and assumed that the initial current flowing through the
ideal inductor i(o) just before closing the switch is equal to zero.
To find the system response ( i(t)-Vs-t) one can apply KVL around the closed path.

as applied gives;

…………………………………………………… ( 1)

Or

…………………………………………………………….(2)

In integral form:

……………………………………………………….(3)

i(t) = t + i(o)

i(t) = note that i(o) = o ……………………………… (4)

Equation (4) implies that the current through inductor increases with increase in time and
theoretically it approaches to infinity as t as but in practice, this is not really the case.
REAL OR PRACTICAL INDUCTOR
Fig.2 shows a real or practical inductor has some resistance and it is exactly equal to the
resistance of the wire used to wind the coil

Here RL is very small .

Fig.2 Representation of a practical inductor
Let us consider a practical inductor connected in series with an external resistance R 1 and this
circuit is excited with a d.c voltage Vs as shown in fig. 3 below.
 R1 = external resistance
RL= resistance of coil
L = Inductance of coil.

Fig.3. A practical inductor connected to a constant voltage source Vs.

Figure 3 is redrawn as follows.

Fig.4. Equivalent representation circuit of fig3. Our problem is to study the growth of current
in the circuit through two stages, namely.
(i) d.c transient response (ii) steady(final) state response of the system.

DC TRANSIENTS
A capacitor is a two parrarel metal plate separated by dielectric or vacuum that stores electric
charges.

The behavior of the current (i(t) (q(t)) and the voltage (vt) in the circuit (like R-L, R-C, R-L-C
circuit) from the time (t(0+)) switch is closed until it reaches it final value is called transient
response of the concerned circuit. The response of a circuit (containing resistance, inductances,
capacitors and switches) due to sudden application of voltage or current is called transient
response. The most common instance of a transient response in a circuit occurs when a switch is
turned on or off-a rather common event in electric circuits.

GROWTH OR RISE OF CURRENT IN R-L CIRCUIT

Here, to find the current expression (response) for the circuit shown in fig. 3, we can write the
----- KVL equation around the circuit.
Vs – (R1+RL) i(t) – VL(t) = 0 …………………………………. (5)

Or Vs = Ri(t) +L ……………...………………………… (6)

Where, Vs is the applied voltage or forcing function, RL is the resistance of the coil, R1 is the
internal resistance. One can combine the resistance of coil RL to the external resistance of coil
RL to the external resistance R1 in order to obtain a simplified form of differential equation. The
circuit on figuration shown in fig. 3 is redrawn equivalently in fight for our convenience. The
equation (6) is the standard first order differential equation and its solution can be obtained by
classical method. The solution of first or second order differential equation is discussed in
mathematic class. The following relation gives the solution of equation (6) above.
i(t)=in(t)+if(t)=Ai +A ----------------------------------------- (7)
Here, in(t) is the complementary solution/natural solution of differential equation (6). It is also
sometimes called as transient response of system (i.e. the first part of response is due to an initial
condition of the system or force free response). The second part if(t) of egn (7) is the particular
integral solution/force response or steady state response of the system due to the forcing function
(f(t) =Vs) or input signal to the series R-L circuit. It may be noted the term A provide us the
steady state solution of the first order differential equation while the forcing function (or input to
the system) is step.

Function (or constant input). More specifically for a linear system, the steady state solution of
any aorder differential equation is the same nature of forcing function (f(t) ) or input signal but
different in magnitude. To get the complete solution equation (6) the values of , A1 and A are to
be computed following the steps given below:

Step1: How to find the value of by assigning Vs = 0 and introducing an operator = in

equation (6) we get a characteristic equation that will provide us the numerical value of . This
in turn, gives us the transient response, of the system provided the constant A1 is known to us:

The characteristic equation of (6) is

R+ L =O or
= - --------------------------------------------------------------------------------(8)

Step 2:

How to obtain the constants A1 and A It may be noted that the differential equation (6) must be
satisfied by the particular integral solution or steady state solution if(t): The value of if (t) at
steady state condition (i.e. ) can be found out using the equation (7) and it is given below:
Using final condition ( )

Vs=Rif(t)+
Note; at steady state ( ) if (t) = A

Vs = RA +

A= ………………………..……………………..…………………….(9)

Using initial condition (t=o)

Case A

Assume current flowing through the inductor

Just before closing the switch “S”
(at t = 0-) is i(0-) = 0
i(0) = i(0-) = i(0+) = A1 +A

0= A1+A A1 = -A = - ……………………………………………………………..(10)

and A in equation (7)

We get the current expression as

The table 1 below shows how the current i(t) builds up in a R-L circuit.
Table 1
Actual time (t) in sec Growth of current in
inductor egn, (11)
t=0 i(0) = 0
t = (=L/R) i ( )= 0.632x Vs/R
t=2 i(2 ) = 0.865x Vs/R
t=3 i(3 ) = 0.950 x Vs/R
t=4
t =5 i(4 ) = 0.982 x Vs/R
i(5 ) = 0.993 x Vs/R
Note: Theoretically at time t the current in inductor reaches its steady state value but in
practice the inductor current reaches 99.3% of its steady state value at time t = 5 .
This implies that the superposition theorem is also valid for such type of linear circuit. Fig. 7.
Shows the response of inductor current when the circuit is excited with a constant voltage source
Vs and the initial current through inductor is io

Fig. 7. Current through inductor due to (i) forcing function V only (ii) initial condition io only,
(iii) combined effect of (i) and (iii).

FALL OR DECAY OF CURRENT IN A RL-CIRCUIT

By considering fig. 8

Fig.8.R-L circuit in series.

In this circuit the switch ‘S’ is closed for sufficiently long duration in position ‘I’.This means
that the current through the inductor reaching its teady–statevalue (

and it acts as a

Short circuit i.e. the voltage across the inductor is nearly equal to zero since resistance R L<<R1.
If the switch ‘S’ is opened at ‘t’ = 0 and kept in position ‘2’ for t 0 as shown in fig.9. this
situation is referred to as a source free circuit.

Fig.9. Decay of current in R-L circuit since the current through an inductor cannot change
instantaneously, the current through the inductor just before (i.(0 -)) and after (i(0+)) opening the
swt ‘s’ must be same. Because there no source to sustain the current flowing in inductor, the
magnetic field in inductor starts to collapse and this, in turn, will induce a voltage drop across the
inductor. The polarity of this induced voltage across the inductor is just in reverse direction
compared to the situation that occurred during the growth of current in inductor ( i.e when the
switch ‘s’ is kept in position ‘I’ ). This illustrated in fig.9 above, where the voltage induced in
inductor is positive at the bottom of the inductor terminal and negative at the top. This implies
that the current through inductor will still flow in the same direction, but with a magnitude
decaying towards zero. Applying KVL around the closed circuit in fig. 9, we obtain.
Solution

From the given fig.10, one can easily see that the steady state current flowing through the cct. Is
i0A and the time constant of the circuit = 0.3sec. The following relationships can be written
as:

i steady state = 10 =

therefore R =5 and =

therefore L = 1.5H

STUDY OF DC TRANSIENTS AND STEADY STATE RESPONSE OF A SERIES R-C

CIRCUIT

IDEAL AND REAL CAPACITORS: An ideal capacitor has an infinite dielectric resistance
and plates (made of metals that have zero resistance. How ever, an ideal capacitor does not exist
as all dielectrics have some leakage current and all capacitor plates have some resistance. A
capacitor’s leakage resistance is a measure of how much charge (current) it will allow to leak
through the dielectric medium. Ideally, a charged capacitor is not supposed to allow leaking any
current through the dielectric medium and also assumed not to dissipate any power loss in
capacitor plate’s resistance. Under this situation, the model as shown in fig. 12. Represents the
ideal capacitor. However, all real or practical capacitor leaks current to some extend due to
leakage resistance of dielectric medium. This leakage resistance can be visualized as a resistance
connected in parallel with the capacitor and power loss in capacitor plates can be realized with
resistance connected in series with capacitor. The model of a real capacitor is shown in fig. 13.
Fig.11, symbolic representation of an ideal capacitor.

In present discussion, an ideal capacitor is considered to study the behavior of d.c transients in
R-C Circuit.

Fig.12 symbolic representation of a real capacitor

CHARGING OF A CAPACITOR OR GROWTH OF A CAPACITOR VOLTAG IN DC

CIRCUITS

Let us consider a simple series R-C circuit shown in fig. 14 is connected through a switch ‘s’ to a
constant voltage source Vs.

Fig. 13 charging of a RC circuit

The KVL equation around the loop can be written as:

Vs = Ri(t) + Vc (t)

--------------------------------(19)
The solution of the above first – order differential equation (19) due to forcing function Vs is given by

Vc(t) = Vcn(t) (natural response / transient response + Vcf (t) . (steady – state response)

= A1 +A ----------------------------------------------(20)

The constants A1, and A are also computed using initial and boundary conditions. The value of
is obtained from the characteristic equation given by:

Rc +1=0

=_
Equation (20) is then rewritten as
Vc(t) = A1 t+ A -------------------------------(21)

At steady state, the voltage across the capacitor is Vc ( ) = Vef = A ,which satisfy the original
diffential equation (19) i.e

Vs = Rc

= Rc + A

:. A = Vs

Using the initial condition (at t = 0) in equation, (21), we get.

Vc(0)=Vo=A1 +A A1 = Vo – A = Vo – Vs

The values of A1 A equation (21) together will give us the final expression for capacitor voltage
as:

Vc(t)=(Vo–Vs)
OR

Vc(t) = (Vo-Vs)

OR

Vc(t) = Vs[1- ]+Vo

OR
Thus,

------------------------- (22)

Response of capacitor voltage with time is shown in fig.15

Special cases

Assume initial voltage across the capacitor at time ‘t’ = 0 is zero i.e. Vc(0) = V0 = 0.
The voltage expression for capacitor at any instant of time can be written from egn, (22) with
Vc(0) = vo = 0

Voltage across the capacitance is

Vc(t) = Vs ------------------------------- (23)

And Charging current through the capacitor is

i(t) = VR = Vs ------------------------ ------------------------(24)

R R

Charge accumulated on either plate of capacitor at any instant of time is given by:

q(t) = (vc(t)

= CVs =Q ------------------------(25)

Where Q is the final charge accumulated in the capacitor at steady state (i.e, t ). Once the other
quantities (like V(t), i(t) and q(t) can easity be computed using the above expression of equation
(25) fig. 15. Shows growth of capacitor voltage Vc(t) for different choices of circuit parameters
(assumed that the capacitor is initially not charged). A sketch for q(t) and i(t) is shown in fig. 10

Fig 15. Grow of capacitor voltage (assumed initial capacitor voltage is zero)
Fig.16

DISCHARGING OF A CAPACITOR OR FALL OF A CAPACITOR VOLTAGE IN Rc

DC CIRCUITS

Fig. 17. Discharging of an Rc circuit, from fig.17, which shows that the switch‘s’ is closed at
position ‘1’ for sufficiently long time and the circuit has reached in steady – state condition.
At‘t’ = 0 the switch‘s’ is opened and kept in position ‘2’ and remains there. Our job is to find the
expression for
(i) Voltage across the capacitor (Vc)

(ii) Voltage across the resistance (VR)

(iii) Current ((it) through the capacitor (discharging current)

(iv) Discharge of charge (q(t) through the circuits)

For t co, the switch “s” in position l. The capacitor acts like an open circuit to dc, but the voltage
across the capacitor is same as the supply voltage vs. Since, the capacitor voltage cannot charge
instantaneously, this implies that,
 Vc (0-) = Vc (0+) = Vs, when the switch is closed in position ‘2’, the current i(t) will flow
through the circuit until capacitor is completely discharge through the resistance R. In other
words, the discharging cycle will start at t=0. Now applying Kvl around the loop we get.

Rc dvc(t) + Vc (t) = 0 --------------------------(26)

dt

The solution of input free differential equation in the of (26) is given by:
Vc(t)=A1e t
--------------------------(27)

Where the value of & is obtained from the of characteristic equation and it is equal to capacitor
= The constant A, is obtained u – circuit since the initial condition of the ect in sin
equation (27). Note, at t = o (when the switch and i(t) is just closed in position 2) the voltage
across the capacitor Vc(t) = Vs using this condition in equation, (27), we get.

Vc(t) = Vs =A1 A1 = Vs
Rc t

Now the following expressions are written as

- Voltage across the capacitance Vc(t) = Vs --------------(28)

- Voltage across the resistance VR(t) = - Vc(t) = - Vs ----------------(29)

- Charging current through the capacitor is:

- i(t) = = ---------------------------(30)

An inspection of the above exponential terms of equations from (28) to (30) reveals that the time
constant of Rc circuit is given by capacitor γ Rc (see). This means that at time t = γ , the
capacitor’s voltage Vc drops to 36.8% of its initial value (see fig.18). for all practical purpose,
the dc transient is considered to end apacitor after a time spall of 5γ. At such time steady state
condition is said to be reached. Plots of acting above equations as a function of time are depicted
in fig. 18 and 19 respectively.
Fig.18: Discharge of capacitor voltage with time in R-C circuit.

ENERGY STORED IN A CAPACITOR

The ideal capacitor does not dissipate any of the energy supplied by the source. It stores energy
in the form of an electric field between the conducting plates.
Let us consider voltage source Vs is connected to a series R-C circuit and it is assumed that the
capacitor is initially uncharged. The capacitor voltage Vc(t) and current ic(t) wave forms during
the charging period are shown in fig 20; see equation.
t
]and

and instantaneous
Power Pc(t) = Vc(t) x i(t) supplied to the capacitor is also shown in same figure
Let us consider the instantaneous power supplied to the capacitor is given

Pc(t) = Vc(t) x i(t) --------------------- (31)

Now, the energy supplied to the capacitor in dt second is given by:

-------------------- (32)

Total energy supplied to the capacitor in t see is expressed as:

CV2 J ---------------------(33)

(Note initial voltage across capacitor as zero and q(t) is the charge accumulated on each plate at a
time t). When the capacitor is fully charged, its thermal voltage is equal to the source voltage Vs.
the amount of energy store in capacitor in the form of electr ic field is given by

CV2 2 (Joules) -----------------(34)

Where Q is the final charge accumulated on each plate of the capacitor at steady state
, when the capacitor is fully charged.
Example 3
In the fig. below the switch ‘s’ is kept open for a long time and then it is closed at time ‘t’ = 0’.

Find (i) Vc (0-) (ii) Vc (0+) (iii) ic (0-) (iv) ic (0+)

│t= , (vi) find the time constants of the circuit before and after the switch s closed

Solution
As we know the voltage across the capacitor Vc(t) cannot change instantaneously due to the principle of
conservation of chanrge. Therefore, the voltage across the capacitor just

before the switch is closed Vc (0-) = voltage across the capacitor just after the switch is closed V c
(o+) = 40V (note the terminal ‘a’ is positively charged.) it may be noted that the capacitor
current before the switch ‘S’ is closed is ic (0 -) = 0A. On the other hand, at t = 0, the current
through 100l resistor is zero but the current though capacitor can be computed as

ic(0+) = Vc(0) = 40 = 6.66A.

6 6

(Note, voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously at instant of switching).The
rate of change of capacitor. Voltage at time‘t’ = 0’ is expressed as.

C dvc(t)│t=0+ = ic (o) => dvc (0+) = i(0+)

dt dt C
= 6.66 = 1.665 volt/sec.
4

Time constant of the circuit before the switch was closed = = RC = 10x4 = 40 sec. time
constant of the circuit after the switch is closed is = Rm C = 10x6 x 4 = 15 sec.
10+6
(Replace the parts of the circuit than contains only independent courses and resistive elements
by an equivalent Thevenin’s voltage source. In this case, we need only to find the thervenin
resistance Rth).

Note: then the switch is kept in closed position initially the capacitor will be in discharge state
and subsequently its voltage will decrease with the increase in time. Finally, at steady state, the
capacitor is charges with a voltage Vc (t-> ) = 40 x 6 = 15V
10+6

(Theoretically, time required to reach the capacitor voltage at steady value is 5 = 5x15 = 75
sec).

R-L-C D.C TRANSENTS ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION:

In the preceding lesson, our discussion focused extensively on d-c circuits having resistances
with either inductor (L) or capacitor (c) (i.e single storage element) but not both. Dynamic
response of such first order system has been studied and discussed in details. The presence of
resistance inductance and capacitance in the d-c circuit introduces at least a second order
differential equation or by two simultaneous coupled linear first order differential equations. We
shall see in next section that the complexity of analysis of second order circuits increases
significantly when compared with that encountered with first order circuits. Initial conditions for
the circuit variables and their derivatives play an important role and this is very crucial to
analyze a second order dynamic system.

RESPONSE OF A SERIES R-L-C CIRCUIT DUE TO A DC VOLTAGE SOURCE

Consider a series R-L-C circuit as shown in fig 22. And it is excites with a dc voltage source Vs.
applying KVL around the closed path for

Fig. 22 A simple R-L-C circuit excited by a dc voltage source.

By KVL around the loop,

L di(t) + Ri + Vc (t) = Vs -------------------------- (35)

dt
The current through the capacitor can be written as:
i (t) = C dvc (t) substituting the current
i (t)’ expression in egn, (35) and rearranging the terms

LC d2Vc(t) + RC dVc(t) + Vc(t) = V5 ----------------------(36)

2
dt dt
The above equation is a 2 nd order liner differential equation and the parameters associated with
the differential equation are constant with time. The complete solution of the above differential
equation has two components; the transient response Vcn (t) and the steady state response Vcf
(t). Mathematically, one can write the complete solution as

------------------------------- (37)

Since the system is linear, the nature of steady state response is same as that of forcing function
(input voltage) and it is given by a constant value A. Now, the first part Vcn(t) of the total
response is completely dies out with time while R>o and it is defined as a transient or natural
response of second order differential equation can be obtained from the homogeneous equation
(i.e. from force system) that is expressed by

LC dv2(t) + RC dvc (t) + Vc (t) = 0 ----------------------------------- (38)

dt2 dt

d2vc(t) + R dvc (t) + 1 vc (t) = 0 ---------------------------------- (39)

 dt2 dt Lc

d2vc(t) + b dvc (t) + CVc(t) = 0 ---------------------------------- (40)

dt2 dt

Where a = 1, b = R/L and C = 1

LC

The characteristic equation of the above homogeneous differential equation (Using the operator)
2
= d/dt, d2/dt2 and Vc(t) ≠ 0 is given by
2
+ R/L +1=0
LC
2
a +b +C = 0 -------------------------- (41)

a = 1 b = R/L and C = 1
LC
Where solving the roots of this equation – (41) one can find the constants , and 2 of the
exponential terms that associated with transient part of the complete solution (egn, (37) and they
are given as:

] ……………………………………… (42)

] ……………………………………….. (43)

] ……………………………………… (44)

] ……………………………………….. (45)

Where, b=R/L and C = I

LC

The roots of the characteristic equation (41) are classified in three groups depending upon the
values of the parameters R, L, and C of the circuit.

CASE A (Over damped response): when

2
 R - 1 > 0, this implies that the roots are distinct with negative real
2L LC

Under this situation, the natural or transient parts of the complete solution is written as

------------------------------------ (46)
and each term of the above expression decays
exponentially and ultimately reduces to Zero as t and system. A system that is over
damped response of input free slowly to any change in excitation. It may be noted that the
dt 2t
exponential term A,e takes longer time to decay its value to zero than the term A,e . one
can introduce a factor === that provides an information about the speed of system response and
it is defined by damping ration

(ξ) = Actual damping

Critical damping

= ------------------------------------ (47)

CASE B (Critically damped response) : when R – 1 = 0, this implies that the roots of
equation, 2L Lc
(41) are same with negative real parts. In under this situation, the form of the natural on or
transient part of the complete solution is written as:

Ven(t) = (A1t+A2)ℓαt where =-R ---------------------------- (48)

2L
Where the natural or transient response is a sum of two terms: a negative exponential and negative
exponential multiplied by a linear term. The expression (48) that arises from the natural solution of
second order differential equation having the roots of characteristic equation are same value can be
verified following the procedure given below.
The roots of this characteristic equation (41) are same = when

2
R
2L - 1/LC = 0 and it implies that;

2
R/2L = 1/LC and the corresponding homogenous equation (40) can be rewritten as:
OR

OR

OR

wher f =

, using the value of f in the expression f = we can get,

= =

= , integrating the above equation in both sides yields

Ven(t) = (A1t+A2)ℓαt
Infact,thetermA2 exponentially with the time and tends to zero as t

t . on the other hand, the value of the term A1t in equation (48)

first increases from its zero value to a maximum value A1 at a time t= = - (- =

and then decays with time, finally reaches to zero. One can easily verify above statements of a
single valued function. The second order system results the speediest response possible without
any overshoot while the roots of characteristic equation (41) of system having the same negative
real parts. The response of such a second order system is defined as a critically damped system’s
response In this case damping ration:
(ξ) = Actual damping = --------------------------- (49)

Critical damping
2

CASE C (under damped response): When - this implies that the roots of

Equation (41) are complex conjugates and they are expressed as:

= ß + jγ ;
2

= . The farm of the natural or transient part of the complete solution is written as.

Vcn (t) = A1 + A2

= A1 + A2

where , ,
for real system, the response Vcn (t) must also be real. This is possible only if A 1 and A2
conjugate. The equation (50) further can be simplified in the following form:

e --------------------------------(57)
Where, real part of the root, complex part of the root,

K= and .

Truly speaking the value of can be calculated using the initial conditions of the
circuit. The system response exhibits oseillation around the steady state value when the roots of
characteristic equation are complex and results an under damped system’s response. This
oscillation will die down with time if the roots are with negative real parts. In this ease the
damping ration.
(C) = Actual damping = b =
Critical damping
Finally, the response of a second order system when excited with a dc voltage source is
presented in fig. 23. For different cases, i.e
(i) Under damped

(ii) Over- damped

(iii) Critically damped system response.

Fig. 23. System response for eries R-L-C cct

(a) Under damped

(b) Critically damped
(c) Over damped system
Example
The switch S1 was closed for a long time as shown in fig.24. Simultaneously at t= 0, the switch
S1 is opened and S2 is closed . Find i (b) Vc (0+), (c) iR (o+), (d) V

(f) (o+)
Fig.24

Solution
When the switch S1 is kept in position ‘1’ for a sufficiently long time, the circuit reaches to its
steady state condition. At time t= o’ the capacitor is completely charged and it acts as an open
circuit. On other hand, the inductor acts as a short circuit under steady state condition, the
current in inductor can found as:

i x 6 = 2A

Using the KCL, one can find the current through the resistor i R (0-) = 6-2 =4A and subs
equity the voltage across the capacitor Vc(0-) = 4 x 50 = 200volts. Note at t = 0+ not only
the current source is removed but 100 resistor is shorten or removed as well. The
continuity properties of inductor and capacitor do not permit the current through an inductor
or the voltage across the capacitor to change instantaneously.
Therefore, at t = 0+ the current in inductor voltage across the capacitor, and the valve of
other variables at t = 0+ can be computed as:

i (0+) = i (0-) = ZA, Vc (0+) = Vc(0-) = 200V.Since the voltage across the capacitor at t
= 0+ is 200 volts, the same voltage will appear across the inductor and the 50 resistor=

= 4A. Applying KCL at the bottom terminal of the capacitor we obtain ic (0+) = - 4+2)
=-6A and subsequently,

= = = 600Volt/sec.

Example 5
The switch ‘SI’ in the circuit of fig 25. Was closed in position ‘I’ sufficiently long time and the kept in
position ‘2’ find:
(1) Vc (ii) ic(t) for t if C is (a) f (b) f (c) f

Fig. 25
Solution
When the switch was in position ‘I’, the steady state current in inductor is given by
Ic (σ) = = 10A.
Vc (σ) = ic (σ)R = 10x2 = 0volt.

Using the continuity property of inductor and capacitor we get

iL (O+) = iL (O+) = 10,Vc (O+) = Vc (O+)= 20 volt
the switch ‘S’ is kept in position ‘2’ and corresponding cct diagram is shown in fig 26.

Fig.26

Applying KCL at the top junction point we get,

+ ic (t) + iL (t) = o

+C + iL (t) = 0

= CL + iL (t) = )

Note: Vc (t) = L

Or + + iL(t) = ) --------------- (52)

The roots of characteristics equation of the above homogeneous equation can obtained for C + F

=-

1.5
 2= -

= - 9/2 - = - 3.0

Case1 ( 0.707,over damped system)

C=

The transient or natural solution of the homogenous equation is given by:

To determined , and the following initial conditions are used.

----- ---------(54)

-------------- (55)

) ) ) │t=

20 2[ A1 × ( )]

2[-1.5A1 -3A2]
= -3A1- 6A2 -------------- (56)

Solving Equation (55) and (56) we get,

A2 = - 16.66, A, = 26.66

The natural response of the circuit is

16.66x(-3.0

L e-1.5t) – 16.66x(-3.0e-3t)]

t)=[100e-3t-80e-1.5t]
 (t) C (-300 e-3t + 120e-1.5t)

= (13.33e-1.5t – 3.33e-3t)

Case2 ( 0.707,under damped system): for

C F, the root of the characteristic equation are:

1.0 + j1.0 +j

1.0 - j1.0 -j

The natural response becomes 1.

iL(t)=Ke tSin( t+ ) ………………..(57)

where K and Q are the constants to be evaluated from initial condition.

At, t = 0+, from the expression (57) we get,

10 = ……………………..(58)

t t
L │t= =2 k[ e +e ]
Using equation (58) and the values of and in equation (59) we get,
20 2K[ + = , ( note; = -1 = 1
And = 10 ………………….. (60)

From equation (58) and (60) we obtained the values of and K as:
tan = ½
= tan-1 (1/2) = 26.56o and K = = 22. 560
The natural of transient solution is
iL(t) = 22.36e-t sin(t + 26.56)

t
L = Vc (t) 2 k [ + ] e
= 44.72[ 0
)- 0
)e-t
 (

= 22.36

CASE3
critically damped system); for c = ; the roots of characteristic equation are

- 2, 2 respectivly. The natural solution is given by

iL(t)=(A1t+A2) ………………………(61)

where constants are computed using initial conditions.

At t=0+ ; from equation(61) one can write iL (o+) = A2, A2 = 10

L │t= =2[A2 + A1t + A1 ]t=o+

= 2 [ (A1 + A2 ) + A1t ]t=o+

L │t= = Vc (o+) = 20 = 20( A1 – 2A2)

A1 = 30
The natural response is then

iL(t)=(10+30t)

L = [(10 + 30t)

L = Vc(t) 2 [10 -60t]

iL(t) = C = *2 * [( 10 -60t ) ]

= [-20 + 30 ]

CASE4

Following the procedure given in case 1, one can obtain the expressions for (i) current in inductor
L = Vc(t) = [ 44.8 - 24.8 ]

=C [

= 0.837 - 20.902