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Topographic Surveying and Mapping

Topographic survey is type of survey conducted to determine the configuration of the ground. It
is a method of determining the three-dimensional positions, on the surface of the earth, of the
manmade and natural features. The purpose of a topographic survey is to find the necessary data
for the graphical portrayal (plotting) of topographic features (i.e., hills, valleys, building and
roads) and contour lines. The topographic features and contour lines, plotted in a certain scale, on
topographic map. This map shows the horizontal distances between the features and their
elevations above a given datum. The topographic maps are used for the planning of a building
complex, an industrial plant, a railway or a highway project as well as for irrigation projects.
Bridges, tunnels and dams are also planned and designed after the preparation of a topographic
map. The user of the map should be able to interpret the map as a model of the ground.
Topographic surveying and the preparation of topo map is always necessary before the
engineering and architectural design of any project. Topographic surveying and the preparation
of a topographic map of the terrain is therefore generally the first step in the planning and
designing of a major civil engineering project.

Definition of terms

Topography: The shape, configuration, relief, roughness, or three-dimensional characteristics

of the earth's surface.

Topographic Maps: Show topography together with natural and artificial features such as
streams, lakes, buildings, highways, etc.

Topographic Surveys: Surveys made to determine the configuration of the earth’s surface and
to locate natural and cultural features on it.

Two types of topographic survey:

Area surveys
 Area survey has appreciable width as well as length
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Route surveys
 Route surveys provide strip maps for the location of railroads, highways, pipelines,
transmission lines, canals, etc. in this chapter area survey discussed and route survey will be
discussed in the next chapter.

Topographic Maps

A topographic map is a detailed and accurate two-dimensional representation of natural and

human-made features on the Earth's surface. These maps are used for:

 hunting,
 fishing,
 hiking to urban planning,
 Analyzing change detection
 resource management, and
 Surveying

The most distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is that the three dimensional shape of
the Earth's surface is modeled by the use of contour lines.
Uses of Topographic Maps
Topographic maps are used by a variety of professions from engineers, architects, foresters,
geologists, etc. the most common use of topographic maps is in the planning stages of projects to
help design the layout and location of buildings, roads, dams, pipelines, landscapes, fire control
routes, trails, etc.in general for planning and design of most engineering project.
General Methods for Topographic Maps
Generally two methods are applied to gather the necessary data for the subsequent preparation of
a topographic map: photogrammetric and terrestrial method: photogrammetric method also can
divide into two: aerial that by aerial photography and also from satellite image.territrail method
also by stadia or plane table.
Aerial (photogrammetric): Using aerial photographs to determine distances, elevations, areas,
etc. for topographic mapping.
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Transit-Stadia: Distance, elevation, and location measurements are taken in the field, recorded
in the field book, and then plotted on paper in the office.
Plane Table: Similar to transit-stadia method except that the data is plotted in the field on paper
attached to a drawing board mounted on a tripod (plane table

1. Terrestrial method/ ground method

The collection of the data is done by means of total station or theodolite (stadia tachometer), as
well as with levels, tapes and plane table. This method is economic and suitable for relative small
areas.

2. Photogrammetric method

Aerial photographs are used to gather the necessary ground data. It is an economic method for
larger areas and projects and it overcomes the sometimes difficult access to the area to be
mapped. The accuracy of photogrammetry mainly depends upon the scale of the aerial
photographs. The terrestrial (ground) work is only limited to establishing horizontal and vertical
ground control point (e.g. through traversing and leveling) that must be clearly defined and well-
distributed over the target area and a final terrestrial field check. The aerial photographs are
measured stereoscopically (three- dimensionally) by means of a special instrument called stereo
plotter. With the help of such stereo plotters the contour lines and positions of all topographic
features can be determined.

3. Scale of the map

The scale of a map should be selected according to the purpose of the map. For the first planning
stage of a civil engineering project (e.g. a big bridge) a small-scale map might be adequate, but
for detailed planning (e.g. for the wing wall of the bridge), large-scale maps would be required.
The scale is usually selected before commencing the fieldwork. The applied field method should
be selected according to the scale to which the map would be drawn. An experienced draftsman
usually has a plotting accuracy of about 0.2-0.3 mm, using a plotting needle and a magnifying
glass. If the map will be prepared by means of CAD (Computer Aided Design) and subsequently
plotted on a drum plotter or on a flatbed plotter a plotting accuracy of 0.1 mm can be achieved.
However, a dimensionally stable drawing medium (e.g. polyester film or foil) must be used.
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If the scale is (say) 1:500, distances in the field should be measured to the nearest 0.10-.15m,
according to the above-mentioned manual plotting accuracy of 0.2-0.3mm. A scale of 1:2000
therefore requires distance accuracy in the field of 0.4-0.6m (just calculate: 0.2 mm x 2000 = 0.4
m). Thus the field methods for large scale maps need to be more precise.

Topographic Map Symbols

Topographic maps use symbols to represent natural and human constructed features found in the
environment. The symbols used to represent features can be of three types: points, lines, and
polygons. Points are used to depict features like bridges and buildings. Lines are used to
graphically illustrate features that are linear. Some common linear features include roads,
railways, and rivers. However, we also need to include representations of area, in the case of
forested land or cleared land; this is done through the use of color. The symbol of the feature
depends on scale and purpose of map.
CONTROLS Station in Topographic Map
Topographic surveys require good controls.
Types of controls
 Horizontal
 Vertical
 The controls are used for the basis of the topographic survey measurements.
 An error in the control will be reflected in errors in the position and/or elevation of the
topography.
HORIZONTAL CONTROL
Is provided by two or more points on the ground and precisely fixed in position by distance and
direction.
 Is the basis for map scale and locating topographic features. For small areas, horizontal
control for topographic work is usually established by a traverse, but sometimes a single
straight line may be used.
VERTICAL CONTROL
 Is provided by bench marks in or near the tract to be surveyed.
 Is the foundation for correctly portraying relief and elevation on a map. Vertical controls are
usually established by lines of levels starting and closing on Bench marks.
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 A surface of a body of water is a continuous bench mark and may sometimes be used as a
vertical control.
LOCATING DETAILS IN THE FIELD
The most common methods used to locate a point in the field are:
One angle and the adjacent distance
Two distances
Two angles
General procedure in topographic surveying
The stadia method is the most used for preparation of topographic map.
Stadia method of preparing Topographic map
Stadia tachometry
It is procedure of measuring angles (Horizontal and Vertical) and cross hairs to determine
horizontal distance between points and reduced level of points.

General procedures of preparing Topographic map using Stadia method:

 Reconnaissance survey
 Establishing control station
 Preparing grid of map
 Traverse Plotting
 Stadia tachometric surveying
 Relief representation
 Map compilation
 Map Layout
The general steps are as follows:
1. Reconnaissance Survey

 the first inspection of the target area in terms of existing features, control points, possible
sites for new observation stations, as well as the permanent marking of those stations,
detection of possible obstacles and possible solutions to overcome them etc. an examination
of all or part of an area accomplished in sufficient detail to make generalizations about the
types and distributions of features.
 In reconnaissance survey the major activities done are:
 Site observation
 Roughly sketch features
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 Roughly sketch control station

 Estimate duration of time
 Having sketch map and mental map
2. Horizontal distance measurement

At this stage a reconnaissance of the area to be mapped is absolutely essential and should
therefore be carried out thoroughly. The term reconnaissance means the first inspection of the
target area in terms of existing control points, possible sites for new observation stations, as well
as the permanent marking of those stations, detection of possible obstacles and possible solutions
to overcome them. After first Inspection, one has got some idea about the terrain and the features
of the ground. It is also necessary to estimate the duration of the whole fieldwork the establishing
of horizontal and vertical control points is the most essential part and is the first step in the field
work process of topographic surveying, since the three-dimensional coordinates (X, Y, Z) of
Each point to be surveyed can only be determined with respect to well established reference
points. Most commonly traversing with EDM (Electronically Distance Metre) and/or satellite
technology (GPS) is applied for establishing reference points. With a level, the elevations of the
traverse stations are determined. It is very important to close the level circuit in order to check
the leveling work! Latest in the office the measured data have to be checked for mistakes and the

Coordinates are calculated. The traverses can be measured by means of a theodolite (the angular
measurements will be carried out in two faces and two sets!) and steel tape (at least one forward
and one backward measurement is Carried out for each traverse side!).

The allowable difference Dt between two independent measurements of the Same distance,
carried out by means of the same instrument is determined as follows:
Dt = 0.004* √𝑑 + 0.01 m, with d = lengths of traverse side in m.
Example: A traverse side has been measured with a tape two times independently. The forward
measurement was 171.73 m and the backward measurement amounted to 171.77 m. The
allowable difference Dt is determined as follows:
Dt = 0.004* √171.77 + 0.01 m
Dt = 0.06 m; the actual difference is 171.77 m-171.73 m = 0.04 m and is Smaller than 0.06, so
the difference is allowable.
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Preparation of grid of map

In Preparation of base map:
Arrange the paper shape in portrait or landscape
Determine map area and marginal area
Drawing cardinal direction
Determine scale
Grids drawing and labeling

3. Preparation of a field book

Where all measured features, such as roads, buildings, trees, ditches, fences, manholes, spot
heights etc. are entered In the case of stadia tachometry all relevant readings, such as horizontal
Angles, vertical angles, the three stadia readings, and the instrument height are booked in a
special form. The distances and elevations are calculated in the office and subsequently the
three-dimensional coordinates (X, Y, Z) of each surveyed point can be determined if necessary.
Prominent points, such as summits and depressions, are called spot heights and have to be taken,
since they form an important part of the topography of the terrain to be surveyed. In addition, the
characteristic valley lines and ridge lines, as well as the lines of steepest slopes have to be
surveyed. Terrain break lines are lines where the change of slope is very abrupt. The Outlines
(borders) of a quarry site are for example typical terrain break lines. However, most commonly,
terrain break lines exist along manmade features, such as the cuttings and embankments along
roads or ditches. Break lines have to be determined in the field and are entered in the field book!
Usually, contour lines on maps do not go through break lines, but are left blank. An example of
how to represent spot height, valley and break line represents in field are in figure below.
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To know the lines of steepest slopes from the field book facilitates the office work, because

contour lines are always interpolated along the direction of steepest slope (refer also to chapter

The precision of contour lines depends to a large extent upon the right distribution of the

surveyed points, as well as upon the appropriate number of points. The selection of the points to

be surveyed is the most difficult task in topographic survey and should therefore be done by the

most experienced party member! If not enough points are taken to represent the terrain properly

the contours cannot be interpolated correctly.

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The determination of the location of a point by measuring the angle and the distance to that point

is also called “radial positioning”. The principle is very easy and is illustrated in figure below.

The illustration below shows an application of the radial positioning

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The benchmarks BM 101 and BM 102 are surveying stations with known three-dimensional

coordinates (Easting, Northing and Elevation). The instrument is set up over (say) BM 101 and a

reference direction is measured to another visible benchmark BM 102. The reference target is

occupied with a ranging pole standing in a vertical position exactly over the point. To save

manpower the ranging pole can be supported by a ranging pole tripod. For setting up the ranging

pole vertically a rod level or a plumb bob can be used. In case of stadia tachometry the following

data are measured and booked:

Point number of point to be surveyed

Three staff reading(upper, middle, lower )

Instrument height (can be determined with a tape)

Horizontal angle

Vertical angle (most commonly the zenith angle)

Field book for Stadia method of topographic surveying

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H: is the elevation of new point

4. Plotting the map

Plotting refers to the transfer of survey data to the map. Before starting the plotting the required

size of the map sheet can easily be determined by examining the extreme station coordinates.

Plotting map in topographic survey involves plotting all stadia feature with required scale.

a) Plotting of the topographic features

The plotting of all topographic features, including spot heights, can be done most easily with the

use of a protractor and an engineer scale. The center of the protractor is held with a hand exactly

over the observation station. Then, either the zero degree mark or the known azimuth is lined up

with the respective traverse side in order to orient the protractor properly. The desired angle or

azimuth of the points is then taken from the field notes and noted along the edge of the

protractor, and fine points are marked at these positions (to avoid mixing up of points, the point

numbers are written next to the points). With a scale, the distances, also taken from the field

notes, are than set out from the protractor center (traverse station) and going through the

respective previously marked points. The end points are marked with a sharp pencil (just a point

with a small circle around), and labeled with their point numbers and elevations. When all points
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of one station have been plotted, the protractor is moved to the next position, and the process

continues. The points are than connected as illustrated in the field book. Plotting and drawing for

surveying purposes has nothing to do with architectural drawing, and therefore an artistic

portrayal of the topography should be avoided. However, a map title with the map scale, a north

arrow and a legend (explanation of the used symbols) are indispensable items of each

topographic map.

5. Relief representation

The graphical portrayal of the configuration of the land surface (relief) is most commonly done

with contour lines. A contour line is a line that connects points of equal level on the surface of

the earth. The shoreline of a body of still water (e.g. a lake) is an excellent illustration of a

contour line. They are drawn on the two dimensional paper to give the impression of a third

dimension.

A contour line

Contour is a line that passes through points having the same elevation.

Contour interval:

The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contour lines is called the contour

interval. The proper choice of the contour interval depends on the slopes of the terrain to be

represented, the scale of the map and the purpose of the survey. If, for example, the terrain is

very hilly and the contour interval is too small in relation to the scale, the contour lines become

too crowded. In addition, the smaller the contour interval the more points have to be measured in

the field and the more time consuming is the plotting. As a result of that the topographic map

would become more expensive. Table below gives an overview about which contour interval

should be selected for the different map scales and terrain types.
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Types of topo map Nature of terrain Recommended interval (feet)

Large Scale Flat 0.5 or 1

Rolling 1 or 2

Hilly 2 or 5

Intermediate scale Flat 1, 2 or 5

Rolling 2 or 5

Hilly 5 or 10

Small scale Flat 2, 5 or 10

Rolling 10 or 20

Hilly 20 or 50

Mountainous 50, 100 or 200

Here the table below shows common contour intervals for different purposes:

Purpose of survey Map scale Contour interval

Building sites 1:1000 or less 0.2-0.5 m

Town planning and reservoir 1:5000-1:10000 0.5-2.0 m

Planning

Survey of extensive area, 1:5000-1:20000 2.0-3.0 m

earthwork, etc.
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Characteristics of contour lines

The contours have the following characteristics:

1. The contour lines are closed lines. However, they may close either on the map itself or

outside the map, depending upon the topography.

2. As the perpendicular distance between two contour lines is the shortest distance, contours

are always perpendicular to the direction of the steepest slope.

3. contour lines connect points of equal elevation

4. steep slopes are shown by closely spaced contour lines

5. gentle slopes are shown by widely spaced contour lines

6. contour lines do not intersect, branch or cross, except in a vertical or overhanging cliff

7. If the spacing between the contour lines is small the slope is steep, but for gentle slopes

the spacing is large.

8. closed contours appearing on the map as ellipses or circles represent hills or valley

9. Contours do not have sharp turnings.

10. Contours are not shown going through building.

Interpolation of contours

Interpolation refers to the process of determining intermediate values between observed data

points. The assumption is made that the ground slope between two adjacent points is constant (in

a straight line).therefore interpolation is linear. Interpolation is necessary because the series of

points observed in the field do not necessarily lie exactly on the contour lines shown on the map;

it is not practical to locate and measure every point on a “round” or whole-number contour. Two

methods are mainly applied for linear interpolation, namely the mathematical interpolation and
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the graphical interpolation. No matter which method is applied, the linear interpolation is always

done along the direction of the steepest slope! There are three main methods of interpolation:

i) By Estimation: The position of the contour points between ground - points are estimated

roughly and the contours are then drawn through these points. This is a rough method and is

suitable for small scale maps.

ii) By arithmetical calculation: This is very tedious but accurate method and is used for small

areas where accurate results are necessary.

Example: Suppose A and B are two points at a distance of 30 m and the reduced level of A and

B are 25.45m and 27.54m respectively .Taking the contour interval as 1m,26 and 27 m contours

may be interpolated in between A and B. The difference of level between A and B is 2.09m. The

difference of level between A and 26m, and A and 27m is 0.55m and 1.55 m respectively.

Therefore the horizontal distance between A and 26 m contour =0.55/2.09 x 30m and Between A

and 27 m contour =1.55/2.09 x 30m.These distances are then plotted to scale on the map.

iii) By Graphical method: Graphical method of interpolation is simpler as compared to

arithmetical method and also the results obtained are accurate.

Sketching of contour lines

After locating the points of various contour lines as described previously, the Contours can be

sketched. To see clearly the course of each contour, the points of same elevation are joined with

straight lines. Then, the points of same elevation are connected with a smooth curve. This is best

accomplished by using French curves. It is positioned on the paper to pass through as many

points as possible and a portion of the curve is drawn. The French curve is then repositioned for

drawing another portion of the contour. The principle illustrated in figure below
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While sketching the contours one should always remember the characteristics of contours

Labeling of contour lines

Some basic rules should be followed (see also figure below)

Intermediate contour lines are drawn with a continuous line. The intermediate contour lines

depend upon the character of the terrain. In hilly or mountainous areas, the contours, divisible by

10, 20, 25, 50 or 100 m are considered as intermediate contour lines. However, in flat terrain a

intermediate contour line can be divisible by 1, 2 or 5 m.

An index contour line is a main contour line that helps the map user to quickly interpret the

height situation portrayed on the map. It is drawn with a continuous line of thicker width. Most

commonly every fifth contour line is an index contour. In the example, illustrated in figure above
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, those contours whose elevations are multiples of 5 m are shown with a heavier line (120, 125,

130 etc.) and are therefore index. Contours. When the contour interval is 10 m, the index

contours have elevations that are multiples of 50 m. All other contour lines are drawn with a

dashed line of the same width as the intermediate contour lines. They are called supplementary

contour lines. In flat terrain the 0.5 or 0.25 m contour lines are drawn in that manner. A small

gap is left for writing the elevation. The elevation of a contour should be so written that the foot

of the text shows towards the lowest point. The amount and the location of elevation labels

should be so selected, that the map will have a neat appearance.

Other methods of representing relief

In surveying, the relief is generally represented by contours. However, in some cases other

methods are applied:

a) By spot heights:-These are accurate altitudes for individual points along roads,

mountaintops etc. There is no artificial physical evidence in the field of the presence of

such a spot height. They are marked on the map, usually with a dot followed by a number

giving the accurate altitudes in meters.

b) By hachure: - These are short lines drawn in the direction of the ground slope.

6. Map compilation

Map editing and map layout also applied at this stage.

Features are depicted on the map using various combinations of points, lines and standard

symbols.

Combination of different symbols and color are used to represent feature on topographic

map for example.

BLACK – Artificial features like buildings, dams, trails, railroad lines

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� BLUE – Water bodies or glaciers

� BROWN – Contour lines

� GREEN – Vegetation

� RED – Some main roads, fences, public land system revisions

� PINK – Urban areas

� PURPLE - Revisions

7. Map layout

Most maps are typically depicted many different types of detail effectively by the following
elements.
Clarity-ability of map readable to the user.
Contrast-use of different line weight.
Order-logically designing order of elements of map.
Balance- weight of elements: size, color, font, position.
Harmony-interrelation between elements
Key Map Elements
The acronym DOGSTAILS makes it easy to remember the important parts of a map:
Date D : When the map was made
Orientation O : Directions (north arrow)
Grid G: Locates places on the map
Scale S : What the map distance is
Title T: What, where, and when
Author A: Who made the map
Index I : Map address of places
Legend L: What the symbols mean
Sources S : Basis for map information