Module : Written Expression Lecturer: Mrs. Bencharef.

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Level : First year LMD Academic Year: 2017-2018
Lesson one : The Parts of Speech

Traditional grammar classifies words based on nine parts of speech: the verb, the noun, the article, the
pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, the preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection.

1. Nouns:
A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, or an idea. A noun can function in a
sentence as a subject, a direct object, an indirect object, a subject complement, an object complement,
an appositive, an adjective or an adverb.

Types of nouns
1. Common nouns: refer to general, unspecific categories of entities. They name any person, place
or thing. e.g : man, table, country, hotel, student, …
2. Proper nouns : name particular persons, places or things and begin with a capital letter. They can
refer to :
→ Personal names (Robert, Betty, Dr. Wilson, President Obama, Uncle John, ..)
→Festivals/holy days (Christmas, Independence Day, Aid El Adha, Halloween, Thanksgiving, ...)
→ Time units (days, months) : Monday, August, .... ( seasons are not capitalized).
→ Geographical units (cities, countries, rivers, mountains, oceans, seas, monuments ..) : London,
Spain, the Mississippi, the Alps, the Pacific, the Eiffel Tower...
→Institutions/organizations (Cambridge University, the BBC, the Red Cross, ...)
→Nationalities (English, American, French, ..)
→Religions/ creeds/ denominations (Islam, Christianity, Sunah, Catholics, ...)

3. Abstract nouns: used for theoretical concepts. They name anything (intangible) that cannot be
perceived through the five physical senses. e.g: courage, fear, wisdom, luck, honesty, happiness,
democracy, decency, politeness, conversation, running, reading, breathing ...
→ As a contrast to abstract nouns come the Concrete Nouns. These name anything (or anyone) that
can be perceived through our physical senses. e.g : salt, wool, board, music, gold, smoke, air, water….

4. Collective nouns: name a group of persons, things, or animals acting as one unit. You need to
recognize collective nouns in order to maintain subject-verb agreement.
e.g: team, band, group, club, troupe, gang, choir, public, crew, army, navy, class, audience, staff,
family, police, committee, union, jury, firm, government, parliament, senate, society, faculty,
department, minority, orchestra, panel, bunch, shoal, cattle, herd, flock, …
→ When they refer to a group as a single unit, a collective noun takes a singular verb.
e.g: - Some cynics claim that the American family is no longer functioning.
- The public isn’t really interested in what the government is doing unless it increases taxes.
- The town council has approved plans to create a new park.
- The flock of birds flies south for the winter.

→When referring to a group’s members as individuals, the collective noun takes a plural verb.
e.g: - The Rogers family have been parking their cars in the backyard.
- The public are more likely to complain if they have to pay more taxes.
- After taking a test, the class start their research papers on famous mathematicians.
- The jury disagree about the guilt of the accused and have told the judge that they are
hopelessly deadlocked.

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Gender There are three genders in English :
1. Masculine (belongs to the male sex) : man, boy, husband, bull, ... (he/his/him)
2. Feminine (belongs to the female sex) : woman, girl, wife, cow, ... (she/her/hers)
3. Neuter (belongs to neither sex) → inanimate things, animals : table, bag, elephant, cat, ... (it/ its)
Exceptions :
• Ships, cars, countries when regarded with affection/respect are considered feminine.
e.g. The ship/Titanic strude an iceberg which tore a huge hole in her side.
Scotland lost many of her bravest men in two great rebellions.
• Some abstract nouns which are noted for strength and greatness are in the masculine gender.
e.g. the sun, anger, death, war, summer, ocean, time, love, ....
Others are noted for beauty, gentleness, weakness are in the feminine gender.
e.g. the moon, the earth, hope, charity, liberty, fame, faith, justice, life, truth, ....

Formation of Feminine/ Masculine

• Most nouns have the same form for masculine and feminine (common gender) : parent, child,
infant, cousin, baby, friend, student, guest, teenager, teacher, journalist, artist, doctor, leader,
dancer, speaker, artist, rider, author, prisoner, cook, leader, colleague, teenager, ....

• Some nouns have different forms for masculine and feminine:

Man ≠ woman lord ≠ lady
Boy ≠ girl monk ≠ nun
brother ≠ sister widower ≠ widow
son ≠ daughter gentleman ≠ lady
father ≠ mother nephew ≠ niece
duke ≠ duchess bridegroom ≠ bride
hero ≠heroine uncle ≠ aunt
husband ≠ wife king ≠ queen
→ It is also the case for many domestic and wild animals :
bull ≠ cow duck ≠ drake
stallion ≠ mare ganger ≠ goose
cock ≠ hen fox≠ vixen
dog ≠ bitch stag ≠ doe
• Some nouns form the feminine by adding ess to the masculine :
prince ≠ princess lion ≠ lioness
conductor ≠ conductress tiger ≠ tigress
actor ≠ actress waiter ≠ waitress
heir ≠ heiress host ≠ hostess
• Some nouns form the feminine by changing a word that is before or after the masculine noun :
land-lord ≠ land-lady male-servant≠ female-servant
salesman ≠ saleswoman chairman ≠ chairwoman

Formation of the plural of nouns

The plural of a noun is usually made by adding ‘s’ to the singular (regular nouns) :
day , days dog, dogs house, houses
• ‘s’ is pronounced /s/ after p, t, k, or f sound : cups, pots, books, stops,....
• ‘s’ is pronounced /iz/ after s, z, ce, ge, re sounds : buses, sizes, bridges, oranges, ...
• ‘s’ is pronounced /z/ after b, d, g, .... : dogs, apples, doors, shoes, ...

➢ Nouns ending in ch, sh, ss, o, x form their plural by adding es to the singular :
watch → watches brush → brushes box → boxes
glass → glasses

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 tomato → tomatoes hero → heroes BUT video → videos radio → radios
BUT words of foreign origin or abbreviated words ending in ‘o’, add ‘s’ only :
dynamo → dynamos piano → pianos
kilo → kilos photo → photos

➢ Nouns ending in ‘y’ following a consonant form their plural by dropping the ‘y’ and adding ies :
baby → babies lady → ladies country → countries
fly → flies story → stories army → armies
BUT words ending in ‘y’ following a vowel form their plural by adding an ‘s’ :
boy → boys day → days donkey → donkeys
play → plays key → keys guy → guys

➢ Some nouns end in f or fe ; these letters are dropped and replaced by ves :
calf, half, knife, leaf, life, sheaf, loaf, shelf, thief, wife, wolf, self. → calves, halves, …
BUT - the nouns scarf, whraf, hoof take either s or ves : scarfs/ scarves
- Other words ending in f or fe are added ‘s’ in the ordinary way :
cliff → cliffs handkerchief → handkerchiefs safe → safes
roof → roofs belief → beliefs

➢ A few nouns form their plural by a vowel change (irregular nouns) :

man → men woman → women child → children ox → oxen
toot → teeth goose → geese foot → feet
mouse → mice louse → lice

➢ Certain words are always plural and take a plural verb : clothes, belongings, goods,
surroundings, thanks, remains, stairs, proceeds, congratulations, groceries, .... + police
e.g. Her clothes are always fashionable.
Good manners are important.
+ words consisting of two parts (trousers, pants, pyjamas, jeans, shorts, glasses, binoculars,
scissors) . e.g. These trousers are tight.
BUT A good pair of scissors is difficult to find.

➢ Some words have the same form in the singular and plural :
crossroads, means, series, species, brackets. + sheep, deer, salmon, trout, aircraft, fish.
→ Fish is normally unchanged. Fishes is used in biology to refer to multiple species of fish

e.g. The telephone is a means of communication.

There are several means of solving the problem.

➢ Some words ending in ‘s’ or ‘ics’ are singular /uncountable and take a singular verb :
athletics, gymnastics, physics, politics, statistics, electronics, mathematics, ethics + rabies,
diabetes, mumps, cards, billards, bowls, dominos, news...
e.g. Maths is my best subject.
Statistics was a difficult course.
Rabies has become a deadly disease.

➢ Irregular plurals concern also foreign nouns:

bacterium → bacteria axis → axes crisis → crises
curriculum → curricula analysis → analyses parenthesis→ parentheses
datum → data basis → bases thesis → theses
stimulus → stimuli syllabus → syllabi phenemenon→ phenemena
➢ Sometimes, there are two plural forms with different meanings :

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 - appendix → appendices/ appendixes (medical term) / appendices (addition to a book)

➢ Initials can be made plural : MPs (Members of Parliament) - VIPs (Very Important Persons)

Countable Vs Uncountable/non-countable nouns

A countable noun refers to things we can count. It has both a singular and a plural form. Countable
nouns are normally used to refer to people, creatures, objects, actions and events which can be thought
of as separate individual things. They can be used with articles ( a/an) , numbers, and quantifiers
(some, many, any, few). I eat a / one banana → I like bananas (no article in the plural)
e.g. Library, dollar, chair, car, bird, monkey, mountain, child, man…
Arrival, crash, goal, lesson, mistake, party, problem, theft, reading, emergengy, belief, ....

An uncountable noun refers to things as substances, materials, qualities, abstract ideas, feelings, states
and activities rather than to individual objects or events. It does not have a plural form and always takes
a singular verb. It is not used with a/an and numbers, but can be used with some quantifiers (some,
much, little)
WRONG: a rice, a sand BUT you can often use “ a……of ”
RIGHT a bowl of rice a grain of sand
e.g. travel, chess, jogging, photography, research, tennis, shopping, work, advice..
Anger, bravery, education, evidence, love, safety, freedom, ignorance, luck ...
Alcohol, chocolate, cotton, iron, wood, ink, meat, rice, salt, milk, butter, paint, water, ....
Luggage, furniture, money, work, information, accommodation, weather, progress, time,...
Notes:
• Some expressions are used to speak about one separate unit/part of an uncountable noun.
e.g. a flash of lightning – a loaf of bread – a piece of advice – a drop of water – a bar of soap – a can
of cola – a sheet of paper – a kilo of sugar – an ounce of salt- a cup of coffee – a clap of thunder – a
peal of laughter –
Nobody likes having to move furniture.
There wasn’t a piece of furniture left in the house.
• Different quantifiers are used with countable (plural nouns) and uncountable nouns:
many much A lot of some Few/a few Little/ a any
little
* Countable * Uncountable *Coun/ uncoun *Coun/ uncoun *coun *uncoun *Coun/uncoun
-I have many -I possess much -I have a lot of -There are some -I speak few -There is -Do you have
friends. money. friends/ money letters for you. words in little food in any problems?
-I am going to Spanish. the fridge. - Is there any
buy some furniture. trouble?

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REMEMBER:
There are some nouns that are usually uncountable in English but countable in other languages.
e.g. advice- bread- chaos- information- work- behavior- damage- luck- permission- traffic
→ SO - you cannot use a/an with them ( an advice → incorrect > a/one piece of advice)
- They are not usually plural : we do not say → advices – breads
- News is uncountable not plural : The news is/ was very depressing . [not the news are/ were]
- Travel (noun) means traveling in general. You cannot say a travel to mean a trip
we say: We had a very good trip [ not a good travel]
COMPARE:
- I am looking for a job - I am looking for work
- It is a nice day! - It is nice weather!
- We had a lot of bags and suitcases. - We had a lot of luggage.
- It was a good suggestion. - It was good advice.

• Some nouns can be countable in one meaning and uncountable in another(variable nouns). It
depends whether we’re using the noun to refer to a single thing or to a substance or general idea.
e.g. She owns a business. Business is booming.
There’s a hair in my tea. He has long hair.
Three coffees, please. He likes coffee.
Did you hear a noise just now? (=specific noise) I cant work here. There’s too much noise
I bought a paper to read (= newspaper) I need some paper to write on.
Enjoy your vacation. Have a good time. I can’t wait. I don’t have time

Possessive Nouns (possessive case)

A noun that is the possessor or owner of something is in the possessive case. We use it to express the
idea of ‘having’ or to refer to a relationship which exists between the first noun (people/animals) and
the second noun (things). We form possessive nouns by adding an apostrophe -s (’s) to most nouns, or
only an apostrophe ( ’ ) to nouns ending in s.
e.g. Justin’s uncle is an advocate. (relationship)
Kevin’s desk is broken . (ownership)

form:
• with singular and irregular plurals, we use ’s :
John’s book mother-in-law’s house women’s clothes
• with regular plural nouns(ending in “s”), we use only « ’ » : students’ tables girls’ school
• with singular noun/proper names ending in “s”, we can add (’s) or just (’)
The Duchess’ jewels or the Duchesses’s jewels
Gilles’(’s ) shop Socrates’ philosophy
Use:
• The possessive case is used in simple statements of possession instead of the preposition “ of ” :
The car of my wife is red → better → My wife’s car is red.
The bedroom of the parents are upstairs = The parents’ bedroom is upstairs.
Everybody met at the front gate of the museum. = Everybody met at the museum’s front gate.

BUT “ of ” is used when the possessor noun is immediately followed by a phrase or a clause:
That is the furniture of the woman murdered by the aggressor.
That is the fault of the conductor who drove very quickly.

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NOTE that, when the possessive case is used, we keep the article preceding the possessor, but the one
before the possessed person or thing disappears.

• We also use possessive nouns in personification, that is, when something abstract is treated as if it
was a person, or when an object is described as ‘having’ something.
e.g. Death’s cold hand – jealousy’s dark thoughts

• Possessive nouns can sometimes be used without a following noun when that noun is treated as
known, or it presented as one of a larger number rather than a particular one.
It’s a film of Hitchcock’s It’s bigger than Paul’s.
She is a friend of Margaret’s. (= one of Margaret’s friends)
Pamela hair is longer than Anna’s. (= Anna’s hair)

• Two succeeded nouns are very often put together without “ of ”, using the first one as a sort of
adjective: The kitchen sink- the toilet door- public transport- football ground- police novels.

Compound Nouns
Compound nouns consist of two (or more) words/parts used together as a single noun. The first part
tells us what kind of object or person it is, or what its purpose is. The second part identifies the object
or person in question. Compound nouns often have a meaning that is different, or more specific, than
the two separate words.
There are very common compound nouns, and new combinations are invented almost daily. e.g.
• bus driver , car mechanic , history teacher , airline inspector, policeman.
• application form , fire extinguisher , swimming pool , emergency exit door.
• detective story, horror movie , health food magazine.
• chicken soup , glass bottle , paper plates , feather pillows, gold medal
• birthday party , street lights , winter coat , November fogs , dining room table
• a house-husband , a get-together , a do-it-yourself-store., a five-year-old child

→You have noticed that the compound noun can be written either as a single word, two separate
words, or two words separated by a hyphen. There are no clear rules about this and it best to check in
an up—to-date dictionary.

Compound nouns can be formed by combining nouns with other parts of speech :
• noun + noun : Tower Bridge - winter clothes – river bank - bedroom
• noun + gerund : weight-lifting - lorry driving - bird-watching
• gerund + noun: waiting list - driving license– swimming pool – washing machine
• noun +verb : wind surfing - fire-eater - rainfall
• verb + noun : cookbook - rocking chair - swimsuit -
• adjective + noun : highway - blackbird - easy chair - greenhouse

→ We can also make compound nouns from time expressions : a three-week holiday, a four-hour
delay , a ten-minute drive.

→ The plural of compound nouns is formed by adding “s” at the end of the main/principal word in
hyphenated or separated words (daughters-in-law or mayors-elect) or at the end of the compound
noun ( go-betweens , higher-ups , break-ins).
When the compound noun is a single word (e.g., banknote, letterhead, mailbox), the plural is formed
using the usual rules for forming a plural, which is adding “s” to the end: banknotes, letterheads,
mailboxes

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Noun functions:
Subject
The subject USUALLY does the action:
John ran away from the monster.
Five days a week my mother dusts.
Nearing the yellow light, the driver sped up.
“It’s not fair!” shouted John.
2. Direct Object
A direct object follows the verb & receives its action. It answers the question “what” or
“whom”:
John threw the ball. (Threw what?)
Tomorrow morning Elisa will meet your sister. (Meet whom?)
We helped him with his homework. (Helped whom?)
He doesn’t understand anything about what he just read. (Understand what? “Anything” is a
pronoun.)
While hiking, Alicia found a silver bracelet.
3. Indirect Object
The indirect object follows the verb & answers to/for whom. (It can also be to/for what, but
it’s usually to/for whom.) The indirect object is frequently a pronoun.
John gave me the money. (to whom?)
Elisa sent John a letter. (to whom?)
Addison bought Alex a car. (for whom?)
4 .A subject complement is a word or phrase that follows a linking verb and describes or
identifies the subject. (Note: A linking verb is a verb used to link a subject to the new identity
or description. Common examples are to be, to become, to appear, to feel, to look, to smell,
and to taste.)John is a student.
A Christmas Carol is a good book.
Elisa became a lawyer.
Addison will be an excellent surgeon.
Emory is a private university.
5.Object of a Preposition
Prepositions are words that link the rest of the sentence to their object. English is full of
them: of, near, after, before, from, to, through, under, over, across, with…to name a few. A
preposition has to have an object, & the object is a noun or pronoun.
He left after class.
I work with your friend.
My best friend lives across the street.
Over the river & through the woods to Grandmother’s house we go.
Objective Complement
An objective complement renames the direct object. It can be distinguished by determining if
the words “to be” can be inserted before it.
We elected Obama (to be) president.
I consider him (to be) my brother.
*He saw my sister Rita yesterday.
“Rita” in the last sentence is an appositive, not an objective complement, because you
couldn’t say, “He saw my sister to be Rita yesterday.”
Exercise:
1. Please give me that book
2. He put the books on the desk
3. The conference participants studied the teachings of Ghandi
4. The last contestant was a visitor from Germany
5. The captain provided his officers a plan of attack.
6. Did Joseph give the students the directions for their assignment?
7. Wayne will send you a postcard from Italy.
8. they have chosen Biskra the capital of local culture this year.
9. Ahmed has received the prize .
Module : Grammar Level : 1st year LMD
Lesson: Parts of speech

3. Pronouns
A pronoun is a word that is used in place of a noun or a noun phrase (called its antecedent) to avoid
repeting it. It is also used to make our writing clearer, smoother, and less awkward.
In the sentence, “Roberto feels that he can win the race,” he is the pronoun, and Roberto is the
antecedent.
There are eight types of pronouns.

 Personal Pronouns
They refer to specific persons or things (that have been already mentioned) and change their form to
indicate person, number, gender, and case. They can be subjective personal pronouns ( I, you, she,
he, it, we, you, they) used to act as subjects of a verb. e.g: I do the washing; he does the cooking; and
they watch TV.
→ We usually use « it » for an animal. We can use he and she when we think of the animal as having
human qualities or a special personality ; for example, when it’s a pet or a character of a story.
e.g : Pooh is a friendly bear. He enjoys eating and playing with his friends.

Personal pronouns can work also as direct or indirect objects (objective personal pronouns) of a verb
or after a preposition. They are me, you, her, him, it, us, you, them.
e.g. I saw her yesterday. (direct object)
You told us news. (indirect object)
She travelled only with him. (object of preposition)

 Possessive Pronouns
They are forms of personal pronouns that show ownership or relation. They are: mine, yours, hers,
his, its, ours, theirs. We use them in place of possessive noun phrases
e.g. I couldn’t work in Mary’s room. Hers is even smaller than yours or mine.

 Reflexive Pronouns
They are used to refer back to the subject of the sentence and stand as objects (of a verb or a
preposition). They indicate that someone or something acts upon itself. They are formed by combining
personal pronouns with « self » or « selves »: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves.
e.g. She stretched herself out in the sofa.
I wrote it to myself.
→ Reflexive pronouns are also used after nouns or pronouns to emphasize them. They are called
intensive pronouns.
e.g. The teacher himself gave me his address.
We met the Queen herself.

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 Demonstrative Pronouns
demonstrate (verb): to show; to indicate; to point to
Demonstrative pronouns point to and identify a noun or a pronoun. They are : this, these, that, those.
→ near in distance or time (this, these) → far in distance or time (that, those)
e.g. This is my seat ; that is yours. (subjects)
→We can use this/these to introduce people and that/those to identify people.
This is Ann Thomas and these are her two sons, Nick and Jason. (introducing them)
That’s Mrs. Parker and those are her two grandchildren. (identifying them in the distance)

BECAREFUL Do not confuse demonstrative pronouns with demonstrative adjectives. They are
identical, but a demonstrative pronoun stands alone, while a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun.

That smells bad. (demonstrative pronoun)

That dog smells bad. (demonstrative adjective + noun)

 Interrogative Pronouns
They are used to ask questions. They are : who, whom, which, what, whose.
→ who, whom, and occasionally which are used to refer to people.
→ which and what are used to refer to things and animals.
e.g. Who told you? John told me. (subject)
Whom did you tell? I told Mary. (object)
What's happened? An accident's happened. (subject)
What do you want? I want coffee. (object)
Which came first? The Porsche 911 came first. (subject)
Which will the doctor see first? The doctor will see the patient in blue first. (object)
There is one car missing. Whose hasn't arrived? John's (car) hasn't arrived. (subject)
We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you find? I found John's (keys). (object)
Note: We sometimes use the suffix "-ever" to make compounds from some of these pronouns
(mainly whoever, whatever, whichever). When we add "-ever", we use it for emphasis, often to show
confusion or surprise. Look at these examples:
Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing?
Whatever did he say to make her cry like that?
They are all fantastic! Whichever will you choose?

 Relative Pronouns
A relative pronoun introduces a relative clause. It is called a "relative" pronoun because it "relates" to
the word that its relative clause modifies.They are who, whom, that, whose, which, where, why,
when, what, whoever, whomever, whichever.
e.g. George, who is my best friend, is a teacher.
relative clause

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→ We use « who », « whomever », « which », « that » to refer to the subject of a clause or sentence.
e.g. The candidate who wins the greatest popular vote is not always elected. (in this sentence, the
relative pronoun “who” is the subject of the verb « wins » and introduces the adjective clause « who
wins the greatest popular vote ». This clause acts as an adjective modifying « candidate »).

→ We use « whom », « which », « that » to refer to the object of a sentence.

e.g : The girl whom you saw is my sister.
The cake which you gave me is very sweet.
→ We use « whose » for possession. e.g. My brother, whose phone you just heard, is a doctor.
→ Relative clauses can be restrictive (defining) or non-restrictive (non-defining)
e.g. Mrs. Pratt, whom I like very much, is our neighbour. (Non-restricive)
The person whom I phoned last night is my teacher. (Restrictive)
The blue car, which is a taxi, exploded. (Non-restrictive)
The car which I drive is old. (Restrictive)

 Indefinite Pronouns

They refer to identifiable but not specified persons or things. They do not indicate exactly who or what
they are. We use them to talk about people and things in a very general way, usually because we can’t
or we don’t want to identify them more specifically. The most common indefinite pronouns are : all,
another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, anywhere, each, everybody, everyone, everything,
everywhere, few, many, much, little, no one, none, nobody, nothing, nowhere, one, ones, several, some,
someone, somebody, something, somewhere, either, neither, both, other, others, another.

e.g : - Many were invited to the lunch but only twelve showed up.
S
- We donated everything we found in the attic to the women’s shelter. (affirmative sent)
D.O
- There isn’t anything to eat. (negative sent)
- Make sure you give everyone a copy of the program.
I.O
- Give a registration package to each.
Object of preposition

→ We use a singular verb with somebody, everybody,....(Everybody is happy) and we use

he/she, him/her, .... to refer back to these pronouns
e.g. Somebody left his or her book.
BUT → In everyday informal English, a plural personal pronoun is often used to refer to an
indifinite pronoun. e.g. Someone has left their coat in my car.
Everybody is enjoying themselves.
→ Indefinite pronouns can work also as adjectives if they are followed by a noun.
e.g. Each knows what to do. (pronoun)
Each man knows what to do. (adjective)

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 Reciprocal Pronouns

They are used for an action or feeling that is reciprocated. The two most common reciprocal pronouns
are "each other" and "one another". (both have the same meaning)
e.g : - You can shout at each other/one another as much as you like outside.
→ We can use reciprocal pronouns after prepositions and as possessives.
e.g : The two girls never argued with one another.
They even wore each other’s/one another’s clothes sometimes.
→We can use each as subject and the other(s) as object when the action of the verb goes both ways.
e.g. I asked the boys if they had broken the window and each blamed the other.

Practice :
1- Insert the pronoun between brackets making any necessary changes.
 Our teacher praised (I)........yesterday.
 The only guests not to come yet are John and (she)........
 The letter was adressed to (he)........
 The car one belonged to Paul’s mother, but now it’s (he).......
 Their teacher is taking (they)........to the museum.
 He didn’t bring his book, so i lent him (I) .........
 Lest’s contact (we) ........ once we’ve made some progress.
 She made (she) ....... a sandwich and a cup of coffee.
 We are going out. You can come with ......
 I cannot use my pen. Can I use ..... ?

2- Circle the correct answer.

 Did somebody/anybody notice that Luke wasn’t at the meal ?
 No one/anyone asked about him.
 Nobody from our group was/were there.
 There was/were somebody from Tom’s drama group.
 I haven’t seen nobody/anybody today.
 Everyone is/are at home with his/ their family.
 I am very tired, so I don’t to go somewhere/anywhere.

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Module : Grammar Level : 1st year LMD
Lesson: Parts of speech

2. Articles

The (definite article) A/ An (indefinite articles)

Developed from a word meaning this. Developed from a word meaning one.
Signals a particular person or thing. Signals an unspecified one of others.
The students sitting next to you is my cousin. A student is sitting in front of the row.
Used with singlar or plural nouns , countable and Used only with singular coutable nouns
uncoutable

 The indefinite article

The form a is used before a word beginnig with The form an is used before words beginnig
a consonant, or a vowel sounded like consonant. with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or a mute h
A man – a table – a book – a house An egg – an actor – an email – an orange
A university – a useful thing – a year – a European An hour – an honourable man
 They are the same for all genders : a man – a woman an actor – an actress
How do we use indefinite articles ?
1. Before a singular a countable noun when it is mentioned for the first time and represents no
particular person or thing : A dog is an animal I see a man I need a holiday
A cat can catch a mouse A house has a roof
2. Before a singular countable noun which is used as an example of a class of things :
A cow has horns (i.e. all cows have horns) An elephant never forgets
A car musr be insured (i.e. all cars must be insured)
3. With a noun complement (predicate nominative) . This includes names of professions.
He is a doctor She is a teacher He became a great man
4. In certain numerical expressions : a couple, a dozen, half a dozen, a score, a hundred,
a thousand, a million, a great deal of, a lot of, ...
5. In expressions of price, speed, ratio, etc : six pence a pound £5 a kilo $1 a metre
four times a day 6 miles an hour
6. With few and little ( used with plural or uncountable nouns):
A few = a small number, or what the speaker considers a small number. A few people came.
A little = a small amount, or what the speaker considers a small amount. It rained a little during the
night.
 So that ‘a little time’ can mean days or years depending on the peaker ; and ‘a few friends’ can
mean two or three, or twenty or thirty.
 Few and little can also be used without article, but then have an almost negative meaning, and
can usually be replaced by hardly any :
We had little time for amusement implies that we were always busy.
Few people know this = it is almost unknown

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7. In exclamations before singular countable nouns : What a hot day ! Such a pity !
8. A can be placed before Mr. / Mrs. / Miss ( to mean a certain ...):
A Mr. Smith called while you were out.= means a man called Smith and implies he is a stranger to
the speaker.
Mr. Smith (without a) = implies that the speaker knows Mr. Smith or knows of his existence.
9. Before abbreviations : an MP an FBI agent a NATO general a FIFA official

Omission of indefinite articles

1. Before plural nouns : a dog → dogs an egg → eggs
2. Before uncountable nouns : advice, information, news, furniture, ... They are often preceded by
some, any, a little, a lot of, a piece of, ....
I’ll give you a piece of advice NOT→ an advice
 Knowledge is also considered uncountable, but when used in a particular sense it takes the
article : A knowledge of languages is always useful.
 Materials (blass, iron, paper, cloth, tea, ...) are uncountable. But many of these nouns can also
denote one particular thing, and then take an article :
Windows are made of glass but Have a glass of milk
Iron is a metal but I use an eletric iron
3. Before abstarct nouns (beauty, happiness, fear, death, ...) except when they are used in a
particular sense : He was pale with fear Some children suffer from a fear of the dark.
4. Before names of meals, except when preceded by an adjective :
We have breakfast at eight. Grandma gave us a good breakfast.
→ The article is used when it is a special meal given to celebrate something or in someone’s honour :
I was invited to dinner (at their house, in the ordinary way)
BUT I was invited to a dinner given to welcome the new ambassador.
Let’s Practise : Correct the following sentences by adding a/an where necessary.
1. Jim goes everywhere by bike. He hasn’t got car. ____________________________
2. Ann was listening to music when I arrived._________________________________
3. We went to very nice restaurant last weekend._______________________________
4. I clean my teeth with toothpaste.____________________________________
5. I had delicious lunch with my friend yesterday.___________________________
6. This ornament is made of paper._______________________________________
7. Jane married Mr. Williams. _______________________________________
8. What pretty girls they are ! ________________________________________
9. Would you like apple ? ____________________________________________
10. Amine has good knowledge of computing. _____________________________
11. I have problem . Can you help me ? ___________________________________

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  The definite article (the)

The definite article the is the same for singular and plural and all genders :
The boy the boys the girl the girls

How do we use the definite article ?

1. Before nouns of which there is only one, or which are considered as one :
The earth the sky the weather the North Pole
2. Before a noun which has become definite as a result of being mentioned in the second time :
His car struck a tree ; you can still see the mark in the tree.
3. Before a noun made definite by the addition of a phrase or a clause :
The boy that I met The place where I met him
The girl in blue The man on the horse
4. Before a noun which, by reason of locality, can represent a particulat thing :
Ann is in the garden ( = the garden of the house)
He went to the doctor (= his own doctor)
Please pass the milk (= the milk on the table)
5. Before superlatives and first/ second/..., and only, used as adjectives or pronouns :
Mont Blanc is the highest mountain in Europe.
It is the first time I meet her. He is the only friend I have.
6. Before a singular noun used to represent a class of objects :
The dolphin is intelligent (= all dolphins are intelligent)
7. Before an adjective used to represent a class of persons :
There is no place for any but the dead.
The old and the young should live together.
8. Before names of seas, rivers, chains of mountains, groups of islands and plural names of
countries : The Atlantic Ocean The Thames The Alps The U.S.A
The U.S.S.R The Netherlands The Orkneys The U.A.E
9. Before musical instruments : She learned the play the flute/ the piano/ the guitar

Omission of the definite article

1. Before countries, towns, proper nouns :
Mr. Jones returned to Wales and bought a house in Swansea.
 Exceptions : The U.S.A the Congo The Sudan The Netherlands the Mall
The High Street
The Smiths (= Mr. and Mrs. Smith and the family)
2. Before the abstract nouns except when they are used in a particular sense :
Death has no cure. The death of the prime minister left his party withouta leader.
3. Before names of meals : I have eggs for breakfast.
BUT The wedding breakfast was held in her father’s house.
4. Before names of games, sports, activities, feasts, diseases :
He likes playing tennis. She suffers from polio. They are celebrating Christmas.
5. Before uncountable nouns : Honey/milk is good for one’s health.
6. Before parts of the body and articles of clothing, as these normally prefer possessive adjectives :
Raise your right hand. He took off his coat.
 BUT notice sentences of the type :
She seized the child’s collar → could be expressed → She seized the child by the collar.
The brick hit John’s face → The brick hit John in the face
 Similarly in the passive : He was hit on the head. He was cut in the hand.
7. Before home when it is used alone : He went home.
BUT when followed by a descriptive word or phrase, the article is put :
For some years, this was the home of the queen.

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  Mosque, chapel, church, market, college, school, hospital, court, prison, work, sea, bed
these nouns are used without « the » when they are visited or used for their primary purpose :
We go to mosque to pray BUT I went to the mosque to clean it.
Sailors go to sea every day. BUT They are at the sea. (= at the seaside)
 In contrast to the above list, the following very common nouns always take « the » :
Cathedral, office, cinema, theatre : He is at the office. She is going to the cinema.
8. Before names of lakes, mountains, countries, cities, airports :
Mount Everest Scotland London Kennedy Airport

Let’s practise : Put ‘the’ where necessary or leave the space blank if it is not needed.

1. I haven’t been to ...........theatre for ages.

2. I lay down on .......... ground and looked up at ...........sky.
3. Sheila spends most of her free time watching ..............television.
4. ..............television was on but nobody was watching it.
5. Have you had .......... dinner yet ?
6. Mary and I arrived at ......... same time.
7. Who is .......... oldest of your brothers ?
8. I don’t usually have ..........lunch but I always eat ..........good breakfast.
9. We missed our train because we were waiting on .........wrong platform. We were on
.......Platform 3 instead of ....... Platform 8.
10. ..........film "Brave Heart" recounts ........fight for .......independence in .........Scotland.

4
 Module : Grammar
Level : First year LMD Academic Year: 2019-2020
Lesson one : The Parts of Speech

5. Verbs

A verb is a doing word or a state of being word. It is the most important word in a sentence. No sentence is
possible without a verb. It indicates action or a state of being of the subject. There are several types of verbs to
be studied: the action verb, the linking verb, and the helping verb.

a/ An action verb tells what action ( physical : run, move, dance or moral : believe, dream, recognize) a
subject is performing, has performed, or will perform.
e.g. My father delivers packages to department stores each day.
I know the answer. Turn at the corner, Jim.
→ Every action verb is classed as being either transitive or intransitive.
 Transitive verbs describe an action that is happening to someone or something. This person or thing is
known as the direct object of the verb . e.g. carry, catch, buy, sell, heat, prepare, make.
→ The verb is transitive if a word or words in the sentence answer the question “Who or what did the action of
the verb happen to?”
e.g. The staff manager convoked the engineer. Lilia picked a flower. He kicked a small ball.
They affected all of us. The teacher explains the lesson.
→ transitive verbs can also take indirect object, which are the people or things receiving the direct object.
They are called ditransitive verbs (Give, buy, pass, make, sell, take, show, offer, leave, wish, lend, cost).
e.g. John offered Liz a ring. → John offered a ring to Liz. .
I.O D.O D.O I.O
He sent her a letter. She bought him a tie.

 Intransitive verbs do not have objects. There is nothing and no one for that action to happen to—the action
is complete on its own.
(arrive, depart, happen, disappear, rain, fall, go, die, scream, ache, leave, work, listen)
e.g. The students sang. The salesgirl smiled. We talked for hours.
I can’t sleep. Dogs bark. Everyone was waiting.
→ Although some verbs are transitive only (destroy, forbid) and others are intransitive only (tremble, happen),
most verbs can function as either transitive or intransitive : stop, do, set, run, live, write, wash, meet, open, close,
change, start, move, cook, dress, drink.
e.g. The guide explained the danger. (transitive) The guide never explained. (intransitive)
The choir sang carols. (transitive) Peter always sings in the bath. (intransitive)
Practice 1: Underline the verbs in the following sentences then decide if they are transitive or intransitive.
1. They attended the concert last weekend. 2. Several cats ran into Bob’s garage.
3. Fast runners won all the awards at the track meet. 4. My friend and I walked home after school.
5. She was counting the ballots during social studies class. 6. Check the score, Tom.
7. I told you that earlier. 8. Please, shuffle the cards now.
9.Suzanne skated across the rink in Central Park. 10. Oscar will help Petra with the project.

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 11. The wall collapsed. 12. Mary reads a book every week. 13. He talked for several hours.

14.During the war, many people lost their homes. 15. I swim every day.

Practice 2: Identify the direct objects and indirect objects in these sentences.
1. Please pass Jeremy the salt. 6 . I sent the company an application for the job.
2. The dog chased its tail. 7. The people watched the game from the bleachers.
3. The storekeeper sent his customer a red carpet. 8. Can you reach the fruit in that tree?
4. The dog guarded his sleeping mistress and her sick dog. 9. Jeff threw Mark the ball.
5. The T.V programs have so much violence and gore. 10.The waiter poured Ann some water.

b/ A linking verb expresses a state of being of the subject. The most common linking verbs are the forms of
“to be” ( is, are, was, were, been, being, am) and appear , become, feel, grow, prove, get , remain look, seem,
smell, sound, , taste, stay, turn, go.
These verbs link the subject of a sentence with a predicate nominative (a noun or pronoun that identifies or
names) or a predicate adjective (an adjective that describes the subject).
e.g. My sister is a doctor. (The linking verb is connects the subject sister with the predicate nominative doctor)
S.C (subject complement)
BUT → My sister is studying to become a doctor. (In this sentence the word « is » is a helping verb for the
main verb studying)
That isn’t funny ! It seems possible. You look much better. (predicate adjectives)
→ Some linking verbs function also as verbs of action :
He appeared tired. BUT → He appeared at the game.
The eggs smell rotten. → She smells the flower.
James grew tired after the race. → The plant grew quickly.
Your project sounds fantastic. → The train sounds loudly.
The weather turned cloudy. → Turn the page for the exercise.

c/ A verb often includes one or more helping verbs, called auxiliary verbs or modal auxiliaries. The verb and
its helping verbs form a verb phrase. The common helping verbs are be (am, is, are, was, were, been, being),
have ( has, had), do (does, did), may, might, must, can, could, shall, should, will, would.
→ The base form of the verb (called the bare infinitive or infinitive without ‘to’) is listed in the dictionary. It is
used in the imperative, negative, and infinitive. e.g. Stop ! Ask someone to help you. I didn’t finish yet.
→ We use the auxiliary ‘do’ with the base form of the verb to make questions and negatives in the present and
past simple : Does she feel better ? I don’t know.
What did Ann want for lunch ? She didn’t want anything.
→ We use ‘be’ with the present participle (-ing form) to make continuous forms, and we use ‘have’ with the past
participle (-ed) to make perfect forms :
e.g. They were working all night. Andy has finished her work.
The comet has been approaching earth for two years.
→ The modals (modal auxiliaries) have always the same form and come before the base form of the verb to
express possibility, prediction, ability, permission, etc.
e.g. I can wait for him. You must leave ! you may lose money.

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→ phrasal modals are verb phrases beginning with ‘be’ or ‘have’ which can be used instead of modals : be able
to (=can), have to (=must/should/ ought to), be allowed to (=can/may), be going to (=will), be supposed to
(=should), have got to (= must)
e.g. I won’t be able to finish. We have to talk to him.
I hope to be allowed to stay. They are going to have a test.
The game is supposed to begin at 10 :00 He has got to do it by himself.

Practice: Decide whether the underlined verbs are action, linking, or helping.
1. She was carrying a heavy bag when she fell down the stairs.
2. Reggie looked confused.
3. That would be a serious question with no easy answer.
4. I feel the penny at the bottom of this pool.
5. The troop had been scattered throughout the woods.
6. I am terribly sick.
7. John slammed the car door on his thumb. He is in horrible pain.
8. Your homemade cooking smells delicious.
9. I am looking for a part-time job.
10. The president waits on the steps of the capitol.
11. Jerry has a large coffee stain on his shirt.
12. Jerry has bought a new shirt to replace the one that was ruined earlier.
13. The crowd stayed calm in spite of the imminent threat.
14. Martin does like very spicy food.
15. Before I could leave, Jane appeared.
16. Jane appeared uninjured after the accident.

3
Module : Written Expression
Level : First year LMD Academic Year: 2019-2020
Lesson : The Parts of Speech

3. Adjectives

An adjective is a word that modifies nouns and pronouns. It defines and describes them.
e.g : - A tall boy stepped from the curious crowd. (describing)
- That boy is my brother. (pointing out)
- Twelve children and several parents attended. (telling how many)
Adjectives normally come directly before the words they modify ( a big town , a red car, …), or after a
linking verb ( he is sad, they are excited) but sometimes a writer places descriptive adjectives after the
word they modify. e.g : The stallion, long and lean, galloped past us.

Kinds of Adjectives :

1- Qualitative/ descriptive adjs : fat, heavy, square, yellow, golden, clever, ….

- The big, new, white house has been sold.
2- Demonstrative adjs : this, that, these, those. (they must be followed by a noun)
- These women gossip a lot.
3- Distributive adjs : each, every, either, neither (they are normally used with singular nouns)+
both (used with plural nouns)
- Each/ every man carried a torch.
- Each of the participants received compensation.
- Either book is interesting, but I suggest the former. (“Either” implies one or the other of
two options)
- Either of these movies would be interesting to me.
- Neither pen seems to work. (“Neither” implies not one or the other of two options)
- Both students have been punished by the teacher.
4- Quantitative adjs : all numerals+ a, some, any, many, much, little, few, no, one.
- He has seven apples. – He has got many dogs at home.
- I’ll cut you some bread. – I didn’t receive any guests recently.
- Much milk is let in the bottle. – I have no money for a meal in this restaurant.
5- Interrogative adjs : which, what, whose.
- Which book have you red lately?
- Whose car is this ?
- What papers do you read ?
6- Possessive adjs : my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their.
- The girls are playing with their dolls.
7- Proper adjs/ adjs of nationality : Algerian, American, French, …
_ She is German.
- I like Italian food.

→ Proper adjectives may refer also to geographical places, religions, holidays, dates, names of people
or organizations, titles, ….
- Italian food - Islamic nation - Parisian style – Freudian theories – Shakespearian
plays

Let’s practice : Underline the adjectives in the following sentences.

1. Today is cloudy, hot, and humid. 2. The man wearing a blue suit is young.
3. The runner is very fast. 4. He is a good basketball player.

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5. Alamance Community College is a great place to learn. 6. The blue bus is late.
6. The rusty truck has an oversized trailer. 7 . Jane is so smart!
8. The job was difficult, but manageable. 9. The house has new plumbing and running water.
10. The silly man laughed uncontrollably. 11. The boy said he was sorry.
12. The intoxicated gentleman wasn’t sure if the clock was fast or slow.

Participals used as adjectives :

Both present participle (ing) and past participle (ed) can be used as adjectives.

 Present participle adjs are active and mean « having the effect ». We use them to talk about
the person, thing, or situation which has caused the feeling.
e.g : - He told an amusing story. - This is a boring lesson.

 Past participle adjs are passive and mean « affected in this way ». They are used to talk about
how someone feels.
e.g. He was amused by the story. – He seems bored .

Agreement :

Adjectives in English have only one form, which is used with singular and plural, masculin and
feminine nouns : a good boy, good boys a good girl , good girls
The only exception are the demonstrative adjectives this and that, which change to these and those
before plural nouns : this cat , these cats / that man , those men

Formation of Adjectives :

→We can form adjectives from other parts of speech. That is by the use of suffix. The principal
suffixes are : -y, -ful, -less, -en, -ous, -able, -some, -ed, -like, -al, -an, - ian, - ical, -ish.

 An adjective that ends in -less is the opposite of the same adjective that ends in -ful:
careful – careless useful – useless colorful – colorless harmful – harmless
( -ful means having a lot of something. -less ending means without)
 Some adjectives end in –y : a dirty street a noisy room an oily pot
a sleepy passenger a sunny day
 Some adjectives end in –ive : an active child an attractive hat a creative toy
 Some adjectives end in –ly : a costly diamond ring an elderly woman
lively kittens a lonely boy a lovely girl
a weekly magazine a friendly dog
 Some adjectives with the endings –able : a comfortable chair a loveable koala
-al : a musical instrument a national costume
-en : a wooden table a woolen sweater
-ible : a horrible smell a terrible mess
-ish : a foolish act a childish behavior
-ous : a dangerous place a disastrous storm

Let’s practice : Add the correct endings to turn these words into adjectives.
wind fool gold charm friend
peace storm mud nation forget
dust spot play

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Comparison of adjectives :
 Equal Comparisons
To show an equal comparison, use the form: as + [adjective]+ a.
e.g. Julia is as tall as the bookshelf.
The water is as cold as ice.
Let’s practice : Fill in the spaces with the appropriate comparative adjective.
1. The light shines as ___________ as the sun. 2. The runner moves as ___________ as the wind.
3. The apple is as ___________ as a fire truck. 4. The giraffe is as ___________ as the tree.
5. That clock is as ___________ as my grandfather. 6. His voice was as ___________ as thunder.
7. The truck was as ___________ as a house. 8. Your book bag is ___________ as a rock.

 When you compare two people or things, use the comparative form of the adjective.
→ Short adjectives ( 1 syllable or 2 syllables ending in « y »/ « er » ) form their comparative by
adding –er + than
e.g. Jack is taller than John. A sports car is faster than a motorbike
cheap, cheaper clear, clearer loud, louder new ,newer old , older
rich, richer short, shorter slow, slower clever, cleverer late, later
happy, happier easy, easier pretty, prettier silly, sillier

→ Long adjectives ( 2 syllables not ending in « y » or 3/more syllables) form their comparative by
adding more + than
e.g. Kevin is more active than his brother. My chair is more comfortable than yours.
charming, more charming delicious, more delicious dangerous, more dangerous

+ interested – frightening- expensive – obscure – doughtful – cheerful - modern

 Use the superlative form of an adjective to compare three or more nouns.

A superlative adjective expresses the extreme or highest degree of a quality.
→ Short adjs form their superlative : the + adj+ -est. e.g. Peter is the tallest boy in his class.
long longer longest dark darker darkest thick thicker thickest
clean cleaner cleanest easy easier easiest narrow narrower narrowest
heavy heavier heaviest noisy noisier noisiest happy happier happiest
simple simpler simplest

 adjectives having only one syllable and end with a consonant, and have a single vowel before the
consonant. We double the last letter before adding –er to form the comparative, and -est to form
the superlative :
big bigger biggest dim dimmer dimmest mad madder maddest
sad sadder saddest + hot - fat – wet

→Long adjs form their superlative : the most + adj. e.g. This is the most pleasant place I have ever
seen.
the most beautiful - the most attractive - the most comfortable- the most charming
the most powerful – the most valuable- the most intelligent - the most interesting

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→ The comparative and superlative forms of some adjectives are completely different words
(irregular comparisons) .
Little less least good better best bad worse worst few less least
many/much more most far farther/further farthest/furthest

Let’s practice : Fill in the gaps with the appropriate comparative adjective.
1. Her motorcycle is _______ ______(dangerous) than my car.
2. Rice is __________ (sticky) than salad.
3. The grey jacket is _______ __________(colorful) than the pink one.
4. Yuki was at school __________ (early) than I was.
5. I am _______ ________ (tired) now than I was this morning.
6. This exercise is __________ (tricky) than the last one.
Order of adjectives
 In English, it is common to use more than one adjective to describe a noun. These adjectives must
be used in the proper order
e.g. Here is a beautiful, red, cloth flag.
Why does beautiful come before red? Why does red come before cloth?
 Understanding the proper order of adjectives takes practice. Use the following table to practice
using the proper order of adjectives in the following sentences.
number opinion size age shape color origin material Purpose noun
(gerund to form
compound nouns)
small round German
red sleeping
generous old man
four metal

Let’s practice : Choose the correct order of adjectives in the following sentences.
1.The woman is wearing a ________ dress. 2. He is a ________ man.
a. yellow long b. long yellow a. tall thin b. thin tall
3. The company makes ________ products. 4. James recently departed on a ________ trip.
a. excellent farming b. farming excellent a. camping long b. long camping
5. I love eating ________ strawberries. 6. The ________ woman did well on the test.
a. red big b. big red a. intelligent young b. young intelligent
7. I am drinking from a ________ cup. 8. My ________ teacher talks for hours!
a. small English tea a. philosophy old boring
b. tea small English b. old philosophy boring
c. English small tea c. boring philosophy old
d. boring old philosophy

4
Module : Grammar
Level : First year LMD Academic Year: 2019-2020
Lesson one : The Parts of Speech

6. Adverbs

An adverb is a word that modifies (qualifies or limits) verbs, adjectives, other adverbs or groups of
words. e.g.- He reads carefully. ( carefully modifies the verb reads)
- He is truly dedicated. (truly modifies the adjective dedicated)
- He walks too quickly.(too modifies the adverb quickly)
- Unfortunately, I cannot attend the wedding. (unfortunately modifies the sentence)

Formation of adverbs
Many adverbs are formed from adjectives. Many adverbs end in - ly. It is the case of adverbs of manner
+ some adverbs of degree.
 If the adjective ends in –y, replace it with –i and then add –ly.
adjective adverb
happy happily
angry angrily
lucky luckily

 If the adjective ends in –able, -ible, or –le, replace the e with –y

adjective adverb
probable probably
gentle gently
humble humbly
 If the adjective ends in –ic, add –ally
adjective adverb
basic basically
economic economically
BUT → public → publicly

 Irregular adverbs
Most adverbs are formed by adding –ly to an adjective. However, there are some irregular adverbs :
adjective adverb
good well
fast fast
hard hard
late late
early early
daily daily

 nice → nicely immmediate → immediately extreme → extremely

BUT true → truly due → duly whole → wholly

NOTE : not all words ending in -ly or -lly are adverbs : silly, friendly, likely, lonely, lovely.
These are adjectives and have no adverb form. To supply this deficiency, we use a similar adverb or an
adverb phrase. e.g. My dog is very friendly. He behaves in a friendly way.

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Kinds and position of Adverbs

1- Adverbs of manner : Tell how something happens: fast, hard, well, quickly, slowly, kindly,
happily,angrily,clearly, patiently, generously….
→ They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object.
He swims fast. She sings the song beautifully.
The child ran happily towards his mother.
2- Adverbs of place : Tell where something happens : here, there, up, down, near, far, away, right,
left, west, south, southwards, downstairs, outside, indoors, inside, anywhere, everywhere,
somewhere, nowhere, elsewhere, home, in, off, on, over,……
→ They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object.
The students are walking home. He threw the ball downstairs. Come here !
I would like to go somewhere warm for my vacation.
→ Here and there are combined with prepositions to make many common adverbial phrases. e.g.
Come over here and look what I found ! What are doing up there ?
→ Most common adverbs of place also function as prepositions.
3- Adverbs of time :Tell when something happens, and for how long : now, soon, still, today,
yesterday, tomorrow, tonight, early, late, recently, currently, after, before, afterwards, yet, then,
just, immidiately, next, all day, not long,…….
→The use of adverbs of time might affect the verb tenses in a particular clause and can be placed
at the initial, middle or final position of a clause.
- She currently works as a news caster. (present tense)
- My father is currently working with the press.
- She went to school yesterday. (past tense)
- I will finish doing my work tomorrow. (future tense)
4- Adverbs of frequency : Tell how often/ how many times something happens : once, twice,
often , rarely, never, ever, always, usually, occasionally, seldom, sometimes, daily, everyday,
monthly, annually, …
→ They can be placed at the initial, middle or final position of a clause.
- Occasionally, culture interferes with business. Once is fine, but twice is not.
- You should always think about your future.
- She cleans her room daily.
5- Adverbs of certainty : Express how certain or sure we feel about an action or event : certainly,
surely, obviously, definitly, probably, undoubtedly, ….
→ They are placed before the main verb, but they come after ‘to be’, or between the auxiliary and
the main verb.
- She definitly left the house on October 1998.
- She is probably in Paris.
- She has certainly forgotten my birthday.
6- Adverbs of degree : Tell about the intensity or degree of an action, an adjective or another
adverb : very, fairly, rather, too, totally, so, almost, just, nearly, quite, hardly, much, enough,
completely, partially, extremely, such, even, pretty, only …
→ They are placed before the adjective or adverb they are modifying, after an auxiliary, before
the main verb or between the auxiliary and the main verb.
He is really good. She almost noticed his presence.
They don’t really know you. He played very badly.
7- Adverbs of opinion : Tell about the speaker’s opinion/point of view about an action : frankly,
ideally, officially, personally, obviously, theoretically, honestly, seriously, …
→ They are usually placed at the beginning and are separated from the rest of the sentence by a
comma.
- Personally, I can’t do what she had done.
8- Interrogative adverbs : Are used to ask questions : when, where, why, how.

2
 → They are placed at the beginning and are always followed by the main verb.
- When will she come ?
- Where do you come from ?
- Why have you said that ?
- How is your father ?
NOTE : In English, the adverb does not come between the main verb and the direct object.
My brother cleans never his room. → My brother never cleans his room.
Practice:

Rewrite the sentences placing the adverb in its correct position

1. Mary goes shopping to the mall. (usually)
2. Amalia helps her parents with the housework. (sometimes)
3. Mike and his sister are fighting for the remote. (always)
4. Are they going ? (away)
5. We are late to school. (never)
6. The program was unrealistic. (too)
7. Have you been to Mexico City before ? (ever)

Order of adverbs when together

There is a basis order in which adverbs will appear when there is more than one.
verb manner place frequency time
Beth swims enthusisastically in the pool every morning before dawn
Dad walks impatiently into town evey afternoon before supper
Of course, it is uncommon to four five adverbs in a row to modify the same word, but if a sentence uses
two or three, then it is best to follow this order to avoid sounding unnatural.

Adverbs or adjective ?
Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. Adverbs do not. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and other
adverbs. Adjectives do not.
e.g : - Helen has a yearly membership at the local health club. ( Yearly is an adjective since it modifies
the noun membership and tells which membership.)
- Helen contributes yearly . ( Yearly is an adverb since it modifies the verb contributes and
answers the question, When does Helen contribute ?)
-Mike arrived late . -The late delivery cut down on sales in the supermarket.
→ Other words that can be used either as adjs or adverbs are : hard, fast, deep, early, near, far, high,
little, few, much, many, loud, low, overhead, underground, …

Let’s Practice
Find the adjective in the first sentence and fill the gap with the adverb.

1. Joanne is happy. She smiles

2. The boy is loud. He shouts .

3. Her English is fluent. She speaks English .

4. Our mum was angry. She spoke to us .

3
 5. My neighbour is a careless driver. He drives .

6. The painter is awful. He paints .

7. Jim is a wonderful piano player. He plays the piano .

8. This girl is very quiet. She often sneaks out of the house .

9. She is a good dancer. She dances really .

10. This exercise is simple. You have to put one word in each space.

Comparison of adverbs
There are three forms: positive – comparative – superlative
 We use –er /-est with all adverbs of one syllable: Fast – faster than – the fastest Hard – harder – the hardest
High – higher – the highest
+ the adverb early : earlier – the earliest
 We use more –most with adverbs of 2 or more syllables (adverbs ending in –ly not early)
carefully – more carefully – (the) most carefully

 Irregular adverbs
well better best

badly worse worst

much more most

little little least

late later latest

far Farther Farthest

further furthest

Practice: Complete the following sentences with the correct form (comparative or superlative) of
the adverbs provided.
1. He arrived ___________________ than expected. (early)
2. We walked ___________________ than the rest of the people. (slowly)
3. They called us ___________________ in the afternoon. (late)
4. He hit his arm ___________________ than before. (hard)
5. The Spanish athlete ran ___________________ than the other runners. (fast)
6. Jim threw the ball ___________________ than Peter. (far)
7. We answered all the questions ___________________ than the other students. (well)
8. Our new teacher explains the exercises ___________________ than our old teacher. (badly)
9. The new mechanic checked the car ___________________ than the old mechanic. (thoroughly)
10. Angela works ____________________________ than my husband. (hard)

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 7. Prepositions
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between
two things.There are common ( single word) prepositions
and compound prepositions  Instead of going to Sea World this summer, we
Examples are going to Fiesta Texas.
 As a result of the flood, we had to move out of our home.  I hope he wins the prize for the sake of his
 The bird on top of the tree outside of my window is children.
singing loudly.  You should keep a fire extinguisher in case of
 That is the correct answer according to the textbook. fire.

1. Prepositions of time

Preposition Use Examples

In in months in July; in September
Year in 1985; in 1999
Seasons in summer; in the summer of 69
part of the day in the morning; in the afternoon; in the evening
Duration in a minute; in two weeks
At part of the day at night
time of day at 6 o'clock; at midnight
Celebrations at Christmas; at Easter
fixed phrases at the same time
On days of the week on Sunday; on Friday
Date on the 25th of December*
special holidays on Good Friday; on Easter Sunday; on my birthday
a special part of a day on the morning of September the 11th*
After later than sth. after school
Ago how far sth. happened (in the 6 years ago
past)
Before earlier than sth. before Christmas
Between time that separates two points between Monday and Friday

By not later than a special time by Thursday

During through the whole of a period during the holidays
of time
For period of time for three weeks
from ... to two points form a period from Monday to Wednesday
from... from Monday till Wednesday
till/until from Monday until Wednesday
Past time of the day 23 minutes past 6 (6:23)
Since point of time since Monday
till/until no later than a special time till tomorrow/ until tomorrow
To time of the day 23 minutes to 6 (5:37)
up to not more than a special time up to 6 hours a day
Within during a period of time within a day

Let’s practice (01): put in the correct preposition (at, in, on, or no  In my hometown the shops open early the morning.
preposition)  She met her husband 1998.
 There was a loud noise which woke us up midnight.  The party is next Saturday.
 What are you doing the weekend?  We are meeting Friday morning.
 last week, I worked until 9pm every night.  I often get sleepy the afternoon.
 My father always reads the paper breakfast time.  His daughter was born the 24th of August.
 She plays tennis Fridays.  Mobile phones became popular the nineties.
 The trees here are really beautiful the spring.  The meeting will take place this afternoon.
 I’ll see you Tuesday afternoon, then.  Luckily the weather was perfect her wedding day.
 Shakespeare died 1616.
 She studies every day.
 John is going to buy the presents today.
Let’s practice (02): Write the correct prepositions into the gaps.
Example: Look! The people are getting ….. the train Answer: Look! The people are getting on the train.
 She was born…………….2004.  I haven't smoked ………..ages.
 They are waiting ………….the bus.  You can look up the word …………..a dictionary.
 Don't forget to bring some flowers …………you.  She is allergic ………………….insect stings.
. I'm looking ………………my keys. Have you found them?  He likes to travel…………… Spain in summer.
 The song was written ……………..Madonna.  The police car chased the robbers ……………..the streets.
 2. Prepositions of place / position

Preposition of
Explanation Example
place
 I watch TV in the living-room
 I live in New York
 Look at the picture in the book
 inside  She looks at herself in the mirror.
in
 She is in the car.
 Look at the girl in the picture
 This is the best team in the world

 used to show an exact position or particular place  I met her at the entrance, at the bus
/address stop
 table  She lives at 1089 Pine Street
at  events  She sat at the table
 place where you are to do something typical  at a concert, at the party
(watch a film, study, work)  at the movies, at university, at work

 Look at the picture on the wall

 attached  Cambridge is on the River Cam.
 next to or along the side of (river)  The book is on the desk
 used to show that something is in a position  A smile on his face
above something else and touching it.  The shop is on the left
 left, right  My apartment is on the first floor
on  a floor in a house  I love traveling on trains /on the bus /
 used for showing some methods of traveling on a plane
 television, radio  My favorite program on TV, on the
 a person lives : on a street/avenue/road/.. radio
 She lives on Pine Street.

 The girl who is by / next to / beside

by, next to,  not far away in distance
the house.
beside, near

 in or into the space which separates two places,  The town lies halfway between
between people or objects Rome and Florence.

 at the back (of)  I hung my coat behind the door.

behind

 further forward than someone or something  She started talking to the man in
in front of else front of her

 lower than (or covered by) something else  the cat is under the chair.
under

 lower than something else.  the plane is just below the the cloud
below

 above or higher than something else,  She held the umbrella over both of
sometimes so that one thing covers the other. us.
over
 more than.  Most of the carpets are over $100.
 across from one side to the other.  I walked over the bridge
  overcoming an obstacle  She jumped over the gate

 higher than something else, but not directly over it  a path above the lake
above

 from one side to the other of something with  She walked across the field/road.
across clear limits / getting to the other side  He sailed across the Atlantic

 They walked slowly through the

 from one end or side of something to the other
through woods.

 in the direction of  We went to Prague last year.

to  bed  I go to bed at ten.

 towards the inside or middle of something and

about to be contained, surrounded or enclosed  Shall we go into the garden?
into by it

 in the direction of, or closer to someone or  She stood up and walked towards
towards something him.

 used to show movement into or on a particular  I slipped as I stepped onto the

onto place platform.

 used to show the place where someone or  What time does the flight from
from something starts: Amsterdam arrive?

Other prepositions of place: at the back of , at the bottom of, at the top of, in the corner of,
in the middle of, to the left of, to the right of, on the other side of, on the side of, opposite, in
the middle of, ….
Examples:
 There is a large garden in the middle of the skyscraper.
 The smallest room is located to the left of the internal garden.
 The entrance to room number three is opposite the entrance to room number two.
Let’s practice:
 He's ____ the hospital, having a heart operation.
 .

3. Prepositions of Movement/direction

They are used to show movement from one place to another: In, to, into , out of, up to ,
away, from, around, through, over, down, past, towards

Examples :
 I go to school by bus. Sofia flew to Canada. They came to the wedding.
 Walk through the exit of room two and enter into building number three.
 Walk across the indoor garden to reach room number five.
 Walk past the side entrance to reach the main entrance.
 Let’s go for a walk around the park.
 Walk towards the sea and turn left at the first street.

Let’s practice: Complete the sentences with the right preposition.

 through into down to over out of along

1. I moved Germany in 1998.

2. This train arrives ………… Milan at 21:36.
3. The teacher came ………… class ten minutes late today.
4. John fell………… a tree and broke his arm.
5. Put your books and notes…………. We're going to do a test!
6. It's a long way………… Europe to China.
7. Can you put your arm …………the window and open the door?
8. Go ………… the bridge and turn left at the
9. Our next trip will be……… the United States.
10. While I was in New York I visited …………Fifth Avenue.
11. We didn't get ………… home until very late.

Prepositions and other parts of speech.

Prepositions with Nouns
There are lots of different nouns that carry specific prepositions to consolidate their
meaning. These are called dependent prepositions e.g:
1.He displayed cruelty towards his dog.
2.She had knowledge of physics.
3.The trouble with Jack.

Prepositions with Verbs

Prepositional verbs – the phrasal combinations of verbs and prepositions – are

important parts of speech. The prepositions again act as links between the verb and
noun or gerund, giving extra meaning to the sentence. The prepositions most
commonly used with verbs are: to, for, about, of, in, at and from e.g:
1. I go to Vancouver on vacation twice a year.
2. He must apologize for his actions.
3. I dream of a better life.

Prepositions with Adjectives

Prepositions can form phrases with adjectives to give further context to the action,
emotion or thing the adjective is describing. Like verbs and nouns, adjectives can be
followed by: to, about, In, for, with, at and by. For example:
1.Michelle is interested in politics.
2.We are sorry for your loss.
3.Jane will be delighted with her results.
 Module : Grammar
Level : First year LMD Academic Year: 2019-2020
Lesson one : The Parts of Speech

8. Conjunctions

A conjunction connects phrases, clauses, words or parts of speech which are of the same syntactic importance.
Types of Conjunctions:
1. Coordinating conjunction is a single connecting word. It connects words, phrases, and clauses. These
words are the FANBOYS
and Or
for
But Nor
Yet

- The boys and girls worked at the fair. (And joins two nouns)
S
- The soup was hot and delicious. ( two adjectives) He speaks quickly and fluently. (two adverbs)
S.C
- My cat Buster has beautiful blue eyes but a destructive personality. (two phrases)
D.O
- The students did a test and corrected it.
compound predicate
- Alex likes to fish, and he is going fishing on Friday. (compound sentence)

- I would like to help you, but I will be busy tonight. (But joins two independent clauses./ contrast)
2. Subordinating conjunctions join a subordinate dependent clause to a main/independent clause. An adverb
clause is always introduced by a subordinating conjunction. The following is a list of the most common
subordinating conjunctions:

After, although, as, as if, as Just as, lest, now, now since,
until
long as, as much as, now that, now when, once
when
as soon as, as though, Provided, provided that
whenever
because, before, rather than,
where
even, even if, since
whereas
even though, so that, supposing,
wherever
if, if only, if when, if then, than
whether, which
inasmuch, in order that that
while, who, whoever
so that, in order to though, till
why
such that unless
- As it was getting late, I decided to go home.
subordinate/adverbial clause of reason
- Ronnie begins to sneeze fiercely whenever he opens the door to greet a fresh spring day.
- He took the course in order that he could get a better job.
- I will call you provided that I have enough time.
- She was so weak that she couldn’t walk.
- I won’t allow you to see that movie even though you are old enough.
- I will come to see you wherever you live.

3. Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that must be together as connecting words.

Both…and Whether … or
Neither … nor
either … or As … as
Not only … but also
As many … as Scarcely … when
Such … that
No sooner … than Rather … than
Examples:
Both Henry and Henrietta are leaving now. (The correlative conjunctions join two names.)
Not only will they leave now, but they will also not be here to help clean up.
(The correlative conjunctions join two sentences or complete ideas.)
Either go with them or stay here and help. (The correlative conjunctions illustrate a choice.)
He went neither to the stadium nor to the concert hall during this vacation. ( two prepositional phrases.)
Would you rather go shopping or spend the day at the beach?
Bowling isn’t as fun as skeet shooting.
Such was the nature of their relationship that they never would have made it even if they’d wanted to.
I had scarcely walked in the door when I got the call and had to run right back out again.
There are as many curtains as there are windows.
I’d no sooner lie to you than strangle a puppy.
She’d rather play the drums than sing.

Practice
I- Circle the conjunction or pair of conjunctions in each sentence:

1. Lyle chose both steak and salad for his dinner.

2. I chose neither steak nor salad for my dinner.
3. Either you or he can drive Dad to the train station tomorrow morning.
4. The panda wanted to eat, for he was hungry.
5. Peanut butter and jelly is Rex’s favorite sandwich.
6. Not only the girls but also the boys will be invited to the assembly.
7. Sara did not know whether to swing at the ball or take the pitch.
8. Mark would like to go, but he cannot.
9. Rich likes the food at this restaurant, yet he seldom eats here.
10. Run with him or her.

Task 2: Use an appropriate coordinating conjunctions to combine the sentences below.

1. I wanted to backpack through Europe last summer. My mom told me I couldn’t.
______________________________________________________________________
2. Maria didn’t finish her essay. She did finish her math.
________________________________________________________________________
3. Julie bought her mom a sweater. Her mother loved it.
_________________________________________________________________________
4. I am going to the beach. I worry about sunburn.
__________________________________________________________________________
5. Jill spent all her money at the Banana Republic sale. She went back the next day for more bargains.
__________________________________________________________________________
6. You can take a cruise to Greece. You can travel to Mexico.
___________________________________________________________________________
7. Ted didn’t have enough money to fly to Boston. He took the train.
____________________________________________________________________________
8. She could not go to the show. She did not have enough money.
_____________________________________________________________________________
9. Interjections

1. Definition:An interjection is a part of speech which is more commonly used in informal language than in
formal writing or speech. Basically, the function of interjections is to express emotions or sudden feelings. It is
often followed by an exclamation point (!) when the emotion is strong or a comma (,) when the emotion is mild.

2. Examples of Interjections:Take for example, the sentence “That book is about vampires.”
One person can write it as: 1. That book is about vampires.
Another person might use an interjection to show the same feeling as in: 2. Eww! That book is about vampires.
Aw Bravo Dear me Halloo Eh Goodness Gracious Gosh Hallelujah Hey Horrors
Hurrah Hurray Mmm Oh Oh no Oops Ouch Phew Really Ugh Well Whoa Whoops
Wow Yea Yeah Yes Yippee
3. Kinds of Interjections:There are basically 6 kinds of interjections as listed below:
 Joy: Hurrah! Ha! Ha! Wow!
 Sorrow: Ah! Ah me! Alas!
 Surprise: Oh! What! Well
 Approval: Well done! O.K!
 Calling: Halloo! Ho!
 Attention: Listen! Look! Behold! Hush.
4. Categories of Interjections:
 Adjectives that are used as interjections.
Examples: - Nice! You got a Monster Kill in your first game!
- Sweet! I got a PS4 for my birthday!
- Good! Now we can move on to the next lesson.
 Nouns or noun phrases that are used as interjections.
Examples: - Congratulations, you won the match.
- Hello! How are you?
- Oh no! I forgot my keys!
 Short clauses that are used as interjections.
Example: - Gaza is being bombarded. Oh, the horror!
The short clause that is italicized in the example above functions as an interjection.
 Some sounds are used as interjections.
Examples: - Ugh! I’ll never do that again!
- Whew! That was really close!
- Uh-oh! Dude, I think we’re in serious trouble.

5. Punctuation of Interjections:
Since interjections convey different kinds of emotions, there are also different ways to punctuate them.
 Exclamation point!
It is used to punctuate most interjections when expressing strong emotions like surprise, excitement, or anger.
Examples: - Oops!I just replaced your sugar with salt.
- Hooray! I got the job!
 Comma,
For weaker emotions, aa comma will suffice.
Examples: - Meh, who cares?
- Ah, that feels great!
 Question mark?
If you intend to use interjections to express uncertainty or disbelief, it is appropriate to use a question mark.
Examples: - Huh? What did you just say?
- What? You still haven’t submitted your project?
- Oh, really? I never thought he’s that kind of gentleman.
6. Usage and Meanings of Interjections:
There are many different uses for various interjections; the following is a list of the common interjections:

The Interjection word Meaning Usage

Alas Express unhappiness, pity, grief Alas! His grandma’s just passed away.
Bravo, O.K To give Approval Well done! You did it. The project is over.
Darn, Damn, Argh show disappointment or anger Argh, the car won't work!
Dear me Expressing surprise Dear me! That's a stunning performance!
Gosh, Goodness, Gracious Express mild surprise or wonder Gosh,it's freezing!Goodness gracious!
Halloo/Ho, hey, hearken To call someone, for attention Halloo! Where are you? Ho! Are you there?
Listen!Look!Behold!Hush Expressing attention Listen! All of you come here.Look! You
Whoa have to do this job.
Behold! I am coming with you.
Oh!What!Well Expressing surprise Oh, What a great person is he?
What! Are you coming tomorrow?
Oops Making a mistake Oops! Sorry I didn’t see you.
Ouch Exclamation of pain Ouch! Stop pinching me!
Uh oh, aw Showing dismay, mild feeling Uh oh! The teacher is coming.
Whew, Phew Amazement or relief Whew! I can’t believe I finished it.
Wow Express surprise or admiration Wow! That’s really great news!
Yea, yeah Variants of “yes” Yeah, I’d love a cup of tea.
Yay/Yaay Congratulatory exclamation I can’t believe you’re here! Yaay!
Yippee,Hallelujah, Hurray Exclamation of celebration Yippee! We won the game.
The following is a list of these sounds or words; they are also called Hesitation Devices
Er Not knowing what to say I don’t think… er… let me call my boss.
Hmm Thinking/Hesitating about something Hmm, I’m not sure he is the best student.
Uh Indicates a pause or need for more time Wait I know this… uh… is it James Bond?
Um / meh Pausing or being skeptical/ don’t know Not sure but, um, you say it’s a ghost?

Practice: Write an appropriate interjection for each of the following sentences in the space provided.

1. …………………………. ! I smashed my finger with the hammer.

2. …………………………., all right, Nick.

3. ………………………….! We have finally beaten that team!

4. …………………………., take it easy, Reggie!

5. …………………………., I think we better look over this paper immediately.

6. …………………………., I forgot to take out the garbage this morning.

7. ………………………….! The tickets for his concert are incredibly expensive!

8. ………………………….! You did so well in tonight’s school play!

9. ………………………….! You have no right to say that to him!

10. …………………………., now I see what you are trying to say.

11. ………………………….. I am not very keen on that idea.
12. …………………………., what did Mike say about his tryout?
13. ………………………….! Does your hand still hurt from the accident?
14. ………………………….! Get away from my new car, kid!
15. …………………………., this food is absolutely delicious!