ABE 12

Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation

Topic 5. Methods of Irrigation

Learning Outcomes
1. Discuss methods of irrigation.
2. Identify advantages and disadvantages of methods of irrigation.

Topic Outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Classification of Irrigation Methods
2.3 Surface Irrigation Methods
2.4 Subsurface Irrigation Methods
2.5 Overhead or Sprinkler Irrigation Methods
2.6 Drip Irrigation Method
2.7 Exercises

5.1 Introduction
Water is the basic need of plants for all metabolic and production processes within. A crop is grown in different
land situations, soil types, climatic conditions, seasons and water supply situations. Besides, crops differ in
their structure and habits. Their water requirements thus vary widely. Water management pertains to optimum
and efficient use of water for best possible crop production keeping water losses to the minimum. Serious
water losses occur unless it is properly monitored while irrigating fields. Various methods are adopted to
irrigate crops and the main aim it is to store water in the effective root zone uniformly and in maximum quantity
possible ensuring water losses to the minimum.

5.2 Classification of Irrigation Methods

5.2.1 Methods of Irrigation
5.2.1.1 Surface Irrigation Methods (complete flooding of soil surface)
Wild flooding
Border or border strip irrigation
Straight border
Contour border
Check or check basin irrigation
Rectangular check
Contour check
Contour ditch irrigation
Surface Irrigation Methods (partial flooding of soil surface)

5.2.1.3 Subsurface Irrigation Methods

5.2.1.4 Overhead or sprinkler irrigation methods
5.2.1.5 Drip or trickle irrigation method

5.3 Surface Irrigation Methods

Surface irrigation refers to irrigating lands by allowing to flow over the soil surface from a supply channel at
upper reach of the field. Principles involved in surface irrigation are: (i) field is divided into plots or strips to
uniformly irrigate the soil to a desired depth throughout the field, (ii) water is discharged at the highest level of
the field allowing water to flow down the gentle slope by gravity flow, (iii) water loss by runoff or deep
percolation is avoided, (iv) efficiency of irrigation is kept at a high and (v) size of stream should be such as to
have an adequate control of water.
Advantages of surface irrigation are:
 variable sizes of streams can be used
 large flow of water can be easily controlled
 water is conveyed to field swiftly and conveniently by channels
 cost of water application is quite low
 sufficiently skilled personnel are not required for water application
Limitations
 considerable land is wasted in construction of channels and bunds
 initial cost of construction of reservoirs, water courses, field channels and bunds is quite high
 lining of channels and water courses involves considerable cost
 unlined water courses and channels require frequent repairs
 erosion of unlined channel bed and sides often occurs
 rodents and animals often cause damages to channel bunds
 weeds grow easily on unlined channels that require frequent cleaning
 channels and bunds interfere with movements of farm tools, machinery, carts and animals.

5.3.1 Wild flooding

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Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Topic 5. Methods of Irrigation

Wild flooding refers to irrigating fields that are relatively flat and level by allowing water from supply channels to
flow over the land surface along the natural slope without much guidance by channels and bunds. The method
is adopted in areas where (i) fields are relatively smooth or slope gradually and uniformly towards the natural
drainage course, (ii) labor is expensive, (iii) soil is deep and is not likely to crust badly, (iv) proper land levelling
could not be done and (v) proper method of irrigation could not be initiated. Grasses, fodder and close growing
grain crops and pastures on large ranches are irrigated by this method. The adoption of this method requires
an abundant supply of cheap irrigation water. The size of stream, flow depth, land slope and water intake rate
influence greatly the efficiency and uniformity of water application.
Advantages
 the land does not require precise land levelling and grading
 water application is quite easy and cheap
 skilled labor is not required
Disadvantages
 flooding is uncontrolled
 uniform wetting of land cannot be achieved
 greater amount of water accumulates in lower spots
 higher points may remain unwetted
 water application efficiency is low
 sensitive crops may get damaged by excess water accumulation in lower parts of the field
 crop growth and yield are poorer in higher parts of the field as well as lower spots owing to improper
irrigation

5.3.2 Border or border strip irrigation

Border method involves irrigation a field by dividing the same into long strips separated by low parallel borders
(bunds). The method is also term border strip method. Border strip are laid along the general slope of the field
or across the general slope when the field slope is more.

5.3.2.1 Straight border irrigation

When the general slope is gradual and very little and the field is nearly level, the field is graded uniformly and
divided into straight long strips separated by borders. (Fig 7.1).

Grading of the field is done to a desirable slope economically without affecting the soil productivity by scraping
away the surface soil from one part to the other. A strip may be 3 to 15 m wide and 60 to 300 m long. The
size is governed by the stream size, land slope, soil type and water intake rate of soil. The width of a border
strip depends on the size of stream and the degree of land levelling practicable. When the size of stream is
small, the width of strip is reduced. The length of a border strip varies from 60 to 120 m in sandy and sandy
loam soils, 100 to 180 m in medium loam soils and 150 to 300 m in clay loam or clay soils (Michael et al.,
1972). A strip is essentially level between two borders so that the advancing sheet of water covers 0.4 per
cent. A higher slope is likely to cause soil erosion. The recommended safe limits of land slope for efficient
irrigation is given in Table 7.1.
A compact loam soil with impervious subsoil permits a long strip whereas, a lighter soil with permeable subsoil
demands for a shorter strip. Relationships of border strip size with varying soil texture, land slope and stream
size are presented in Table 7.2. The table would show that a border is longer and require a smaller stream in
fine soils than a coarse soils, while the size of border decreases with increase in slope of the field.

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Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Topic 5. Methods of Irrigation

Advantages
 no land is wasted for making channels excepting the supply channels
 borders can be used for growing crops
 efficiency of water application is high
 variable stream size can be efficiently used
 construction of borders is easy and does not involve much cost as they can be made by mould board
plough, ridges or bund former
 labor requirement for irrigation is quite low
 easy disposal of possible excess surface water that may accumulate at the tail end can be made
through a drainage channel at the end of strip.
Limitations
 precise land levelling is essential
 initial cost of land preparation and land grading is high
 there are chances of excess water intake in the upper reach of the strip
 excess water accumulation may occur at the tail end of the strip if the supply of water is not closed on
time or proper drainage is not made
 the method is unsuitable for uneven and undulating land with shallow soils
 enough skill is required in applying water

5.3.2.2 Contour border irrigation

Border strips are constructed along the contour when the land slope exceeds the safe limit of soil erosion, land
is undulating and the levelling is not economically feasible. They are designated as contour borders or contour
border strips. They are also termed bench border strips when they are constructed in bench terraces.
To construct strips, ridges are laid out along the contour strong enough to sustain pressure of water and high
enough to contain water along the contour (fig. 7.2). The design criteria and irrigation method are essentially
the same as with border strip method. The size of strips may however be shorter that usual. They are made
level crosswise and slightly sloping longitudinally as graded border strips. The width of a strip is decided by
the amount of earth work and the cost involved. The vertical interval between adjacent benches should be 30
cm, but it should not exceed 60 cm. Water supply channels are laid out the slope with provision for drops and
other measures to prevent channel bed erosion. Drainage channels with adequate provision for erosion
control should be ensured at the down end of the strip to drain out the excess rain water.

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Topic 5. Methods of Irrigation

5.3.3 Check or Check Basin Irrigation

Check method consists of dividing the field into several relatively level plots called checks surrounded by low
bunds. They are irrigated with comparatively large flow of water. Small checks are level while bigger ones are
slightly sloping along the length. A check is also termed as check basin.

5.3.3.1 Rectangular check irrigation

In a relatively uniform land with a gentle slope, checks may be rectangular and sometimes square. They may
be a few square meters in size for vegetable crops to as large as one hectare or more for wet land rice crop.
The size of a check is a function of the water intake rate of soil, land slope and the available stream size. In
lighter soils the size of a check may necessarily be small to achieve uniform wetting and in heavier soils the
size may be large. A sketch layout plan of check method is given in Fig 7.2.
Bunds around a check may be temporary for a cropping season or semi-permanent as for paddy fields. They
may be 25 to 35 cm high in case of small checks and 50 to 100 cm high for large checks depending on the size
of checks and the depth of water to be ponded. Temporary bunds of a check are narrow and of low height for
small check basins. Semi-permanent bunds may be wide for movements of farm machinery. They may
suitably be used for growing crops.
Water is conveyed to checks by a system of supply channel, laterals and field channels. Lateral or field
channels are laid out in such a way that a channel passes through a set of two rows of checks. Such a
channel is used to irrigate checks on both the sides. A supply channel is constructed on the upper reach of the
field and laterals usually follow the slope, if there is any.
Check method is adopted for irrigating row crops as well as closely spaced grain crops, fodder and vegetables
in a wide range of soils having moderate to slow infiltration rates. The method is especially suited to grain and
fodder crops in heavy soils where water is required to stand for comparatively a long time to ensure adequate
infiltration. It may however be adapted to very permeable soils with small checks that must be covered with
large stream very quickly to avoid deep percolation losses at the entrance of the stream. Where leaching of
salts is necessary, the check method is most suited. It is helpful to ensure waterlogged condition for rice crop
and to avoid run-off after rains.
Advantages
 variable size of streams can be effectively used
 it can be adopted for a wide range of soils,
 water application efficiency is high,
 there is no loss of water run-off,
 rain and irrigation water can be effectively used for wetting the root zone soil,
 water-logging condition can be easily created for rice crop,
 leaching down of salts can be easily done,
 provision for drainage of water is not usually necessary except in high rainfall areas.
Limitations
 precise land levelling is necessary
 considerable land is wasted by bunds and channels
 crop yields are low on bunds whenever crops are grown on them
 labor requirement is high for preparing the land for irrigation
 high capital investment required initially
 movements of farm animals, implements and machinery are often restricted by bunds and channels.

5.3.3.2 Contour check irrigation

In sloping and rolling lands contour checks are constructed by raising bunds or ridges along contours having
vertical intervals of 15 to 30 cm. Checks at the end of the adjoining contours may sometimes be joined at
suitable places to make them continuous. They are almost uniformly level or gently sloping and are often
small. A contour check is also termed contour check basin. Supply channels discharge water into contour
checks and run along the slope provided with check gates, turn outs and drops with measures to prevent
channel bed erosion. They are sometimes interconnected at suitable places. The design criteria and the
method of water application is essentially the same as with the rectangular check method.
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Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Topic 5. Methods of Irrigation

Contour checks are suitable for growing vegetables, forage and grain crops including the rice crop.

5.3.4. Contour ditch irrigation

In a topography with sloping and rolling lands where the land levelling is not economical or feasible, the
contour ditch or contour channel irrigation is adopted. Supply ditches are constructed along the contours at
certain intervals depending on the slope of land. Water is flooded down the slope from the upper ditch to
irrigate the lower land between two adjacent ditches. The ditch in the lower contour receives excess water
from the upper checks and prevents water from accumulating and causing soil erosion. A fairly uniform wetting
is possible. Close growing cereals and forage crops are suitable. Width of the land between two ditches is
such that it does not cause soil erosion.
Advantages
 it does not require precise land levelling,
 cost of land preparation for irrigation is low,
 chances of erosion are reduced,
Disadvantages
 labor cost of water application is high as constant care is needed for guiding water and preventing soil
erosion,
 the application efficiency is not high.

5.3.5 Furrow Irrigation Methods

Furrow irrigation refers to irrigating land by constructing furrows between two rows of crops or alternately after
two rows of crop (Fig.7.3). It wets the land surface only partly and water in the furrow moves laterally by
capillarity to the unwanted areas below the ridge and also downward to wet the root zone soil. Furrow
irrigation is adopted to irrigate all row crops such as maize, cotton, groundnut, sugarcane, tobacco, potato and
vegetable crops on ridges. Plantation and fruit crops are also irrigated by furrow method.

Furrow irrigation saves a considerable amount of water by reducing the evaporation loss. Evaporation is low
here as only a part of the land surface is wetted. The saving may be as much as 30 per cent over the other
method of surface flooding like border strip or check basin method. Besides, it is helpful to irrigate crops like
bean, tomato, and potato that are sensitive to wet soils at the base of plants and to crops such as sugarbeet
and safflower that are susceptible to fungal diseases like root rot. Usually furrows are constructed after every
row of crops. Groundnut and vegetable crops such as onions, cabbage and chilies are irrigated by laying out
furrows after every two rows of crops. These practices save more water than when furrows are made after
each row of crops. Besides, it prevents an accumulation of salts near the plant bases in areas where salts are
a problem.
Advantages
 great saving of water over other flooding methods,
 variable sizes of streams ca be used,
 large size stream can be controlled by discharging water in several furrows,
 the water application efficiency is very high,
 wide ranges of soils can be irrigated,
 losses of water by evaporation, run-off and deep percolation are reduced,
 there is no erosion hazard,
 furrows act as drainage channels in high rainfall areas,

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Topic 5. Methods of Irrigation

 furrows are helpful in lands with high salt concentration as salts accumulate on the upper part of the
ridges and crop planted at the lower end of the ridges is safer.
Limitations
 land requires precise grading to a uniform slope,
 labor requirement is high for grading land and making furrows,
 skilled labor is necessary to control water in furrows,
 erosion of furrow bed is anticipated if furrows are not properly graded,
 the method is unsuitable for light irrigation.

5.3.5.1 Straight graded furrow irrigation

Straight furrows constructed along the prevailing land slope or made sloping to a non-erosive grade are called
straight graded furrows. For long and deep furrows, grading is made to achieve quick water coverage of
furrows. For irrigating row crops in large farms, straight graded furrows are laid to allow the use of the largest
practical stream to increase the water application efficiency. Water is allowed first to cover the furrow in the
quickest possible time with a larger stream and then the stream is cut back to a smaller size to allow just the
amount required to meet infiltrated water. Water supply is completely cut when the desired depth of water has
infiltrated in the upper reach of the furrow to avoid losses through deep percolation and run-off. A drainage
channel is made at the end of furrows to drain out excess water during high rainfall and when water logging
occurs owing to careless irrigation.
5.3.5.2 Straight level furrow irrigation
Furrows are made level and straight throughout its length. They are suited to soils having low infiltration rate
and moderate to high water holding capacity. They are constructed in uniformly level lands and in small fields
with short furrows. Water is allowed to fill the furrows very quickly and then allowed to stand for sufficiently
long time to permit adequate infiltration to wet the crop root zone. Water supply to furrows is cut-off when the
required depth of water is discharged into them. The same size of stream is maintained from the beginning till
the end of irrigation.
Advantages
 considerable amount of water is saved as there is no loss of water by run-off and deep percolation
takes place
 no grading of land is necessary in a level land and in small plots,
 there is no erosion hazard,
 uniform wetting of root zone soil with high water application efficiency is achieved,
Limitations
 the furrow capacity must be large to hold sufficient water for infiltration and to control large flows,
 uniform levelling of land is required.

5.3.5.3 Contour furrow irrigation

Contour furrow method of irrigation is adopted in a uneven and rolling topography. When the longitudinal slope
exceeds the safe limits for graded furrows, furrows are constructed along the contour. Furrows are either
graded or made level depending on the types of soils and length of furrows. Contour furrows are usually short
to avoid soil erosion. Graded contour furrows are given a gentle longitudinal slope. The supply channel or
pipe line runs down the slope discharging water into furrows. Bunds along contours are raised at certain
intervals to prevent breaches damaging fields at lower levels. The supply channel is either grasses or
structures are constructed to prevent erosion of the channel bed and sides.
Advantages
 steeper lands where straight graded or level furrows are likely to get eroded can be irrigated,
 comparatively a larger stream can be used without much risk of soil erosion in furrows along contours,
 relatively a high application efficiency can be achieved.
Limitations
 coarse textured soils and soils that develop cracks are unsuitable,
 breaches in furrows may increase the erosion hazards,
 length of furrows is usually short,
 grasses supply channels and structures or water pipe lines are required for carrying water down the
slope
 constant watch is needed to look for possible breaches and repair the same immediately.

5.3.5.4 Alternate furrow irrigation

When the supply of water is limited, irrigation is applied through alternate furrows. Besides, this alternate
furrow method is adopted where salt is a problem. Water is discharged in alternate furrows keeping the in
between furrow dry. In the subsequent irrigation, water is allowed to flow through the alternate furrows that
had been kept dry on the previous occasion. This method saves quite a good amount of water and is very
useful and crucial in areas of water scarcity and salt problems.

5.3.5.5 Raised bed and furrow irrigation

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Topic 5. Methods of Irrigation

Raised beds of 1 to 1.5 m width or wide ridges alternating with furrows are often constructed for growing
vegetable crops, particularly those vegetable crops that creep on soil surface. Fruits of those vegetables get
damaged on coming in contact with the moist soil. Two rows of plants are usually raised on two sides of a bed
or ridge. A furrow runs between two rows of the adjacent ridges or beds and supplies water to the plant rows
(Fig 7.4) The method assures saving a large amount of water. The surface soil of beds or ridges remains dry
and the creeping plants and their fruits are not damaged. Water from furrows moves laterally into the soil
below the bed or ridge to meet the crop need. It prevents accumulation of salts at the base of plants and
reduces the salt injury to crops in areas where salt is a problem.

5.3.6 Corrugation Irrigation

Corrugation are miniature furrows adopted for irrigation close growing crops such as grain, forage and pasture
crops (Fig. 7.5). Crops may be line sown or broadcast and corrugation may not bear any definite relation to
crop rows. This method is used for fine to moderately coarse soils, especially soils that bake and forms crust.
Corrugations reduce crusting as they wet only a part of the land surface. They are however not suitable for
sandy soils as corrugations get smooth quickly due to collapse of ridges, particularly in moderate to high
rainfall areas. The method is advantageous when the available stream is small.

Advantages
 it saves quite a good amount of water by reducing the evaporation losses,
 small supply stream can be effectively used,
 it prevents crusting of soils, water application efficiency is very high,
 no precise land levelling is necessary.
Limitations
 it is unsuitable for high rainfall area where corrugations are smoothened by the beat of rains,
 it is unsuitable where the land is level or the slope is less than one per cent,
 it is unsuitable for sandy soils,
 corrugations do not effectively drain the excess rainfall.

5.3.7 Basin and Ring Irrigation

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Topic 5. Methods of Irrigation

Fruit crops in orchards are irrigated by constructing basins or rings around trees. Basins are usually used for
small trees, while rings are used in bigger trees which are widely spaced. Both these methods involve only
partial wetting of the soil surface. A considerable amount of water is saved that way and the irrigation
efficiency is found to be high. A fruit tree may initially be irrigated by the basin method when it is young, but
later the tree grows bigger it is irrigated by ring method.

5.3.7.1 Basin irrigation

A basin is usually made for one tree sapling (Fig. 7.6), but it may include more than one tree sapling when they
are not spaced very wide. Basins may be square, circular or rectangular. When a basin encompasses more
than one tree sapling, it takes a rectangular shape. Basins are made longer and wider as saplings grow in
size. The land inside basins is flat with the base area of tree kept little raised so that the sapling stems do not
come in direct contact with water. Only a part of the total land surface is flooded. Water is supplied through
laterals and each basin is connected to a lateral with a short and narrow furrow. However, a basin may be
connected with another one by small furrow to get the water supply. A lateral or field channel passes between
two rows of trees alternately supplying water to individual basins on both sides. A basin usually covers the
complete area under the tree canopy. Desired quantity of water is water into a basin for complete infiltration.

Advantages
 consideration amount of irrigation water is saved as in involves only partial flooding of soil surface
 water losses through deep percolation and evaporation is greatly reduced,
 variable size of streams can be easily controlled,
 water application efficiency is very high,
 rain and irrigation water can be conveniently used for wetting the root zone,
 no provision for drainage water is required except in high rainfall areas where laterals may act as
drainage channels,
 entire area excepting the basin area does not require precise land levelling,
 the labor requirement and the cost of making basin are low’
 no land is wasted.
Limitations
 the method is adaptable only for fruit trees or shrubs in orchards and plantations
 channels and basin restrict to some extent the movement of animals and farm machinery.

5.3.7.2 Ring irrigation

Ring method consists of irrigation fruit trees in orchards by constructing circular trenches around trees (Fig
7.7). Ring trenches are smaller in both depth and width around small trees and are larger around bigger trees.
Usually a ring is laid out at the periphery of the tree canopy. The ring trenches are usually made 30 to 50 cm
wide and about 30 cm deep. Water is allowed into rings through laterals connecting the rings with short and
narrow furrows. Laterals pass through a set of two rows of trees supplying water into rings on both sides.
Water supply process is essentially the same as with the basin irrigation. Water in desired quantity is allowed
to stand in the trenches for infiltration.

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Topic 5. Methods of Irrigation

5.3.8 Surge Irrigation

Surge irrigation is defined as the intermittent application of water to field surface under gravity flow which
results in a series of “on” and “off” modes of constant or variable times spans. Large intermittent flows rather
than continuous ones are used in two sets of furrows and gated pipes laid in the “tee” configuration. Water is
switched alternately from one set of furrows to the other by a valve and automatic time controller until irrigation
is complete. The cycle time (irrigation period plus the rest period) can be made to vary from 30 mins to several
hours.
When water is applied for a set period after which inflow is halted, the flow or water continues respectfully
along the furrow length during the off-time. After a suitable off-time, water is again introduced. This process is
continued until the end of irrigation. Large surge flows encourage rapid advance along furrows and cut-backs
are achieved either by reducing the cycle time or switching to continuous flow once water reaches the end of
furrow by running all the gated pipe outlets at half the surge discharge, 50 per cent but-back.

5.4 Subsurface Irrigation Methods

Subsurface irrigation, also designated as subirrigation, involves irrigation to crops by applying water from
beneath the soil surface either by constructing trenches (Fig. 7.8) or installing underground perforated pipe
lines or tile lines. Water is discharged into trenches and allowed to stand during the whole period of irrigation
for lateral and upward movement of water by capillary to the soil between trenches. Underground perforated
pipes or titles in which water is forced, trickled out water through perforations in pipes or gaps in between the
tiles. Water moves laterally and upward to moist the root soil under capillary tensions. Pipelines remain filled
with water during the period of irrigation. The upper layers of soil remains relatively dry owing to constant
evaporation while the lower layers remain moist.

Prerequisites for subirrigation

 existence of high water table or an impervious subsoil above which an artificial water table can be
created,
 highly permeable root zone soil with reasonably uniform texture permitting good lateral and upward
movement of water,
 irrigation water is scarce and costly,
 soil should not have any salinity problem.
Advantages
 soil water can be maintained at a suitable tension favorable for good plant growth and high yield,
 evaporation loss from soil surface is held at minimum resulting in saving of water,

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 labor cost of water application is very low,

 supply ditches may serve as drainage ditches in humid areas,
 it ca be used for soils having a low water holding capacity and high infiltration rate where surface
method cannot be adopted and the sprinkler irrigation is expensive.
Limitations
 presence of high water table or impervious subsoil is a prerequisite for adopting this method,
 good quality water must be available,
 there are chances of saline and alkali conditions being developed by upward movement of salts with
the water,
 soils should have a good hydraulic conductivity for upward movement of water.

5.5 Overhead or Sprinkler Irrigation Methods

Sprinkler irrigation refers to application of water to crops in form of spray from above the crop like rain. It is
also called the overhead irrigation as water is allowed to fall as spray from above the crop (Fig. 7.9). Water
under pressure is carried and sprayed into the air above the crop through a system of overhead perforated
pipes, nozzle lines or through nozzles fitted to riser pipes attached to a system of pipes laid on the ground.
Nozzles of fixed type or rotating under the pressure of water are set at suitable intervals in the distribution
pipes. Water is sprayed through these perforations or nozzles over the crop wetting both the crop and soil.
The spraying has a refreshing effect on plants. Water is applied at the rate less than the intake of soils so that
there occurs no run-off. Measured quantity of water is applied to meet the soil water depletion.

Advantages
 water use is economized as losses by deep percolation can be totally avoided,
 small and frequent applications of water can be made,
 water-application efficiency is usually very high
 there is very little waste of land for laying out the system,
 measured amount of water can be applied,
 land levelling is not necessary,
 it can be adopted even in undulating topography,
 it is adopted where water is scare and high priced,
 soil water can be easily maintained at a favorable tension for optimum growth and yield,
 application of fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides can be easily made along with irrigation water,
 crops can be saved from frost damage,
 uniform application of water can be made in highly porous soils,
 high yields or good quality fruits and vegetables are obtained.
Disadvantages
 high capital investment is involved in its installation,
 operating cost of sprinkler is higher,
 technical personnel for its operations and maintenance are required,
 clean water is needed to avoid clogging of nozzles,
 mechanical difficulties are expected,
 areas with hot winds are unsuitable,
 it is not adopted in places where plenty of cheap water is available as surface methods are more useful
and less costly
 pipe system laid on the soil surface may interfere with farm operations and movements of implements
and animals.

5.5.1 Classification of Sprinkler System

Types of nozzle systems or perforation in pipelines
Nozzle line sprinkler system

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Rotary head sprinkler system

Fixed-head sprinkler system
Propeller type sprinkler system
Perforated pipe system
Potability of the systems
Permanent sprinkler system
Semi-permanent sprinkler system
Solid-set sprinkler system
Semi-portable sprinkler system
Potable sprinkler system

5.5.2 Types of Sprinkler Irrigation System

Nozzle line sprinkler system
It consists of one or more pipes of relatively smaller diameter having a single row of fixed small nozzles spaced
at uniform intervals along their entire length. Piper are supported on rows of posts at a height convenient to
spray over crops and can be rotated through 90 degrees. Water is sprayed at a pressure of two to three
atmospheres at right angles to the pipeline and at an angle of 45 degrees to the horizontal plane. The pipeline
is rotated through 90 degrees to cover with water spray the area on both sides and the width of the strip
covered varies from 6 to 15 m according to the pressure of water and nozzles used.
Rotary head sprinkler system
This system consists of nozzles that rotate under pressure of water and spray water in a circular way. Nozzles
are fitted on riser pipes attached to lateral pipelines at uniform interval along the length of pipes. There may be
a single nozzle or double nozzles on a riser pipe. Laterals are usually laid on the ground and are space at
about 15 m intervals. A working pressure of 1.4 to 3.4 atm is used for high pressure nozzles.
Advantages
 water is sprayed at a slow rate using nozzles with large openings
 it is favorable for soils of low infiltration rates,
 water containing some amount of fine silt and debris may be sprayed since the clogging of nozzles is
less frequent.
Fixed-head sprinkler system
Nozzle in this system remain stationary and spray water in one direction only to which the spray nozzle is
directed. The system is used extensively in orchards and nurseries. It has high water application rates. The
spray is usually fine which is helpful for irrigation seedlings in nurseries.
Propeller type sprinkler system
The system includes a number of sprinklers mounted on a horizontal pipeline which is held above the crop by a
horizontal superstructure centrally pivoted over a wheeled platform in a wing-like fashion. Sprinkler pipeline
with the superstructure propels slowly and sprays a wide area. The whole structure can be wheeled to new
positions through pathways in the field. Water is conveyed to the sprinkler pipeline by a rubber hose either
directly from the pumping plant or from the main line. The rubber hose traits along with the structure just like a
giant umbilical cord. The force of water is used for propelling the system. It does away with laterals and by
that reduces the capital investment. The operation is easy and the cost of irrigation is relatively cheap.
Perforated pipeline
This system includes lateral pipes perforated at regular intervals in a definite pattern to spray water through
these perforations. Pipes are installed in rows at an interval of 6 to 15 m and the working pressure is only from
0.3 to 1 atm. An overhead tank suffices the need to create the pressure. Pipes are perforated to spray the
area on both sides of a pipe and a strip of 6 to 15 m wide is usually covered with a pipeline. The water
application rate is higher adapted for irrigation lawns, gardens and small vegetable fields where the heigh of
plant does not exceed 60 cm. Water should be clean to prevent clogging of perforations.

5.6 Drip Irrigation Method

Drip irrigation, also called trickled irrigation, refers to the application of water at a slow rate drop by drop
through perforations in pipes or through nozzles attached to tubes sprayed over the soil to irrigate in limited
area around the plant. It achieves wetting of even smaller surface area than in case of furrow irrigation. A
precise amount of water as equal to daily consumptive use or the depleted soil water as changing with time
can be applied. The soil water can be maintained at field capacity or at low tensions during the crop growing
period. The soil factors are thus less important in deciding the frequency of irrigation. The soil factors are thus
less important in deciding the frequency of irrigation. Deep percolation losses can be complete prevented and
the evaporation loss is also reduced.
Drip irrigation system consists of three components: (1) head, (2) heart and (3) tail. The head part comprises
the pumping set with its prime mover, a fertilizer tank with its regulators and a venturi unit to lead fertilizer
solutions and irrigation water to the heart components.

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Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Topic 5. Methods of Irrigation

Advantages
 considerable saving of water,
 high water application efficiency,
 loss of water through evaporation and seepage is reduced,
 physical conditions of soils are maintained in congenial form for plants by maintaining optimum soil-
water-air balance around plant bases,
 localized application of fertilizers is made with irrigation water,
 brackish water can be used more safely,
 weeds and pest problems are at minimum,
 the method can be adopted in sloping lands and irregular topography without any erosion hazard.
Limitations
 initial cost of installation of the system is high but it works out much cheaper than sprinkler system
considering the saving of water in drip irrigation,
 the method is profitable only in areas where irrigation water is scarce and costly, particularly in arid
regions and for growing high value crops.

5.7 Exercises
1. Classify the methods of irrigation to crops.
2. What is surface irrigation? Give its advantages and disadvantages.
3. Enumerate and describe the different systems of sprinkler irrigation.
4. State the criteria for choosing a method of irrigation for crop.
5. Distinguish between furrow method. State the advantages and disadvantages.

Reference(s)
1. Majumdar, Dilip Lumar, Irrigation Water Management: Principles and Practices, Second Edition, ISBN-
978-81-203-4826-4

NEXT TOPIC: Topic 6. Irrigation Efficiency

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Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Topic 5. Methods of Irrigation

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