Module-1: Introduction to Irrigation & Water

Requirements of Crops
Methods of Irrigation
Irrigation water may be applied to the crops by using four different methods:
1. Surface irrigation methods
2. Sub-surface irrigation methods
3. Micro irrigation methods

Factors affecting choice of Irrigation method

1) Soil characteristics of the land to be irrigated
2) Topography of the area
3) The available water supply
4) Types of crops and its water requirements
5) Size of the stream supplying irrigation water
6) Rate of infiltration of the soil
7) Depth of the water table
8) Depth of the root zone of the plants
9) Amount of water required in each irrigation
10) Possible erosion hazard of the soil
11) Initial development costs and availability of the funds
 Method of irrigation should fulfill the following objectives
1. Such that adequate amount of water is stored in the root zone of the plants.
2. Ensure uniform application of the water.
3. Not cause soil erosion problem.
4. Efficient with a minimum wastage of water.
5. Should not be expensive.
6. Should be such that land is not wasted for construction of the field channels, borders etc.
7. Suitable for use with economical conveyance structure.
8. Should fit properly to the boundaries of the land to be irrigated.
9. Should not be in-convenient and difficult.
10. Should not cause water logging in the irrigated land.

Surface Irrigation Methods

 In this method the irrigation water is applied by spreading in the form of sheet or small streams on the
eland to be irrigated.
 Adopted for perennial irrigation system.
 Inundation system adopts only the wild or uncontrolled flooding method of irrigation.
 This method is best suited to soils with low to moderate Infiltration capacities and to lands with
relatively uniform terrain (slope less than 3%)
 Water is applied and distributed either by gravity or pumping
 Surface irrigation methods are suitable for soils with low to moderate infiltration capacities.

Advantages:
 Allow use of machinery for land preparation, cultivation and harvesting
 Helps to store the required amount of water in the capillary zone of the soil for supply to the root zone
of the plants.

Disadvantages:
 Grater loss of the water by deep percolation and surface runoff.
 Low efficiency due to imperfect control over the water flow.
 Wasteful use of the water.
Surface Irrigation: Flow irrigation: Water available at higher level is lifted to a lower level
by the action of the gravity.

Lift irrigation: Water is available at lower level is lifted to a higher level

by mechanical or manual means and then supplied for
the irrigation.

Sub-surface Irrigation Methods

 In this method the irrigation water flows underground and nourishes plant roots by capillarity.
 Water is supplied to the root zone of crops through open ditches or buried perforated pipes.
 Favourable conditions for the sub-surface irrigation:
Impervious sub soil layer at reasonable depth (at 2 to 3 m)
In the root zone, soil must be permeable such as loam or sandy loam
Uniform topography
Moderate slopes
Good quality irrigation water

Sub-surface irrigation may be divided into two types:

Natural sub irrigation
Artificial sub irrigation

Natural sub irrigation

 In this method water is supplied to the root zone of the crops through a series of ditches.
 Depth of ditches= 0.3 to 1 m
 Width of ditches= 0.3 to 0.5 m
 Sides= vertical
 Spacing of ditches= 15 to 100 m (depending on the permeability of the soil)
 These ditches (Channels) have relatively flat slopes.
 Water flows at a slow rate and seeps in the ground.
 This method is applicable to low lying lands where water table is high and within capillary reach of the
root zone of crops.
Artificial sub irrigation
 This method consists of the supplying water directly to the root zone of crops through a network of the
hurried perforated pipes.
 Suitable for soils having the high horizontal permeability and low vertical permeability.
 Pipes buried at depth 0.3 to 0.4 m and with horizontal spacing of 0.4 to 0.5 m.

Micro Irrigation Methods

 In this method the irrigation water applied by the small drops in the root zone of the plants.
 Water is supplied to the root zone of crops through small pipe networks.
 There are two types of micro irrigation methods:
1. Sprinkler irrigation method

2. Drip irrigation method

Surface Irrigation Methods
Wild Flooding (Uncontrolled Flooding)
 Earliest and primitive method.
 Water is applied by spreading over the land.
 Before application of water no land preparation is required in the form of the levees or borders or field
ditches.
 Water is allowed to flow the natural slope of the land.
 No control on flow of the water.
 Runoff losses are very much higher.
 Suitable for smooth and flat land for which no preparation of the land required.
 Well adapted to the lands that have such irregular surfaces that the other irrigation methods are
impractical.
 Useful for the close growing crops because evaporation and seepage losses may be reduced.
 Used when water is available for irrigation on abundance and it is inexpensive.

Controlled Flooding
 Irrigation water is applied by spreading it over the land to be irrigated with proper control on the flow
of water as well as on the quantity of the water applied.
 All the methods of control flooding required the prior preparation of the land.
 Agricultural fields divided into small units by levees and the field channels are excavated.
 Methods of controlled flooding:
1. Free flooding (ordinary flooding)
2. Contour laterals
3. Border strips
4. Check basin
5. Basin flooding
6. Zig- zag method

1. Free flooding (Ordinary flooding)

 Consists of dividing the entire land to be irrigated into small strips by a number of field channels or
levees called as field channels (laterals).
 These laterals may be either at right angles to the sides of the field or at the right angles to the contour
lines.
 When laterals are aligned at right angles to the sides of the field, irrigation is possible only on one sides
of the laterals.
 When laterals are aligned at the right angles to the contours, irrigation can be done to the both sides of
the laterals.
 The field channels receive water from the supply channel and discharge excess water in the waste
channel.
 Water from these ditches flow across the field. After the water leaves the ditches, no attempt is made to
control the flow by means of water is not restricted, it is sometimes called wild flooding.
 Method used for the flat lands as well as for relatively steep lands.
 Alignment and spacing of the laterals depends upon the type of soil (i.e. permeability of the soil) and
topography of the land.
 If the slopes are steeper, closer spacing of laterals is required.
 For flat land and for relatively less pervious soils, the spacing of the laterals may increased.
 Normally spacing of the laterals vary from 10 to 50 m.
 The initial cost of land preparation is low, labour requirements are usually high
 Water application efficiency is low
 Wild flooding is most suitable for close growing crops, pastures etc. particularly where the land is steep.
 This method may be used on rolling land (topography Irregular) where borders. Checks, basins, and
furrow are not feasible.
2. Contour Laterals
 Special case of free flooding in which
field channels or laterals are aligned
approximately along with the contour
lines.
 Contour farming is practiced in hilly
regions where the lands to be irrigated
have steep slopes.
 It also control erosion due to rainfall
 In this method the land to be irrigated is
divided into a series of strips aligned
along the contours.
 These strips are also known as terrace or
benches.
 Irrigation is possible only on one side of
the laterals.
 The vertical interval between two
successive strips is usually 30 to 60 cm thus a series of steps is formed around the slope.
 Each strip forms an independent portion of the land to be irrigated.
 The strips do not have slope, however they are given a gentle slope along their length to ensure efficient
Irrigation and the drainage of excess water without causing erosion.
 At the outer side of each strip a low levees or dyke (or bund) is constructed which follows the boundary
configuration along the contour.
 The height of bund should be sufficient enough to contain Irrigation water as well as surface runoff due
to rainfall.
 3. Border Strips (Border flooding)
 Agricultural farm is divided
into the series of strips of 10
to 20 m wide in wide and 100
to 300 m long.
 Strips are separated by the
low levees or borders.
 These strips have uniform
slope along the direction of
the flow, but there is no cross
slope.
 When water is applied at its
end, it spreads over the entire
width as it flows down the
slope along the longitudinal
direction.
 Suitable for irrigating all close growing crop except rice.
 Suitable for soils of wide variations in texture.
 Best suited for land having slope less than 0.5% (i.e. 1 in 20)
 Best suited for the soils having low to moderate intake rates.

 Water is made to flow from the supply ditch into each strip.
 The supply ditch also called Irrigation stream, may either be in the form of an earthen channel or a lined
channel or an underground concrete pipe having risers at intervals.
 Type of Soil Length of strip Longitudinal Slope
Sandy and sandy loam soils 60 to 120 m 0.25 to 0.60 %
Medium loam soils 100 to 120 m 0.20 to 0.40 %
Clay loam and clay soils 150 to 300 m 0.05 to 0.20 %
 Coarse textured soil with high infiltration rates will require high discharge rate will larger supply ditch,
in order to spread water over the entire strip rapidly and to avoid excessive losses due to deep percolation
at the upper reaches.
 For fine textured soil with low infiltration rates, require small ditches to avoid excessive losses due to
run off at the lower reaches.
 A relationship between the discharges through the supply ditch (Q) the average depth of water flowing
over the strip (Y) the rate of Infiltration of soil (f), the area of the land Irrigated (A) the approximate
time required to cover the given area with water (t) is given by the equation.

 To determine the maximum area that can be Irrigated with a supply ditch of discharge Q and
soil having infiltration capacity f

 It can also be inferred from this equation that the discharge per unit area of the border strip (Q/A) should
be varied according to infiltration capacity of soil (f) otherwise loss of water will take place.
 This method of field Irrigation is becoming very popular among the cultivators.
 Shorter and narrower strips are found to be more efficient.
Advantages:
 If strips and borders are properly designed, a good water application efficiency achieved.
 Labour requirements is less.
 If surface drainage is poor, the method is ideal for rapid disposal of the excess water.

Disadvantages:
 A stream of relatively large size is required to irrigate a strip of the practical size.
 Cost of the leveling is high unless the topography is relatively smooth.
 It is difficult to apply a depth of water less than 5 cm.

Example: Find the time required to cover an area of 0.1 hectares when a tube well is
discharging at the rate of the 0.03 cumecs for irrigating rabi crop. Average depth of flow
is expected to be 7.5 cm. Average infiltration rate for the soil may be taken as 5 cm/hour.
4. Checks basin (Check flooding / irrigation by plots)
 Most common method in India as well as world.
 Land is divided into small plots or checks basins surrounded by checks or levees.
 Check flooding is similar to
ordinary flooding except that
the water is controlled by
surrounding the check area
with low and flat levees.
 Levees are generally
constructed along the
contours, having vertical
interval of about 5 to 10 cm.
these levees are connected
with cross-levees at
convenient places.
 The confined plot area varies
from 0.2 to 0.8 ha (400 to 500
sq. m).
 Size of plot depends upon the
porosity of the soil.
 For the soils which have high
porosity and filtration rate, the size of plot is small.
 In check flooding the check is filled with water at a fairly high rate and allowed to stand until the water
infiltrates.
 Deep homogeneous loam or clay soils with medium infiltration rates are preffered for this method.
 This method is suitable for more permeable soil as well as for less permeable soil.
 The water can be quickly spread in case of high permeable soils thus reducing the percolation losses.
 The water can also be held on the surface for a longer time in case of less permeable soils, for assuring
adequate penetration.
 Close growing crops such as jowar or paddy are preffered for this method.
 Each plots or basin has a nearly level surface.
 Size of levees depends upon the depth of water to be applied as well as the stability of the soil when it
is wet.
 Usually there is one field channel for every two rows of plots.
 Most preferred for close growing crops like paddy.
 This method is also best suited for cereal crops.

5. Basin Flooding (Ring basin flooding)

 Special form of check basin method
 Used for the irrigation of the orchards
enclosures with fruit trees
 Each tree a separate basin is made which is
circular in shape
 Shape of basin can be square, rectangle,
circular or it may be Ir
 Flatter the land surface, easier it is to
construct the basins.
 Coarse sands are not suitable for basin
Irrigation because of high percolation
losses.
6. Zig-zag Flooding
 Special method of controlled flooding
 Water applied to the land takes a circular route,
starting from the field channel and reaching the
dead end of the plot.
 Whole farm is divided into a number of square
and rectangular plots.
 Suitable for relatively level plots.
 Not suitable when farming operations are to be
done with modern farm machinery like tractors,
threshers etc.

Furrow Method
 In flooding methods water
cover the entire surface
while in furrow Irrigation
method only one-fifth to
one-half of the land surface
is wetted by water. It
therefore, results in less
evaporation, less pudding
of soil and permits
cultivation sooner after
Irrigation.
 In this method, water is
applied to the land to be
irrigated by series of
furrows.
 Furrows are narrow field ditches, excavated between rows of plants and carry Irrigation water through
them.
 The water flowing in the furrows infiltrates into the soil and spreads laterally to irrigate the land between
the furrows.
 The crops are usually grown on the ridges between the furrows.
 Spacing of furrow is determined by the proper spacing of the plants furrow vary from 8 to 30 cm deep,
and may be as much as 400 m long.

 Excessive long furrows may result in too

much percolation near the upper end, and
too little water near the down slope end.
 Deep furrows are widely used for row
crops, small shallow furrows called
corrugations are particularly suitable for
relatively Irregular topography and close
growing crops such as meadows and small
grains.
 The furrow method of Irrigation is
commonly used for row crops such as
maize, jawar, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco,
groundnut, potatoes, etc.
 Straight furrow use for flat land (slope not
exceed 0.75%) and contour furrows used
for relatively steeper slope.
 Field enclosed by dikes where rice is grown
are called paddies.
 For low permeable soil a wide and shallow furrow preferred since. It gives more area for the water to
infiltrate. For highly permeable soil narrow and deep furrow preferred to avoid excessive percolation of
water.
 Furrows may classified into the two different types:
(1) Straight furrows
(2) Contour furrows

Straight furrows Contour furrows

 Used when land slope is nominal (effective  Aligned along the contours
for slope <0.75 %  Laid across the slope of the land
 Parallel to each other and aligned more or  Curved in plane
less along the straight lines  Used for steeper slope land
 Aligned along the slope of the land

Advantages & Disadvantages of the Furrow Irrigation

Advantages Disadvantages
Low evaporation losses as only 1/5 to 1/2 of Not recommended for very light soils having high
irrigated land surface is wetted infiltration capacity
Suitable for row crops like maize, jawar, sugarcane, Ditches may interfere with tillage
cotton, tobacco, groundnut, potatoes
No wastage of land in field ditches Expensive from consideration of the time labour
cost
Fairly efficient in use of water/ Higher water Serious erosion hazard
application efficiency
Relatively cheap to construct & maintain Adequate drainage need to provide
Possible to cultivate earlier in heavy soils
Furrows serves as drainage ways for the surface
runoff in areas of heavy rainfall
Labour requirement in land preparation and
irrigation are very much reduced

Design criteria for Furrow Irrigation

 Spacing depends upon the spacing of rows of plants
Spacing of furrows
 Normally 1 to 2 m spacing considered
 Depends on soil conditions and type of crop
 U shaped, V shaped, Parabolic shaped, Trapezoidal shaped furrow
 Low permeability—Wide & Shallow furrow—more area for the water
Shape & Size of
to infiltrate
furrows
 High permeability—narrow & deep furrow—avoid extra percolation of
water
 Depth of furrow- 75 to 125 mm
 Neither be too long nor too short
 Shorter for the porous sandy soils than for tight clayey soils or heavy
Length of furrows soils
 For clayey soil length of furrow- 300 to 400 m
 For sandy soil length of furrow- 60 to 300 m
 Discharge does not cause erosion in upper reaches
 Maximum non-erosion flow rate (qm)
qm = 0.60 / S in lit/s
Where S= slope of furrow (expressed in %)
 After the water has reached the lower end of the furrow, the stream size
(i.e. discharge) is reduced.
 Reduction in the stream size is called the cut back and the stream of
reduced size is known as cut back stream.
 Cut back stream flows until the required amount of the water has been
applied.
Discharge in the furrow  With a stream of known size the average depth of water applied during
an irrigation can be calculated from following equation:
Example: Furrow 100m long and 1 m apart having longitudinal slope of the 0.3 percent
are initially irrigated by a non-erosive stream for 80 minutes. The stream size is then
reduced to 40 % and continued for another 35 minutes. Determine the average depth of
irrigation.
Example: Furrows 90 m long and spaced 80 cm apart are irrigated by an initial furrow
stream of 2 lit/s. The initial furrow stream reached the lower end of the field in 50
minutes. The size of the stream was then reduced to 0.5 lit/s. The cut back stream
continued for 1 hour. Estimate the average depth of irrigation.
 Sub-Surface Irrigation Methods
 Supplying water directly to the root zone of the plants

Natural sub-surface irrigation

 Water supplied to the root zone of the plants by controlling the level of the local water table.
 This type of high water table available due to the water seeping from canals, drains, lakes, rivers etc.
so natural subsurface irrigation occurs through gravitational force.
 For adequate supply of water to the crops it is essential to maintain the water table near to the roots
of the plant. For this purpose a series of the parallel channels with almost vertical sides are excavated
in the land to be irrigated.
 Channel spacing= 15 to 100 m
 Depth of channel= 0.3 to 1 m
 Width of channel = 0.25 to 0.5 m
 Channel spacing depends upon the permeability of the subsoil arid topography of land

 Seepage channels have relatively flat slope so that the velocity of flow is small, so this channels
remain filled with water for a long period and adequate seepage occurs.
 Flow of water in the channels is regulated so that the adequate supply of moisture is maintained in
the root zones of the plants by capillary action from the water table.
 To prevent waterlogging, proper drainage of the excess water should be provided.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of the Natural sub-surface Irrigation
Advantages Disadvantages
Saving in the labor cost for preparation of the land. Requires an unusual combination of natural
conditions, which are rare.
Good water distribution. Because of movement of water is upward from
water table unwanted salts are deposited close to the
land surface. Periodic leaching is required to
remove the salts.
Proper control over the water supply to prevent
waterlogging and salinity.
Economical use of the water
Crop yield is high.

Artificial sub-surface irrigation

 In this method water is applying directly to the root zone of crops through a network of bured
perforated pipes.
 Water is made to pass under pressure, through these underground perforated pipes.
 Suitable only for those soils formations which have high horizontal permeability to permit lateral
movement of water and low vertical permeability.
 Pipes are buried 0.3 to 0.4 m deep so cultivated operations not hindered.
 For uniform distribution of water the pipes are spaced 0.4 to 0.50 m horizontally.

Advantages & Disadvantages of the Artificial sub-surface Irrigation

Advantages Disadvantages
Water distribution is quite good Very expensive method because cost of pipes and
the high installation cost.
Makes an effective use of water. Clogging of small perforations in the pipe usually
occurs due to silt, sand and debris.
Evaporation losses are avoided and percolation Water used should be of good quality and low
losses are reduced. salinity, because this method is not permit leaching.
 Micro Irrigation Methods
 Two types:

Sprinkler Irrigation Method (Overhead Irrigation Method)

 Water applied to the land in the form of spray.
 Resembles the rainfall in the form of the drizzle.
 Where surface irrigation method not used this method applied effectively.
 Preferable conditions in which this method applied.
1. Land cannot be prepared for the surface methods.
2. Topography is irregular.
3. Slopes are excessive.
4. Soil is erosive.
5. Soil is excessively permeable or impermeable.
6. Depth of soil is shallow over gravel and sand.
 Cost of land preparation and permanent water delivery system of channels or conduits is less.
 Large initial investments in the purchase of the pumping and sprinkling equipment.

Components of Sprinkler irrigation System

A sprinkler irrigation system consists of the following main components:
1) Pumping unit
2) Main delivery pipes
3) Laterals
4) Sprinklers
5) Other accessories

Pumping unit:  The pump lifts water from a water source and supplies it to the main pipe
line.
 Normally, to lift water from a depth up to 5.0 m single stage centrifugal
pump is required.
Main delivery pipes:  These are usually buried in the ground.
 They are made of concrete, asbestos. Cement, plastic or C.I. The mains are
laid at a depth 0.50 to 0.75 m below ground level.
 The diameter of mains varies from 5 cm to 15 cm.
Lateral pipes:  Lateral pipes are connected to the main pipelines.
 Sprinklers are fitted on the laterals with risers.
 These pipes are 50mm in diameter and 6 m long.
Sprinklers:  Sprinklers are mainly two types:
Sprinkler with fixed head
Sprinkler with rotating head
Other accessories:  Special couplings
 Regulating valves
 Pressure gauges
 Bends, elbows, tees
 Reducers, plugs, clamps etc.
A sprinkler irrigation systems are mainly of three types:
1. Fixed nozzle pipes
2. Perforated pipes
3. Rotating sprinkler

Fixed nozzle pipe:

 The fixed nozzle pipe type of sprinkler consists of the lateral pipes having a line of small holes drilled
at the top at some regular interval along their lengths and on each of these holes small nozzles are
fitted.
 A series of such pipes are installed parallel to each other at a distance of about 15 m apart and are
supported on rows of posts.
 The spray of water is developed through the nozzles and the entire 15 m width between the pipelines
may be irrigated by turning the pipes through 135°.
 This type of sprinkler was the early system
 These days it is rarely used in practice.

Perforated pipe sprinkler:

 In this method, lateral pipes are perforated.
 The perforations (small holes) in the lateral pipes are drilled on the top surface and sides in a
specially designed pattern to spray the water uniformly.
 The lateral pipes are placed on the land surface at a suitable spacing.
 When the water is supplied to the lateral pipes, it comes out the perforations in the form of spray.
 The sprays are directed from both the sides of the pipe and can cover a strip of the land of 6 to 15 m
width.
 The rate of application of water is usually greater than 2 cm depth per hour.
 The operating pressure tor of 50 to 250 kN/m2.
 This type of sprinkler system is generally used for irrigation of orchards and nurseries.
Rotating sprinkler:
The rotating sprinkler consists of one or two nozzles mounted on a body which is rotated slowly about
vertical axis by the action of a deflecting Vane connected to it.
 The jet of water issuing from
one of the nozzles impinges on
the vane and thrusts it aside.
 The rotating sprinklers are
placed on the riser pipes and are
located just above the crops to
be irrigated.
 As such the height of the riser
pipes depends upon the
maximum height of the crop.
 The minimum height of the
riser pipe is 0.3 m when the riser
pipe is of 25 mm diameter and
0.15 m when it is of 20 mm
diameter.
 The riser pipes along with the
sprinklers are fixed at regular
intervals along the length of the
lateral pipes and their spacing is
so adjusted that the water
spread areas of the adjacent sprinklers partially overlap with each other in order to achieve uniform
application of water.
 The required discharge of each sprinkler determined by formula:

Based on portability, sprinkler irrigation systems are classified into the following types:
Advantages of Sprinkler irrigation system:
 Uniform application of water is possible
 The erosion of soil is avoided since there is no runoff.
 Land preparation is not required. Labour cost is reduced.
 More land is available for cropping, as borders and ditches are not required
 Small streams of irrigation water can be used efficiently.
 Time and amount of fertilizers can be controlled for application.
 Crop damage from frost can be reduced. The spray of water melts the ice formed on the plants.
 In the sprinkler irrigation, a better control on the application of water is achieved.
 It can be used for light application of water required for seedlings and the young plants.
 The sprinkler irrigation is more suitable for small land holdings.
 The assessment of water can be done easily.
 This system is more useful for humid regions because the increase in humidity is less.
 If the domestic and irrigation water come from the same source, a common distribution line can be
used, which will reduce the cost.
 The pumping unit of the sprinkler irrigation system can be used as a stand by for the drainage
pumping system, if required.

Disadvantages of Sprinkler irrigation system:

 Wind may distort sprinkling pattern.
 Water must be clean and free from sand etc.
 The power requirement is high.
 Initial cost is high.
 A constant water supply is needed for the most economical use of the equipment of the sprinkler
irrigation system.
 The method is not suitable in arid regions because of high evaporation losses.
 The method is not efficient for clayey soils with poor intakes.

Suitability for soils and crops:

Soils:
 Sprinkler irrigation system can be used on nearly all types of soils.
 In wet or semi - wet regions it serves as crop insurance, while in dry areas or tracts unsuitable for
surface irrigation, it provides economical means for the production of valuable crops.
Crops:
 All crops except rice and jute respond favourably to sprinkler irrigation.
 It is particularly suitable for the production of high yielding crops or for quick growth of valuable
crops. But, in India, sprinklers are used on limited scale on commercial crops.

Crops with Sprinkler irrigation system

Cash crops Groundnut, tobacco, sugarcane
Plantation crops Tea, coffee, rubber
Cereal crops Wheat, maize. Jawar, millets
Fruits & vegetable crops Apples, grapes, oranges & all types of vegetables
Uniformity Coefficient (Cu)
 A measurable index of the degree of uniformity obtainable for any size sprinkler under given
conditions is known as the uniformity coefficient.
 The uniformity coefficient is affected by the pressure-nozzle size relations, sprinkler spacing and by
wind conditions.
 The coefficient is computed from field observations of the depths of water caught in open pans placed
at regular intervals within a sprinkled area.
 Christiansen has given the following expression to determine the uniformity coefficient.

 A uniformity coefficient of 100 % obtained with overlapping sprinklers is indicative of absolutely

uniform application. A uniformity coefficient of 85 % or more is considered to be satisfactory.
 The data on uniformity coefficient are useful as a basis for selecting the combination of spacings,
discharge, nozzle size and operating pressure to obtain high values of irrigation efficiency at specific
operating conditions.
 Some manufacturers give Cu values for each sprinkler, for each set of nozzles, each common spacing
and for each pressure.

Example: If 120 samples are uniformly placed in the area covered by three sprinklers
and average penetration of water caught in a given time is 1.25 cm with the average
variation from the mean of the 0.25 cm, what is the uniformly coefficient ?
Essential Requirements of Sprinkler irrigation system
High Efficiency Should give high water efficiency.
No runoff Complete precipitation is absorbed by the soil.
Controlled use of the water Water is applied in the small droplets so no damage to the crops.
Uniform watering Sprinkler system should provide uniform depth of water on the surface.
Moisture distribution Satisfactory moisture distribution is achieved in the field with the selected
spacing and operation pressures.
Gentle spray Fine feeding and young plants require gentle spray. Require high pressures
to break water drops at the nozzle.
Portability System should be light, so that they can be easily transported manually
from one place to another.
Wind velocity Should not be more than 16 km/hr so as not affect water distribution.
Lay out Lateral lines are essentially set at an angle to the prevailing wind direction.

Drip Irrigation Method (Trickle Irrigation Method)

 Latest developed method
 Very effective in the areas of the water scarcity as well as the salt problems
 Water is applied in the form of the drops directly near the roots of the plants through a special outlet
device called an emitter or a dripper.

Components of the Drip irrigation system

Main 3 components:
1. Control Head
2. Pipe network
3. Emitters

Control Head:
 The control head consists of
An overhead tank
A flow control valve
A water measuring device
Pressure control device
Filters
Pumping unit, etc.
 The control head is usually located near the source of water.
 The water is pumped into the overhead tank.
 The size of overhead tank is usually 3 x 3 x3 m, resting on a raised platform to maintain a
pressure head of 3 to 5 m.
  The filters are used to remove all debris, sand and clay in the water to prevent clogging of the
emitters.
 Generally, a fertilizer injection system is also provided at the control head.

Pipe Network:
 The pipe network (trickle lines) consist of a main line and a number of lateral pipes.
 Sometimes sub main lines are also required between main lines and the lateral pipe.
 A number of small diameter pipes (110 to 20mm) called trickle lines are provided from lateral pipes
to carry water to the roots of the crops.
 Pipes are usually made of P.V.C.

Emitters:
 Emitters are provided on each trickle line at a suitable spacing depending upon the type of crop and
soil conditions.
 Emitter is a precise metering device, which has a very low flow rate, usually 1 to 10 litres per hour.
 Advantages & Disadvantages of the Drip Irrigation System
Advantages Disadvantages
Water requirement is less. Saves 40 - 70 % water The initial cost of various components such as
when compared with the conventional methods. pumping unit, filters, pipelines, nozzles, etc. is very
high.
Evaporation losses are quite low. The deep The nozzle (emitter) holes are very small (0.5 to 1.0
percolation losses are entirely eliminated. mm dia.) Hence, they are frequently clogged by clay
and silt particles, resulting in reduction of flow.
Labour cost is less as no field channels, furrows are Due to change in the crops may result in frequent
required to be Constructed. replacement of trickle lines.
Water logging is avoided. This method is not suitable for closely planted crops
such as wheat.
The drip irrigation is quite suitable for small trees During high winds, the plants may topple, due to
and widely spaced plants. shallow root depth.
Most suitable for irrigation of fruit plants If irrigation water is saline dissolved salts are
deposited near the edge of the wetted zone. Thus,
periodical flushing is required for which water has
to be applied by the surface irrigation.
Problems related with weeds and soil crusting are
eliminated.
Problems related with fungus and insects diseases
can be considerably controlled.
Quite suitable for the arid regions where the water
is limited.
Over irrigation is avoided.
The problems of soil erosion which normally occurs
in the surface irrigation are eliminated.
All the land area is effectively utilized as there is no
wastage of land for the preparation of levees, bunds,
ditches, field channels, etc.
As the levelling of the land is not required, it can be
used for any topography.
Soil nutrients are preserved because of reduction in
deep percolation losses.
The drip irrigation can also be used when the water
is saline. As the water is applied through emitters,
the salts move to the outer edge of the welted zone
and hence the water near the root zone is less saline.
 Comparison of Sprinkler Irrigation System & Drip Irrigation System

Sprinkler Irrigation System Drip Irrigation System

Low water requirement, 65% of required in surface Least water requirement, 20 to 30% of that
irrigation. required in surface irrigation.
Higher evaporation losses. Evaporation losses are negligible
Suitable for all types of soils, including highly Suitable for all types of soils including less
permeable soils. permeable soils.
Soil erosion us controlled No soil erosion
Seriously affected by windy conditions. Not affected by windy condition.
Entire surface area is wetted Least surface area near roots of the plants are
wetted.
Surface temperature is reduced, resulting in longer Surface temperature is kept high resulting in
crop period. reduced crop period.
Pipes used are of high pressure and expensive Pipes used are of low pressure and cheaper.
Requires risers of requisite height and spacing No need of risers.
Has movable parts Free from any movable components
Comparatively slower rate of crop growth and seed Higher rate if crop growth and quicker seed
germination. germination
Weed and pest growth and diseases are less. Weed, pest and insect troubles are least.
Wide spread application. Especially suitable for tea Suitable for plants at some spacing such as
and coffee gardens, young seedlings and plants. vegetables, orchards etc.
Localized application of fertilizer is absent. Localized application of fertilizer.
No land levelling is required. No land levelling is required.
Lower rate application efficiency @ 65-70 % Highest water application efficiency @ 90 %
High initial cost and operation charges Low initial cost and operation (labour) charges.

Suitability Drip Irrigation System

 Suitable for almost all row crops and orchards.
 Adaptable for all types of soils and even to highly sloping terrain.

Crops which can be raised:

Row crops like tomato, chilly, brinjal, radish, cauliflower, lady fingers, sugarcane, banana, grapes, and
tobacco.

Type of soils:
 Adapted to highly permeable soils like sandy soils, sandy loam, and gravelly silty clay or to shallow
soils underlain with impermeable starta.
 Irrigation is applied at shorter intervals in sandy soils since its water holding capacity is low.
 Water Wealth in India
 Mean annual rainfall in the country=1194 mm
 When considered over the total geographical area of the country, 328.7 million hectares, it
makes available 392.5 million hectare-metres (Mha-m) of water

Annual
Precipitation
(400 Mha-m)

Infiltration into
Evaporation Surface flow
soil
(70 Mha-m) (115 Mha-m)
(215Mha-m)

To soil moisture from Rainfall

(165 Mha-m) (105 Mha-m)

To ground water from Snow fall

(50 Mha-m) (10 Mha-m)

Large river basins Catchment area > 20,000 km2

Medium river basins Catchment area 2000 to 20,000 km2
Minor river basins Catchment area < 2000 km2

River Catchment Area

Narmada 98, 796 km2
Tapi 65,145 km2
Mahi 34,842 km2
Sabarmati 21,674 km2
Ganga 10,86,000 km2
 Water Requirements of Crops
Soil Water Plant Relationships
 The soil provides a structural base to the plants.
 It allows the root zones of the plants to get firmly embeded in it.
 Thus the soil act as a foundation for the plants. Further, the soil stores water and nutrients required
by the plants for their growth.
 The soil - water - plant relationship include the capacities of the soils to retain water, use of this water
by the plants and the movement of the excess water through the soils.
 The water retained by the soil is used by the plants through their roots.
 Water is required by the plants in a small quantity for the metabolism and for the transportation of
the nutrients.
 However, much larger quantity of water is required for the physiological process of transpiration
which protects the plants from the injurious effects of high temperature.
 Some quantity of water is also required for evaporation.
 Thus,
Total quantity of water required by plants = Consumptive use of water
= evaporation + transpiration
= evapotranspiration
 Water is required for the life of plants and the germination of seed.
 Moreover, the chemical processes within the plants take place in an aqueous solution for which water
is needed.
 Water is also required for photosynthesis process in the presence of sunlight.
 Nutrients required by the plants are normally present in the soil in the forms of the salts.
 If soil salts may be not sufficient to provide the growth some of the fertilizers may used.
 Also water from the root zones of the plants may help the crop or the plants in the period of the
dryness or summer.
 For Proper growth of the plants requisite quantities of the water, air, and nutrients must be available
in the root zones.
Soil water & its Classification
 The water added to a soil mass during irrigation or otherwise, is held in the pores of the soil mass,
which is called Soil water or Soil moisture.
 Classified into three categories:
Gravitational water (Superfluous water):
 Portion of the total water in the soil which is free to move under gravity.
 It is that water which is not held by the soil but drains out freely under gravity.
 Occupies the large pores in the soil.
 The upper limit of the gravitational water occurs when the soil is fully saturated.
 The water content at that stage is known as the saturation capacity.

Capillary water (available water):

 The water content retained in the soil after the gravitational water has
 Drained off from the soil is known as capillary water.
 Held in the soil by surface tension in the form of film around the soil particles.
 It is not free to move under gravity.
 The plant roots gradually absorb the capillary water and water content of the soil decreases.
 It is the principal source of water to the plants. So, the capillary water is designated as available water.
Hygroscopic water (unavailable water):
 Water which is absorbed by the dry soil particles from the atmosphere.
 It is held as a very thin film around the soil particles.
 It is held due to adhesion or attraction between the surface of the soil particles and water molecules.
 An air dried soil will contain hygroscopic water. Since hygroscopic water is held with considerable
force, it cannot be removed easily from the soil particles.
 If the soil is heated up to 105°C in an oven, the hygroscopic water is removed.
 Hygroscopic water is not available to plants. So, it is also known as unavailable water.
 Readily available moisture= 75 % of the available moisture

Important Terms
Soil Moisture Content:
 Amount of water present in a soil is called. (Unit: mm of water depth present in a 1 m depth of soil.)

Saturation Capacity (Maximum moisture holding capacity):

 It is the amount of the water required to fill the all pore spaces between soil particles by replacing all
air held in the pore spaces.
 Upper limit of the possible water content.
 Expressed as equivalent ‘cm’ of water per meter of soil depth.
 If porosity of the soil is 60 %, saturation capacity is 60 cm depth.
 Field Capacity (F.C.):
 Moisture content of the soil after the free drainage has removed most of the gravity water.
 Upper limit of the capillary water.
 Expressed as the weight of the maximum amount of water held by the soil against gravity per unit
weight of the dry soil and is given as a percentage.

Permanent Wilting Point (Wilting Coefficient) (pwp):

 Permanent wilting point is that water content at which plants can no longer extract sufficient water
from the soil for its growth.
 Lower end of the available moisture range.
 Expressed as the weight of the moisture held by the soil per unit weight of the dry soil when the plants
are permanently wilted.
 Value of the permanent wilting percentage may be as low as 2 % for light sandy soil and it may be as
high as 30 % for the heavy clay soils.

Temporary Wilting:
 Usually occurs on a hot windy day but the plants recover from the wilting in the cooler portion of the
day or during the night without any addition of water in the soil.

Ultimate Wilting:
 Occurs when they become completely wilted and dead.
 After ultimate wilting has occurred, the plants do not recover from the wilting even after the addition
of the water to the soil.

Ultimate Wilting Point (Hygroscopic Coefficient):

 Water content at which the ultimate wilting occurs is called.
 When expressed in the percentage is called as a hygroscopic coefficient.
 Average value of the hygroscopic coefficient is 67 % of the permanent wilting percentage.

Moisture Equivalent:
 Percentage of the moisture retained in an initially saturated sample of the soil 10 mm thick layer after
being subjected to a centrifugal force of 1000 times gravity for a period of the 30 minutes.
 The moisture equivalent may vary from about 5 % for coarse grained sand to more than 50 % for the
fine clays.
 For sandy soils the field capacity exceeds the moisture equivalent.
 For very clayey soils the field capacity is generally lower than the moisture equivalent.

Available Moisture:
 The difference in moisture content of soil between the filed capacity and the permanent wilting point
is called.

Readily Available Moisture:

 It is that portion of the available moisture that is most easily extracted by the plants.
 Approximately 75 % of the available moisture
 Soil moisture deficiency (Field moisture deficiency):
 It is the water required ti bring the soil moisture content of the soil to its field capacity.

Soil moisture tension (Capillary potential, capillary tension, force of suction):

 The force per unit area that must be exerted in order to extract water from the soil is called.
 Expressed in terms of the atmosphere (atm).

Soil moisture stress:

 Defined as the sum of the soil moisture tension and osmotic pressure of the soil solution. Osmotic
pressure is the increase in the force or tension caused by the salts present in the soil solution.

Depth of soil water available to Plants

Example: Determine the field capacity of a soil from the following data:
Depth of root zone= 2 m
Existing water content= 6 %
Dry unit weight of the soil= 15 kN/m3
Area of the land irrigated= 800 square m
Water applied to soil= 600 m3
Water lost due to evaporation and deep percolation= 10 %
Example: The field capacity of a certain soil is 15 % and the moisture content of the soil
before irrigation is 8 %. Determine the depth up to which the soil profile will be wetted
with an application of 60 mm of water. Take the dry unit weight of the soil is 15 kN per
cubic m.
Example: The Field capacity of a certain soils is 18 % and its specific gravity is 1.60. A
wet sample of the soil taken before irrigation weights 152 gm and its weight after oven
drying is 140 gm. What depth of water must be applied to irrigate the soil to a depth of
1.2 m ?
Example: After how many days the irrigation water should be applied to the land to
ensure efficient irrigation for the following conditions.
Field capacity of the soil=30 %
Permanent Wilting Point= 12 %
Dry density of the soil= 1.5 gm/cm3
Effective depth of root zone= 0.80 m
Daily consumptive use of water= 12 mm
Readily available moisture= 80 % of the available moisture
 Extraction pattern of soil moisture in root zone
 A plant extracts the maximum water from the upper layers of the soil in the root zone.
 Moisture extraction pattern indicates the relative amounts of the moisture extracted by the plant roots
from different depth in the root zone.
 40 % of the total moisture used is extracted from the first quarter of the root zone, 30 % from the
second quarter, 20 % from the third quarter and only 10 % from the fourth quarter.
 The larger extraction of moisture from the upper layers is because in a uniform soil generally grater
root development takes place in the upper layers of the soil than elsewhere.

Definition: Water Requirements of Crop

 Quantity of water required by the crop from the time it is sown to the time it is harvested.
 Water requirement of crops is expressed in water depth per unit area.

Quantity of the water required (WR) = Consumptive use (A)

+ Application and conveyance losses (B)
+ Special needs (C)

WR= A + B + C
 Important Terms related to Water Requirement of Crops
 Duty (D): The irrigating capacity of a unit of water.
Area of the land which can be irrigated if 1 cumecs water applied to the land continuously
for the entire base period the crop.

 Delta (Δ): Total depth of water required by a crop during the base period of the crop.

Types of Duty
Gross Duty Duty of the water measured at the head of the main canal.
Nominal Duty Duty sanctioned as per schedule of an irrigation department.
Economic water Duty Duty of water results in the maximum crop yield.
Duty of water assumed in the irrigation project for designing capacities
Designated Duty
of the channels.

Relation between Duty (D) and Delta (Δ)

 Crop period: Crop period is the time in days that a crop takes from the instant of its sowing to that
of harvesting.

 Base period: The base period is the period between the first watering and the last watering supplied
to the land.

 Rabi Crops (Winter Crops): The crops which are sown in autumn (or October) and harvested in the
spring (or March) are called.
Examples: Wheat, Gram, Barley, Peas, Mustard, Tobacco, Linseed, Potato

 Kharif Crops (Monsoon Crops): The crops that are sown in the beginning of the southwest
monsoon and harvested in autumn are called.
Examples: Rice, groundnut, maize, Spiked millets, great millet, Pulses.

 Kor Watering: The first watering after the plants have grown few centimeters high is called.

 Kor depth: The depth of water applied during the kor watering is called.

 Kor Period: The portion of the base period in which kor watering is needed is called.

 Paleo: First watering before sowing the crop.

This is done to prepare land for sowing and to add sufficient moisture to the soil which would
be required for the initial growth of the crop.

 Gross Commanded Area (GCA): The total area lying between drainage boundaries, which can be
commanded or irrigated by a canal system.
  Culturable Commanded Area (CCA): That portion of the gross commanded area which is
culturable or cultivable.

The unculturable areas includes ponds, roads, hillocks, barren lands, villages, alkaline soil etc.
The C.C. A. is further divided as under:
(1) Culturable Cultivated Area: It is that portion of the culturable commanded area in which crop
is grown at a particular time or a crop season.
(2) Culturable Uncultivated Area: It is that portion of the culturable commanded area in which
crop is not sown in a particular season.

 Intensity of irrigation: It is defined as the percentage of the culturable commanded area proposed
to be irrigated during a year.

 Crop Ratio (Rabi-Kharif Ratio): The ratio of the areas of the lnd irrigated during the two main crop
seasons viz. Rabi and Kharif.

 Time Factor: It is the ratio of the number of the days the canal has actually run to the number of
days of irrigation period.

 Outlet Factor: It is defined as the duty at the outlet. It is always less than the duty of the water at the
field on account of the transmission losses.

 Efficiency of Irrigation:

 Cumec-day: The total quantity of water flowing for one day at the rate of the 1 cumec is called.

 Hectare-metre: Total quantity of the water required to fill the water for 1 m depth over 1 hectare
area is called.

 Overlap Allowance: It may so happen that the crop of one season may sometimes overlap the next
crop season for some period. In such a period of overlapping, both the crops require irrigation
simultaneously. Thus, there is extra demand of water during this period and to cater for this the canal
discharge will have to be increased. The extra discharge if the canal required for this purpose is called
Overlap Allowance.
The overlap allowance is usually kept as 5 to 10 %.
 General Information

Factors Affecting Duty of Water

1. Method of irrigation
2. System of irrigation
3. Method of Cultivation
4. Type of Crop
5. Base Period of Crop
6. Climatic Conditions of the area
7. Time of irrigation and Frequency of the cultivation
8. Quality of water
9. Method of assessment of irrigation water
10. Canal Conditions
11. Type of soil and sub soil of the canal
12. Type of soil and sub soil of the irrigation field