UNITY UNIVERSITY

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

Theory of Structures I

Course Outline
1. Stability & Determinacy of Structures
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Stability of Structures,
1.3 Determinacy of Structures

2. Loads on Structures
2.1 Dead Load
2.2 Live Load
2.3 Environmental Loads (Wind loads, earthquake forces, …)
2.4 Load Combinations

3. Influence Lines (IL)for Determinate Structures

3.1 IL for Beams (IL for shear forces and bending moment)
3.2 IL for paneled girders
3.3 IL for trusses

4. Deflection of Determinate Structures

4.1 Direct Integration Method
4.2 Moment-Area Method
4.3 Conjugate-Beam Method
4.4 Method of Virtual Work
4.5 Graphical Multiplication
4.6 Castiglione’s Theorem
4.7 Maxwell Beti law of reciprocal deflection

5. Consistent Deformation Method

5.1 Indeterminate beams
5.2 Trusses by Consistent Deformation Method

References:
• R.C. HIBBELER, Structural Analysis, 9th ed. 2015.
• Harry H. West and L.F. Geshwindner, Fundamentals of Structural Analysis 2nd ed. 2002,
• Popov, E.P., Mechanics of Materials
Theory of Structures I

CHAPTER 1

1. Stability & Determinacy of Structures

1.1 Introduction
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to support loads. The
fundamental purpose of a structure is to transmit loads from the point of
application to the point of support and, through the foundations to the ground. Structural
analysis is the prediction of the response of structures to specified arbitrary external loads.
Structural analysis establishes the relationship between a structural member’s expected
external load and the structure’s corresponding developed internal stresses and displacements
that occur within the member when in service.
Before going into the analysis of any structure, it is necessary to identify its statical type
(classification), i.e., whether it is determinate or indeterminate, stable or unstable. An unstable
arrangement of supports and structural members should be avoided.
All structures are subjected to loads from their functions and to other unavoidable loads.
Establishment of the loads that act on a structure is one of the most difficult and yet important
steps in the design process.
In this chapter; Criteria for statical classification will be established and different structures will
be checked for stability and determinacy.
1.2 Stability of Structures
To ensure the equilibrium of a structure or its members, it is not only necessary
to satisfy the equations of equilibrium, but the members must also be properly
held or, constrained by their supports. In structural analysis a structure is said to
be stable when it can support and maintians its geometrical shape for any possible system
of applied loads .
Stability can be divided into two as external and internal.
A structure in which there are insufficient numbers of reactions to prevent motion from taking
place is called an unstable structure. This is external instability.

What matters is not only the number of support reactions but also their arrangement. Structures
for which the numbers of reaction components are greater than or equal to the number of
available equilibrium equations but that are unstable due to arrangement of these reaction
components are said to be geometrically unstable.

When the reaction elements are three or more like supports that are either parallel or concurrent,
they are not sufficient to maintain static equilibrium.

For the case of parallel reactions, they will offer no resistance to horizontal motion, thus
making the arrangement unstable. The point of intersection of the concurrent reactions becomes
an instantaneous center of rotation and the system is instantaneously unstable.

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The stable fundamental element of a plane truss is a triangular arrangement of three members.
A truss may have internal instability if four members are used to form an element.

In conclusion, the stability of structures depends on the number and geometric arrangement of
reactions and structural members rather than on the strength of individual member or supports.
Despite the possibility that an unstable structure could become stable under a particular system
of applied loads, the structure is classified as an unstable structure.

1.3 Determinacy of Structures

When all forces in a structure can be determined strictly from equilibrium equations, the
structure is referred to as statically determinate. Structures having more unknown forces than
available equilibrium equations are called statically indeterminate.

A statically indeterminate structure is one that cannot be analyzed by the equations of static
equilibrium alone. Indeterminacy is introduced in structures on account of functional
requirements, limitations on types of framing, need for stiffness and often by the nature of
inherent continuity introduced by the type of material used like reinforced concrete.

A structure is statically indeterminate when it possesses more members or is supported by more

reactive restraints than are strictly necessary for stability (and equilibrium). The excess
members or restraints are called redundant. The degree of indeterminacy is the number of
unknowns in excess of the available equilibrium equations. In the analysis of indeterminate
structures, therefore, ways of establishing additional equations must be sought. These additional
equations may be derived from compatibility of deformation or from conditions of symmetry.
This additional task would make the analysis of indeterminate structures more difficult than
their determinate counterparts.

Indeterminate structures have some advantages and disadvantages over determinate ones. One
obvious disadvantage is the computational difficulty involved when establishing the required
additional equations. Another disadvantage is that indeterminate structures will be stressed due
to differential settlement of supports, temperature changes and errors in fabrication of members.

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On the other hand, however, indeterminate structures are stiffer and in the case of over loads
indeterminate structures can provide an advantage of redistribution of loads within the
structure.

The indeterminacy of a structure can be external (with respect to reactions) or internal (with
respect to member forces). The question of identifying external or internal indeterminacy is
largely of academic interest. What is of primary importance is the total degree of
indeterminacy, Nevertheless, determining external and internal indeterminacy is desirable as a
method to evaluate the total degree of indeterminacy.

A structure is internally indeterminate when it is not possible to determine all internal forces by
using the equations of static equilibrium. For the great majority of structures, the question of
whether or not they are indeterminate can be decided by inspection. For certain structures this is
not so, and for these types rules have to be established. The internal indeterminacy of trusses
will be first considered, and then that of continuous frames

1.4 Criteria for Stability and Determinacy of Structures-Trusses, Beams and Frames

Internal stability of structures and determining which conditions exist in a given case need
experience, especially for trusses. In some cases the structure is different from what our
mathematical criteria tell us. Therefore, stability of trusses is most easily settled by inspection.

1.4.1 Beams

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting

bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external
loads, own weight and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment. Beams
generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e.,
loads due to an earthquake or wind).

• Stability depends on external supports

• Determinacy relates on the number of available and conditional equations.
o ra < r; structure is statically unstable
o ra = r; structure is statically determinate
o ra > r; structure is statically indeterminate

where ra is the available number of reaction components

r is the minimum number of reaction components required for stability, usually 3+n
n is the number of special/ conditional equation

Remark: r = 3 is not a sufficient conditions for stability

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1.4.2 Trusses
A simple truss can be made by combining three bars to form a triangle. Stability depends partly
on external supports and partly on the arrangement of members or bars. Three reaction
components are required for external stability and determinacy of a plane truss without
condition equations.

1.4.2.1 External classification

The external statical classification of the structure depends on the total number of reaction
components, ra and their arrangement. Therefore, the following criteria hold true:
o ra < r; structure is statically unstable externally
o ra = r; structure is statically determinate externally
o ra > r; structure is statically indeterminate externally

where ra is the available number of reaction components

r is the minimum number of reaction components required for external stability,
usually 3+n
n is the number of special/ conditional equation

The condition for ra ≥ r is necessary but not sufficient conditions for statical classification
because the arrangement of the reaction components may render the truss unstable.

1.4.2.2 Internal classification

For internal classification, in addition to the above definition for r; let m be the total number of
bars and j the total number of joints. Then
2j = m + r
The above equation can be rewritten as: m = 2j – r
In this form, m is the number of members required to form an internally statically determinate
truss that connects j joints and has r reaction components required for external stability. If ma is
the actual number of bar forces in the truss, then the following criteria hold true for internal
classification

o ma < m; truss is statically unstable internally

o ma > m; truss is statically determinate internally
o ma > m; truss is statically indeterminate internally

Consider the trusses shown below. The truss shown in fig (a) is stable where as the truss shown
in fig (b) is unstable since the geometric arrangement of the members is not maintained.

Fig (a) Fig (b)

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Examples

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Theory of Structures I

1.4.3 Frames
Frames are composed of continuous members and rigidly connected joints, The degree of
indeterminacy (DI) is determined as the difference of the total number of unknown reaction
components and the number of static equilibrium equations available. Note that the frame with
the hinge has a fourth condition equation, since the bending moment at the hinge must be zero.
Stability depends partly on external supports and partly on moment resisting joints.

1.4.3.1 External classification

The external statical classification of the structure depends on the total number of reaction
components, ra and their arrangement. Therefore, the following criteria hold true:
o ra < r; structure is statically unstable externally
o ra = r; structure is statically determinate externally
o ra > r; structure is statically indeterminate externally

where ra is the available number of reaction components

r is the minimum number of reaction components required for external stability,
usually 3+n
n is the number of special/ conditional equation
ra ≥ r is necessary but not sufficient conditions for statical classification because the
arrangement of the reaction components may render the frame unstable.

1.4.3.2 Internal classification

(3 + r) < (3j + n);
Let ma =the actual number of members
r = the minimum number of independent reaction components required for external stability
j= the total number joints
n= number of special/condition equations
Therefore, 3 ma + r =the number of unknowns
3j+n=the number of available equations

Then the following criteria hold true for internal classification of frames
o (3ma + r) < (3j + n); structure is statically unstable
o (3ma + r) = (3j + n); structure is statically determinate
o (3ma + r) > (3j + n); structure is statically indeterminate

Overall classification
The criterion already established for both trusses and frames hold also for investigation of
overall effect. To determine the overall classification of a frame, in the above expressions
replace r by ra.

Note. The number of conditional equation introduced by a hinge joint is equal to the number
of members at the joint minus one.

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Theory of Structures I

Examples

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