MODERN PHYSICS - 

~~~~~~
1 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT :
When electromagnetic radiations of suitable wavelength are incident on a metallic surface then electrons are
emitted, this phenomenon is called photo electric effect.

1.1 Photoelectron : The electron emitted in photoelectric effect is called photoelectron.

1.2 Photoelectric current : If current passes through the circuit in photoelectric effect then the current
is called photoelectric current.
1.3 Work function : The minimum energy required to make an electron free from the metal is called
work function. It is constant for a metal and denoted by  or W. It is the minimum for Cesium. It is
relatively less for alkali metals.
Work functions of some photosensitive metals
Work function Work function
Metal Metal
(ev) (eV)
Cesium 1.9 Calcium 3.2
Potassium 2.2 Copper 4.5
Sodium 2.3 Silver 4.7
Lithium 2.5 Platinum 5.6

To produce photo electric effect only metal and light is necessary but for observing it the circuit is completed.
Figure shows an arrangement used to study the photoelectric effect.
 intensity
 frequency

1 2

C A
A

Rheostat

cell, few volts

Here the plate (1) is called emitter or cathode and other plate (2) is called collector or anode.
1.4 Saturation current : When all the photo electrons emitted by cathode reach the anode then current
flowing in the circuit at that instant is known as saturated current, this is the maximum value of
photoelectric current.
1.5 Stopping potential : Minimum magnitude of negative potential of anode with respect to cathode for
which current is zero is called stopping potential. This is also known as cutoff voltage. This voltage
is independent of intensity.
1.6 Retarding potential : Negative potential of anode with respect to cathode which is less than
stopping potential is called retarding potential.

RESONANCE 1
2. OBSERVATIONS : (MADE BY EINSTEIN)

Photocurrent 
2.1 A graph between intensity of light and photoelectric current is found
to be a straight line as shown in figure. Photoelectric current is
directly proportional to the intensity of incident radiation. In this
experiment the frequency and retarding potential are kept constant.

O Intensity of light 

2.2 A graph between photoelectric current and potential diffrence between cathode and anode is found
as shown in figure.

P


S2
2 > 1


S1
saturation current 1

–VS VA– V C

In case of saturation current,

rate of emission of photoelectrons = rate of flow of photoelectrons ,
here, vs  stopping potential and it is a positive quantity

Photoelectrons
Electrons emitted from surface of metal have different energies.
Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron on the cathode = eVs

No. of
KEmax = eVs
Whenever photoelectric effect takes place, electrons are ejected
out with kinetic energies ranging from
0 to K.Emax i.e. 0  KEC  eVs
The energy distribution of photoelectron is shown in figure. O
Kinetic energy eV S

2.3 If intensity is increased (keeping the frequency constant) then saturation current is increased by
same factor by which intensity increases. Stopping potential is same, so maximum value of kinetic
energy is not effected.

2.4 If light of different frequencies is used then obtained plots are shown in figure.

IP

3 > 2
2 > 1
1

–VS3 –VS2 –VS1 VA – VC

It is clear from graph, as  increases, stopping potential increases, it means maximum value of
kinetic energy increases.

RESONANCE 2
 2.5 Graphs between maximum kinetic energy of electrons kmax
for metal's
ejected from different metals and frequency of light used m1 m2 m3
are found to be straight lines of same slope as shown in
fiugre

Graph between Kmax and 

m1, m2, m3 : Three different metals.
  
   
th1 th2 th3
It is clear from graph that there is a minimum frequency of electromagnetic radiation which can
produce photoelectric effect, which is called threshold frequency.
th = Threshold frequency
For photoelectric effect   th
for no photoelectric effect  < th
Minimum frequency for photoelectric effect.
min = th
Threshold wavelength (th)  The maximum wavelength of radiation which can produce photo-
electric effect.
  th for photo electric effect
Maximum wavelength for photoelectric effect max = th.
Now writing equation of straight line from graph.
We have Kmax = A + B
When  = th , Kmax = 0
and B = – Ath
Hence [Kmax = A( – th)]

and A = tan  = 6.63 × 10–34 J-s (from experimental data)

later on ‘A’ was found to be ‘h’.

2.6 It is also observed that photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process. When light falls on surface
electrons start ejecting without taking any time.

3. THREE MAJOR FEATURES OF THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT CANNOT BE EXPLAINED

IN TERMS OF THE CLASSICAL WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT.
Intensity : The energy crossing per unit area per
unit time perpendicular to the direction of propa- c t
gation is called the intensity of a wave.
A x
Consider a cylindrical volume with area of cross-
section A and length c t along the X-axis. The
energy contained in this cylinder crosses the area
A in time t as the wave propagates at speed c.
The energy contained.
U = uav(c. t)A
U
=
At
The intensity is = uav c.

In the terms of maximum electric field,

1
=  E 2 c.
2 0 0
If we consider light as a wave then the intensity depends upon electric field.
If we take work function W =  . A . t,
W
A
then t=
so for photoelectric effect there should be time lag because the metal has work function.
But it is observed that photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process.
Hence, light is not of wave nature.

RESONANCE 3
 3.1 The intensity problem : Wave theory requires that the oscillating electric field vector E of the light
wave increases in amplitude as the intensity of the light beam is increased. Since the force applied
to the electron is eE, this suggests that the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons should also in-
creased as the light beam is made more intense. However observation shows that maximum kinetic
energy is independent of the light intensity.
3.2 The frequency problem : According to the wave theory, the photoelectric effect should occur for
any frequency of the light, provided only that the light is intense enough to supply the energy needed
to eject the photoelectrons. However observations shows that there exists for each surface a
characterstic cutoff frequency th, for frequencies less than th, the photoelectric effect does not
occur, no matter how intense is light beam.
3.3 The time delay problem : If the energy acquired by a photoelectron is absorbed directly from the
wave incident on the metal plate, the “effective target area” for an electron in the metal is limited and
probably not much more than that of a circle of diameter roughly equal to that of an atom. In the
classical theory, the light energy is uniformly distributed over the wavefront. Thus, if the light is feeble
enough, there should be a measurable time lag, between the impinging of the light on the surface
and the ejection of the photoelectron. During this interval the electron should be absorbing energy
from the beam until it had accumulated enough to escape. However, no detectable time lag has ever
been measured.
Now, quantum theory solves these problems in providing the correct interpretation of the photoelec-
tric effect.

4 PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY :

The light energy from any source is always an integral multiple of a smaller energy value called quantum of
light.hence energy Q = NE,
where E = h and N (number of photons) = 1,2,3,....
Here energy is quantized. h is the quantum of energy, it is a packet of energy called as photon.
hc

E = h =

and hc = 12400 eV Å
5. EINSTEIN’S PHOTON THEORY
In 1905 Einstein made a remarkable assumption about the nature of light; namely, that, under some circum-
stances, it behaves as if its energy is concentrated into localized bundles, later called photons. The energy
E of a single photon is given by
E = h,
If we apply Einstein’s photon concept to the photoelectric effect, we can write
h = W + Kmax, (energy conserveation)
Equation says that a single photon carries an energy h into the surface where it is absorbed by a single
electron. Part of this energy W (called the work function of the emitting surface) is used in causing the electron
to escape from the metal surface. The excess energy (h – W) becomes the electron kinetic energy; if the
electron does not lose energy by internal collisions as it escapes from the metal, it will still have this much
kinetic energy after it emerges. Thus Kmax represents the maximum kinetic energy that the photoelectron can
have outside the surface. There is complete agreement of the photon theory with experiment.
A
A = Nh  = no. of photons incident per unit time on an area ‘A’ when light of
h
Now N=

intensity ‘’ is incident normally.

If we double the light intensity, we double the number of photons and thus double the photoelectric current;
we do not change the energy of the individual photons or the nature of the individual photoelectric processes.

The second objection (the frequency problem) is met if Kmax equals zero, we have
hth = W,

Which asserts that the photon has just enough energy to eject the photoelectrons and none extra to appear
as kinetic energy. If  is reduced below th, h will be smaller than W and the individual photons, no matter
how many of them there are (that is, no matter how intense the illumination), will not have enough energy to
eject photoelectrons.

RESONANCE 4
 The third objection (the time delay problem) follows from the photon theory because the required energy is
supplied in a concentrated bundle. It is not spread uniformly over the beam cross section as in the wave
theory.
Hence Einstein’s equation for photoelectric effect is given by
hc hc
– 

h = hth + Kmax Kmax =
th

Ex. 1 In an experiment on photo electric emission, following observations were made;

(i) Wavelength of the incident light = 1.98 × 10–7 m;
(ii) Stopping potential = 2.5 volt.
Find : (a) Kinetic energy of photoelectrons with maximum speed.
(b) Work function and
(c) Threshold frequency;
Sol. (a) Since vs = 2.5 V, Kmax = eVs so, Kmax = 2.5 eV
(b) Energy of incident photon
12400
E= eV = 6.26 eV W = E – Kmax = 3.76 eV
1980

3.76  1.6  10 19

(c) hth = W = 3.76 × 1.6 × 10–19 J  th =  9.1 1014 Hz
6.6  10  34
Ex.2 A beam of light consists of four wavelength 4000 Å, 4800 Å, 6000 Å and 7000 Å, each of intensity
1.5 × 10–3 Wm–2. The beam falls normally on an area 10–4 m2 of a clean metallic surface of work function 1.9
eV. Assuming no loss of light energy (i.e. each capable photon emits one electron) calculate the number of
photoelectrons liberated per second.
12400 12400 12400
Sol. E1 = = 3.1 eV,, E2 = = 2.58 eV E3 = = 2.06 eV
4000 4800 6000
12400
and E4 = = 1.77 eV
7000
Therefore, light of wavelengths 4000 Å, 4800 Å and 6000 Å can only emit photoelectrons.
 Number of photoelectrons emitted per second = No. of photons incident per second)

1A 1 2A2 3 A3  1 1 
= A  E  E  E 
1
= + +
E1 E2 E3  1 2 3 

(1.5  10  3 )(10  4 )  1 1 
   
1
 06 
= 19
1.6  10 3 . 1 2 . 58 2 .
= 1.12 × 1012 Ans.
Ex. 3 A small potassium foil is placed (perpendicular to the direciton of incidence of light) a distance r (= 0.5 m)
from a point light source whose output power P0 is 1.0W. Assuming wave nature of light how long would it
take for the foil to soak up engouh energy (= 1.8 eV) from the beam to eject an electron? Assume that the
ejected photoelectron collected its energy from a circular area of the foil whose radius equals the radius of a
potassium atom (1.3 × 10–10 m).
Sol. If the source radiates uniformly in all directions, the intensity  of the light at a distance r is given by
P0 1 .0 W
=
4 (0.5 m)2
= 0.32 W/m2.
4 r 2 =

The target area A is (1.3 × 10–10 m)2 or 5.3 × 10–20 m2, so that the rate at which energy falls on the target is
given by
P = A = (0.32 W/m2) (5.3 × 10–20 m2)

= 1.7 × 10–20 J/s.

RESONANCE 5
 If all this incoming energy is absorbed, the time required to accumulate enough energy for the electron to
escape is

  1.6  10 19 J 
  = 17 s.
t=  
1.8 eV
 1.7  10  20 J / s  
 1eV 
Our selection of a radius for the effective target area was some-what arbitrary, but no matter what reasonable
area we choose, we should still calculate a “soak-up time” within the range of easy measurement. However,
no time delay has ever been observed under any circumstances, the early experiments setting an upper limit
of about 10–9 s for such delays.
Ex. 4 A metallic surface is irradiated with monochromatic light of variable wavelength. Above a wavelength of 5000
Å, no photoelectrons are emitted from the surface. With an unknown wavelength, stopping potential is 3 V.
Find the unknown wavelength.
Sol. using equation of photoelectric effect
Kmax = E – W (Kmax = eVs)
12400 12400 12400
 – – 2.48 eV
 
3 eV = =
5000
or  = 2262 Å
Ex. 5 Illuminating the surface of a certain metal alternately with light of wavelengths  1 = 0.35 m and
2 = 0.54 m, it was found that the corresponding maximum velocities of photo electrons have a ratio  = 2.
Find the work function of that metal.
Sol. Using equation for two wavelengths

mv 12  W
1 hc
2 1 ....(i)

mv 22  W
1 hc
2 2 ....(ii)

W
hc
1
Dividing Eq. (i) with Eq. (ii), with v1 = 2v2, we have 4 =
W
hc
2

 hc   hc  4  12400
3W = 4    –    =
12400
– = 5.64 eV
 2  1 5400 3500

Ex. 6 A photocell is operating in saturation mode with a photocurrent 4.8 A when a monochromatic radiation of
wavelength 3000 Å and power 1 mW is incident. When another monochromatic radiation of wavelength 1650
Å and power 5 mW is incident, it is observed that maximum velocity of photoelectron increases to two times.
Assuming efficiency of photoelectron generation per incident to be same for both the cases, calculate,
(a) threshold wavelength for the cell
(b) efficiency of photoelectron generation. [(No. of photoelectrons emitted per incident photon) × 100]
(c) saturation current in second case
12400
Sol. (a) K1 = –W = 4.13 – W ...(i)
3000
12400
K2 = –W = 7.51 – W ....(ii)
1650
Since v2 = 2v1 so, K2 = 4K1 ...(iiii)
Solving above equations, we get
W = 3 eV
12400
 Threshold waveleght 0 = = 4133 Å Ans.
3

RESONANCE 6
 12400
(b) Energy of a photon in first case = = 4.13 eV
3000
or E1 = 6.6 × 10–19 J
Rate of incident photons (number of photons per second)
P1 10 3
= E = = 1.5 × 1015 per second
1 6.6  10 19

4.8  10 6
Number of electrons ejected = per second
1.6  10 19
= 3.0 × 1013 per second
 Efficiency of photoelectron generation
3.0  1013
() = × 100 = 2% Ans.
1.5  1015
(c) Energy of photon in second case
12400
E2 = = 7.51 eV = 12 × 10–19 J
1650
Therefore, number of photons incident per second
P2 5.0  10 3
n2 = E = = 4.17 × 1015 per second
2 12  10 19
2
Number of electrons emitted per second = × 4.7 × 1015
100
= 9.4 × 1013 per second
 Saturation current in second case i = (9.4 × 1013) (1.6 × 10–19) amp
= 15 A Ans.

Ex. 7 Light described at a place by the equation E = (100 V/m) [sin (5 × 1015 s–1) t + sin (8 × 1015 s–1)t]
falls on a metal surface haivng work function 2.0 eV. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelec-
trons.
Sol. The light contains two different frequencies. The one with larger frequency will cause photoelectrons with
largest kinetic energy. This larger frequency is
 8  1015 s 1
 
2 2
The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is
Kmax = h – W
 8  1015 1 
 
= (4.14 × 10–15 eV-s) ×  2 s  – 2.0 eV
 
= 5.27 eV – 2.0 eV = 3.27 eV.


6 FORCE DUE TO RADIATION (PHOTON)
Each photon has a definite energy and a definite linear momentum. All photons of light of a particular
wavelength  have the same energy E = hc/ and the same momentum p = h/.

When light of intensity  falls on a surface, it exerts force on that surface. Assume absorption and reflection
coefficient of surface be ‘a’ and ‘r’ and assuming no transmission.
Assume light beam falls on surface of surface area ‘A’ perpendicularly as shown
in figure.

For calculating the force exerted by beam on surface, we consider following cases.

RESONANCE 7
Case : (I)
a = 1, r=0
h

initial momentum of the photon =
final momentum of photon = 0
h

change in momentum of photon = (upward)

h
P =

energy incident per unit time = A
A A
h
no. of photons incident per unit time = =
hc
 total change in momentum per unit time = n P
A  h

hc 
=
A
= (upward)
c
force on photons = total change in momentum per unit time
A
= (upward)
c
A
 force on plate due to photons(F) = (downward)
c
F A 
pressure = = =
A cA c
Case : (II)
when r = 1, a = 0
h

intial momentum of the photon = (downward)
h

final momentum of photon = (upward)

h h 2h
  
change in momentum = + =

 energy incident per unit time = A

A
no. of photons incident per unit time =
hc
 total change in momentum per unit time = n . P
A 2h 2A

= . =
hc C
force = total change in momentum per unit time
2A
F= (upward on photons and downward on the plate)
c

F 2A 2
pressure P= = =
A cA c

Case : (III)
When o<r<1 a+r=1
2h

change in momentum of photon when it is reflected = (upward)

h

change in momentum of photon when it is absorbed = (upward)

A
no. of photons incident per unit time =
hc
RESONANCE 8
 A
No. of photons reflected per unit time = .r
hc
A
No. of photon absorbed per unit time = (1 – r)
hc
A h A
(1 – r) . (1 – r)

force due to absorbed photon (Fa) = = (downward)
hc c
A 2h 2 A 

Force due to reflected photon (Fr) = .r = (downward)
hc c
total force = Fa + Fr (downward)
A 2Ar
= (1 – r) +
c c
A
= (1 + r)
c
A
(1 + r) ×
1
Now pressure P =
c A

= (1 + r)
c

Ex. 8 A plate of mass 10 gm is in equilibrium in air due to the force exerted by light beam on plate.
Calculate power of beam. Assume plate is perfectly absorbing.
Sol. Since plate is in air, so gravitational force will act on this
Fgravitational = mg (downward)
= 10 × 10–3 × 10
= 10–1 N
for equilibrium force exerted by light beam should be equal to Fgravitational
Fphoton = Fgravitational
Let power of light beam be P
P
 Fphoton =
c
P
 = 10–1 P = 3.0 × 10 8 × 10–1
c
P = 3 × 107 W

Ex. 9 Calculate force exerted by light beam if light is incident on surface at an

angle  as shown in figure. Consider all cases. 

Sol. Case - I a = 1, r=0

h
initial momentum of photon (in downward direction at an angle  with vertical) =

[  ]

final momentum of photon = 0

 ]
h
change in momentum (in upward direction at an angle  with vertical) =

[

energy incident per unit time = A cos 

Intensity = power per unit normal area
P
= P = A cos 
A cos 
A cos 
No. of photons incident per unit time = .
hc

RESONANCE 9
 total change in momentum per unit time (in upward direction at an angle  with vertical)
A cos . h A cos   ]

= . = [
hc c
Force (F) = total change in momentum per unit time
A cos   on photon and 
F= (direction on the plate)
c
Pressure = normal force per unit Area
F cos  A cos 2  
Pressure = P= = cos2 
A cA c
cos 
Case II When r = 1, a = 0 h

 change in momentum of one photon h cos 

2h
cos  h sin 

= (upward)

h sin   
No. of photons incident per unit time 
energy incident per unit time
=
h
A cos   
=
hc
 total change in momentum per unit time
A cos    2h 2A cos 2 
× cos 

= = (upward)
hc c

2A cos 2 
 force on the plate = (downward)
c

2A cos 2  2 cos 2 

Pressure = P =
cA c

Case III 0 < r < 1, a+r=1

2h
cos 

change in momentum of photon when it is reflected = (downward)

h

change in momentum of photon when it is absorbed = (in the opposite direction of incident beam)

energy incident per unit time = A cos 

A cos   
no. of photons incident per unit time =
hc
A cos .r
no. of reflected photon (nr) =
hc
A cos .
no. of absorbed photon (nQ) = (1 – r)
hc
force on plate due to absorbed photons Fa = na . Pa
A cos . h
(1 – r)

=
hc
A cos 
= (1 – r) (at an angle  with vertical  )
c
force on plate due to reflected photons Fr = nr Pr
A cos    2h
× cos  (vertically downward)

=
hc

RESONANCE 10
 A cos 2 
=  2r
c

now resultant force is given by FR = Fr2  Fa2  2FaFr cos 

A cos 
= (1  r )2  (2r )2 cos 2   4r(r  1) cos 2 
c
Fa cos   Fr
and, pressure P=
A
A cos (1  r ) cos  A cos 2   2r
= +
cA cA

 cos 2   cos 2   cos 2 

= (1 – r) + 2r = (1 + r)
c c c

Ex. 10 A perfectly reflecting solid sphere of radius r is kept in the path of a parallel beam of light of large aperture. If
the beam carries an intensity , find the force exerted by the beam on the sphere.
Sol. Let O be the centre of the sphere and OZ be the line opposite to
the incident beam (figure). Consider a radius OP of the sphere R p
making an angle  with OZ. Rotate this radius about OZ to get a Q
circle on the sphere. Change  to  + d and rotate the radius
about OZ to get another circle on the sphere. The part of the sphere o  Z
between these circles is a ring of area 2r2 sin d. Consider a
small part A of this ring at P. Energy of the light falling on this
part in time t is
U = t(A cos )
The momentum of this light falling on A is U/c along QP. The light is reflected by the sphere along PR. The
change in momentum is
U 2
p = 2 cos = t (A cos2 ) (direction along OP )
c c
The force on A due to the light faling on it, is
p 2
 A cos2 .
t
= (direction along PO )
c
The resultant force on the ring as well as on the sphere is along ZO by symmetry. The component of the force
on A along ZO
p 2
cos  = A cos3 .
t
(along ZO )
c
2
The force acting on the ring is dF = (2r2 sin d)cos3 .
c
/2


4r 2 
The force on the entire sphere is F = c cos3  sin  d
0

/2 /2 /2

 cos 4  
 
4 r 2  4 r 2  r 2 
=  cos3  d(cos ) =   
 4  0
c c =
0 0 c
Note that integration is done only for the hemisphere that faces the incident beam.

RESONANCE 11
7. de-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF MATTER WAVE
A photon of frequency  and wavelength  has energy.

E  h 
hc

By Einstein’s energy mass relation, E = mc2 the equivalent mass m of the photon is given by,
h
m  
E h
c
2 2 .....(i)
c c
h

h
or or = .....(ii)
mc p
Here p is the momentum of photon. By analogy de-Broglie suggested that a particle of mass m moving with
speed v behaves in some ways like waves of wavelength  (called de-Broglie wavelength and the wave is
called matter wave) given by,



h h
.... (iii)
mv p
where p is the momentum of the particle. Momentum is related to the kinetic energy by the equation,
p= 2Km
and a charge q when accelerated by a potential difference V gains a kinetic energy K = qV. Combining all
these relations Eq. (iii), can be written as,

   
h h h h
mv p 2Km 2qVm (de-Broglie wavelength) ....(iv)

7.1 de-Broglie wavelength for an electron

If an electron (charge = e) is accelerated by a potential of V volts, it acquires a kinetic energy,
K = eV
Substituting the values of h, m and q in Eq. (iv), we get a simple formula for calculating de-Broglie
wavelength of an electron.

(in Å ) 
150
V (in volts ) ....(v)

7.2 de-Broglie wavelength of a gas molecule :

Let us consider a gas molecule at absolute temperature T. Kinetic energy of gas molecule is given by
3
K.E. = kT ; k = Boltzman constant
2
h
 gas molecule =
3mkT

Ex. 11 An electron is accelerated by a potential difference of 50 volt. Find the de-Broglie wavelength associated with
it.
Sol. For an electron, de-Broglie wavelength is given by,

150 150
= = = 3
V 50
= 1.73 Å Ans.
Ex. 12 Find the ratio of De-Broglie wavelength of molecules of hydrogen and helium which are at temperatures 27ºC
and 127ºC respectively.
Sol. de-Broglie wavelength is given by

 H2 mHe THe 4 (127  273) 8

 .
 He 2 (27  273)
= mH2 TH2 = =
3

RESONANCE 12

8. THOMSON’S ATOMIC MODEL :
J.J. Thomson suggested that atoms are just positively charge lumps of matter with electrons embedded in
them like raisins in a fruit cake. Thomson’s model called the ‘plum pudding’ model is illustrated in figure.

Electron

Positively charged matter

Thomson played an important role in discovering the electron, through gas discharge tube by discovering
cathode rays. His idea was taken seriously.
But the real atom turned out to be quite different.

9. RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR ATOM :

Rutherford suggested that; “ All the positive charge and nearly all the mass were concentrated in a very small
volume of nucleus at the centre of the atom. The electrons were supposed to move in circular orbits round the
nucleus (like planets round the sun). The electronstatic attraction between the two opposite charges being
the required centripetal force for such motion.
mv 2 kZe 2
Hence  2
r r
and total energy = potential energy + kinetic energy
 kZe 2
=
2r
Rutherford’s model of the atom, although strongly supported by evidence for the nucleus, is inconsistent with
classical physics. This model suffer’s from two defects
9.1 Regarding stability of atom : An electron moving in a circular orbit round a nucleus is accelerating
and according to electromagnetic theory it should therefore, emit radiation continuously and thereby
lose energy. If total energy decreases then radius increases as given by above formula. If this
happened the radius of the orbit would decrease and the electron would spiral into the nucleus in a
fraction of second. But atoms do not collapse. In 1913 an effort was made by Neils Bohr to overcome
this paradox.
9.2 Regarding explanation of line spectrum : In Rutherford’s model, due to continuously changing
radii of the circular orbits of electrons, the frequency of revolution of the electrons must be chaning.
As a result, electrons will radiate electromagnetic waves of all frequencies, i.e., the spectrum of
these waves will be ‘continuous’ in nature. But experimentally the atomic spectra are not continu-
ous. Instead they are line spectra.

10. THE BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

In 1913, Prof. Niel Bohr removed the difficulties of Rutherford’s atomic model by the application of Planck’s
quantum theory. For this he proposed the following postulates
(1) An electron moves only in certain circular orbits, called stationary orbits. In stationary orbits elec-
tron does not emit radiation, contrary to the predictions of classical electromagnetic theory.
(2) According to Bohr, there is a definite energy associated with each stable orbit and an atom radiaties
energy only when it makes a transition from one of these orbits to another. If the energy of electron
in the higher orbit be E2 and that in the lower orbit be E1, then the frequency  of the radiated waves
is given by
h = E2 – E1
E 2  E1
or =
h

RESONANCE 13
 (3) Bohr found that the magnitude of the electron’s angular momentum is quantized, and this magnitude
h
2
for the electron must be integral multiple of . The magnitude of the angular momentum is
L = mvr for a particle with mass m moving with speed v in a circle of radius r. So, according to Bohr’s
postulate,

mvr 
nh
2
(n = 1, 2, 3....)

Each value of n corresponds to a permitted value of the orbit radius, which we will denote by rn . The
value of n for each orbit is called principal quantum number for the orbit. Thus,

mvnrn = mvr 
nh
...(ii)
2
mv 2
According to Newton’s second law a radially inward centripetal force of magnitude F = is
rn
needed by the electron which is being provided by the electrical attraction between the positive
proton and the negative electron.
mv n2 1 e2

Thus, rn 4 0 rn2 ....(iii)
Solving Eqs. (ii) and (iii), we get
 0 n 2h 2
rn  ...(iv)
me 2
e2
vn 
2 0nh
and ...(v)
The smallest orbit radius corresponds to n = 1. We’ll denote this minimum radius, called the Bohr
radius as a0. Thus,
0h2
a0 
me 2
Substituting values of 0, h, p, m and e, we get
a0 = 0.529 × 10–10 m = 0.529 Å ....(vi)

Eq. (iv), in terms of a0 can be written as,

rn = n2 a0 or rn  n2 ....(vii)

Similarly, substituting values of e, 0 and h with n = 1 in Eq. (v), we get

v1 = 2.19 × 106 m/s ....(viii)
This is the greatest possible speed of the electron in the hydrogen atom. Which is approximately
equal to c/137 where c is the speed of light in vacuum.
Eq. (v), in terms of v1 can be written as,
v1 1
vn = or vn 
n n
Energy levels : Kinetic and potential energies Kn and Un in nth orbit are given by
1 me 4
8 0 n 2h 2
2
Kn = mvn = 2
2

e2 me 4
Un = – =–
1
and
4 0 rn 4 0 n 2 h 2
2

(assuming infinity as a zero potential energy level)

The total energy En is the sum of the kinetic and potential energies.
me 4
so, En = Kn + Un = –
8 0 n 2h 2
2

RESONANCE 14
 Substituting values of m, e, 0 and h with n = 1, we get the least energy of the atom in first orbit, which is –
13.6 eV. Hence,
E1 = – 13.6 eV ....(x)

=–
E1 13.6
and En = 2
eV ....(xi)
n n2
Substituting n = 2, 3, 4, ...., etc., we get energies of atom in different orbits.
E2 = – 3.40 eV, E3 = – 1.51 eV, .... E = 0

10.1 Hydrogen Like Atoms

The Bohr model of hydrogen can be extended to hydrogen like atoms, i.e., one electron atoms, the
nuclear charge is +ze, where z is the atomic number, equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.
The effect in the previous analysis is to replace e2 every where by ze2. Thus, the equations for, rn, vn
and En are altered as under:
 0 n 2h 2 n2 n2
rn = 2 = a or rn  ....(i)
nmze z 0 z
where a0 = 0.529 Å (radius of first orbit of H)

ze 2 z z
vn 
2 0nh
vn = = v or ....(ii)
n 1 n
where v1= 2.19 × 106 m/s (speed of electron in first orbit of H)
2 4
mz e z2 z2
En = – En 
8 02n 2h 2
= E1 or ....(iii)
n2 n2
where E1 = –13.60 eV (energy of atom in first orbit of H)
10.2 Definations valid for single electron system
(1) Ground state : Lowest energy state of any atom or ion is called ground state of the atom.
Ground state energy of H atom = –13.6 eV
Ground state energy of He+ Ion = –54.4 eV
Ground state energy of Li++ Ion = –122.4 eV
(2) Excited State : State of atom other than the ground state are called its excited states.
n=2 first excited state
n=3 second excited state
n=4 third excited state
n = n0 + 1 n0th excited state
(3) Ionisation energy (E.) : Minimum energy required to move an electron from ground state to n = 
is called ionisation energy of the atom or ion
Ionisation energy of H atom = 13.6 eV
Ionisation energy of He+ Ion = 54.4 eV
Ionisation energy of Li++ Ion = 122.4 eV
(4) Ionisation potential (I.P.) : Potential difference through which a free electron must be accelerated
from rest such that its kinetic energy becomes equal to ionisation energy of the atom is called
ionisation potential of the atom.
I.P of H atom = 13.6 V
I.P. of He+ Ion = 54.4 V
(5) Excitation energy : Energy required to move an electron from ground state of the atom to any other
exited state of the atom is called excitation energy of that state.
Energy in ground state of H atom = –13.6 eV
Energy in first excited state of H-atom = –3.4 eV
st excitation energy = 10.2 eV.
(6) Excitation Potential : Potential difference through which an electron must be accelerated from rest
so that its kinetic energy becomes equal to excitation energy of any state is called excitation
potential of that state.
st excitation energy = 10.2 eV.
st excitation potential = 10.2 V.

RESONANCE 15
 (7) Binding energy or Seperation energy : Energy required to move an electron from any state to n
=  is called binding energy of that state. or energy released during formation of an H-like atom/ion
from n =  to some particular n is called binding energy of that state.
Binding energy of ground state of H-atom = 13.6 eV

Ex. 13 First excitation potential of a hypothetical hydrogen like atom is 15 volt. Find third excitation potential of the
atom.
Sol. Let energy of ground state = E0
E0
E0 = – 13.6 Z2 eV and En =
n2
E0
n = 2, E2 =
4

– E0 = 15
E0
given
4

–
3E 0
= 15
4
E0
for n = 4, E4 =
16

E0
third exicitation energy = – E0
16
15 15   4  15 
=– E =   
16 0 16  3 

75
= eV
4
75
 third excitation potential is V


4

10.3 Emission spectrum of hydrogen atom :

H-gas

Prism

Screen
Under normal conditions the single electron in hydrogen atom stays in ground state (n = 1). It is
excited to some higher energy state when it acquires some energy from external source. But it
hardaly stays there for more than 10–8 second.
A photon corresponding to a particular spectrum line is emitted when an atom makes a transition
from a state in an excited level to a state in a lower excited level or the ground level.
Let ni be the initial and nf the final energy state, then depending on the final energy state following
series are observed in the emission spectrum of hydrogen atom.

RESONANCE 16
 On Screen :
A photograph of spectral lines of the Lymen, Balmer, Paschen series of atomic hydrogen.

Paschen series


Wavelength (increasing order)
1
Balmer series

2
3
Lyman series

1
2

1, 2, 3..... represents the I, II & III line of Lymen, Balmer, Paschen series.

RESONANCE 17
 The hydrogen spectrum (some selected lines)

Na m e of Num be r of Qua ntum Num be r

se rie s Line n i (Low e r Sta te n f (Uppe r Sta te ) W a ve le ngth (nm ) Ene rgy
I 1 2 121.6 10.2 eV
II 1 3 102.6 12.09 eV
Lymen
III 1 4 97 12.78 eV
series limit 1  (series limit) 91.2 13.6 eV
I 2 3 656.3 1.89 eV
II 2 4 486.1 2.55 eV
Balmer
III 2 5 434.1 2.86 eV
series limit 2  (series limit) 364.6 3.41 eV
I 3 4 1875.1 0.66 eV
II 3 5 1281.8 0.97 eV
Paschen
III 3 6 1093.8 1.13 eV
series limit 3  (series limit) 822 1.51 eV

Series limit : Line of any group having maximum energy of photon and minimum wavelength of that group is
called series limit.
Lymen Pfund
Brackett series
–0.28eV
series series
n =7
n =6 –0.38eV
n =5 –0.54eV
n =4 –0.85eV
n =3 –1.51eV
Paschen
series
n =2 –3.40eV
Balmer
series

n =1 –13.6eV
For the Lymen series nf = 1, for Balmer series nf = 2 and so on.

10.4 Wavelength of Photon Emitted in De-excitation

According to Bohr when an atom makes a transition from higher energy level to a lower level it emits
a photon with energy equal to the energy difference between the initial and final levels. If Ei is the
initial energy of the atom before such a transition, Ef is its final energy after the transition, and the
hc
photon’s energy is h =

, then conservation of energy gives,
hc
= Ei – Ef

h = (energy of emitted photon) ....(i)
By 1913, the spectrum of hydrogen had been studied intensively. The visible line with longest wave-
length, or lowest frequency is in the red and is called H, the next line, in the blue-green is called H
and so on.
In 1885, Johann Balmer, a Swiss teacher found a formula that gives the wave lengths of these lines.
This is now called the Balmer series. The Balmer’s formula is,
 1 1 
 R 2  2 
1
 2 n 
....(ii)
Here, n = 3, 4, 5 ...., etc.
R = Rydberg constant = 1.097 × 107 m–1
and  is the wavelength of light/photon emitted during transition,

RESONANCE 18
 For n = 3, we obtain the wavelength of H line.
Similarly, for n = 4, we obtain the wavelength of H line. For n = , the smallest wavelength (= 3646
hc
Å) of this series is obtained. Using the relation, E =

we can find the photon energies correspond-

ing to the wavelength of the Balmar series.

 1 1  Rhc Rhc
E  hcR  2  2   2  2
hc
 2 n  2 n
This formula suggests that,
Rhc
En = – , n = 1, 2, 3..... ....(iii)
n2
The wavelengths corresponding to other spectral series (Lymen, Paschen, (etc.) can be repre-
sented by formula similar to Balmer’s formula.
 1 1 
 R  2  2  , n = 2, 3, 4.....
1
 1 n 
Lymen Series :

 1 
 R 2  2  , n = 4, 5, 6.....
1 1
 3 
Paschen Series :
n

 1 
 R 2  2  , n = 5, 6, 7.....
1 1
 4 
Brackett Series :
n

 1 1 
 R  2  2  , n = 6, 7, 8
1
 5 n 
Pfund Series :

The Lymen series is in the ultraviolet, and the Paschen. Brackett and Pfund series are in the infrared region.

Ex. 14 Calculate (a) the wavelength and (b) the frequency of the H line of the Balmer series for hydrogen.
Sol. (a) H line of Balmer series corresponds to the transition from n = 4 to n = 2 level. The corresponding
wavelength for H line is,
 1 1 
 (1.097  10 7 )  2  2 
1
 2 4 
= 0.2056 × 107
  = 4.9 × 10 –7 m Ans.
c 3.0  10 8
=

(b) =
4.9  10 7
= 6.12 × 1014 Hz Ans.

Ex. 15 Find the largest and shortest wavelengths in the Lymen series for hydrogen. In what region of the electro-
magnetic spectrum does each series lie?
Sol. The transition equation for Lymen series is given by,
 1 1
 R 2  2 
1
  (1) n 
n = 2, 3, ......
for largest wavelength, n = 2
1 1 
 1.097  10 7    = 0.823 × 107
1
 max 1 4 
 max = 1.2154 × 10 m = 1215 Å
–7
Ans.
The shortest wavelength corresponds to n = 
1 1 
 1.097  10 7   
1

 max 1  
or min = 0.911 × 10 m = 911 Å
–7
Ans.
Both of these wavelengths lie in ultraviolet (UV) region of electromagnetic spectrum.

RESONANCE 19
Ex. 16 How may different wavelengths may be observed in the spectrum from a hydrogen sample if the atoms are
excited to states with principal quantum number n ?
Sol. From the nth state, the atom may go to (n – 1)th state, ...., 2nd state or 1st state. So there are
(n – 1) possible transitions starting from the nth state. The atoms reaching (n – 1)th state may make (n – 2)
different transitions. Similarly for other lower states. The total number of possible transitions is
(n – 1) + (n – 2) + (n – 3) +............2 + 1
n(n  1)
= (Remember)
2

Ex. 17 (a) Find the wavelength of the radiation required to excite the electron in Li++ from the first to the third
Bohr orbit.
(b) How many spectral linea are observed in the emission spectrum of the above excited system?
Sol. (a) The energy in the first orbit = E1 = Z2 E0 where E0 = – 13.6 eV is the energy of a hydrogen atom in
ground state thus for Li++,
E1 = 9E0 = 9 × (– 13.6 eV) = – 122.4 eV
The energy in the third orbit is


E1E1
E3 = 2 = – 13.6 eV
n 9
Thus, E3 – E1 = 8 × 13.6 eV = 108.8 eV.
Energy required to excite Li++ from the first orbit to the third orbit is given by
E3 – E1 = 8 × 13.6 eV = 108.8 eV.
The wavelength of radiation required to excite Li++ from the first orbit to the third orbit is given by

 E 3  E1
hc



hc
or, E 3  E1

1240 eV  nm
=  11.4 nm
108.8 eV
(b) The spectral lines emitted are due to the transitions n = 3  n = 2, n = 3  n = 1
and n = 2  n = 1. Thus, there will be three spectral lines in the spectrum.

Ex. 18 Find the kinetic energy potential energy and total energy in first and second orbit of hydrogen atom if
potential energy in first orbit is taken to be zero.
Sol. E1 = – 13.60 eV K1 = – E1 = 13.60 eV U1 = 2E1 = –27.20 eV

= – 3.40 eV U2 = – 6.80 eV
E1
E2 = K2 = 3.40 eV and
(2)2
Now U1 = 0, i.e., potential energy has been increased by 27.20 eV while kinetic energy will remain un-
changed. So values of kinetic energy, potential energy and total energy in first orbit are 13.60 eV, 0, 13.60
respectively and for second orbit these values are 3.40 eV, 20.40 eV and 23.80 eV.

Ex. 19 A lithium atom has three electrons, Assume the following simple picture of the atom. Two electrons move
close to the nucleus making up a spherical cloud around it and the third moves outside this cloud in a circular
orbit. Bohr’s model can be used for the motion of this third electron but n = 1 states are not available to it.
Calculate the ionization energy of lithium in ground state using the above picture.
Sol. In this picture, the third electron moves in the field of a total charge + 3e – 2e = + e. Thus, the energies are
the same as that of hydrogen atoms. The lowest energy is :
13.6 eV
= – 3.4 eV
E1
E2 = =
4 4
Thus, the ionization energy of the atom in this picture is 3.4 eV.

RESONANCE 20
Ex. 20 The energy levels of a hypothetical one electron
atom are shown in the figure.  0 eV
n=5 – 0.80 eV
– 1.45 eV
(a) Find the ionization potential of this atom.
n=6
(b) Find the short wavelength limit of the
series terminating at n = 2 n=3 – 3.08 eV
(c) Find the excitation potential for the state
n = 3.
(d) Find wave number of the photon emitted n=2 – 5.30 eV
for the transition n = 3 to n = 1.
(e) What is the minimum energy that an 10.3 eV
electron will have after interacting with
this atom in the ground state if the initial
kinetic energy of the electron is n=1 – 15.6 eV
(i) 6 eV (ii) 11 eV
Sol. (a) Ionization potential = 15.6 V
12400
(b) min = = 2340 Å
5 .3
(c) E31 = – 3.08 – (– 15.6) = 12.52 eV
Therefore, excitation potential for state n = 3 is 12.52 volt.
1 E 31 12.52 –1
 31 = 12400 Å = 12400 Å
–1
(d)

 1.01 × 107 m–1

(e) (i) E2 – E1 = 10.3 eV > 6 eV.
Hence electron cannot excite the atoms. So, Kmin = 6 eV.
(ii) E2 – E1 = 10.3 eV < 11 eV.
Hence electron can excite the atoms. So, Kmin = (11 – 10.3) = 0.7 eV.
Ex. 21 A small particle of mass m moves in such a way that the potential energy U = ar2 where a is a constant and
r is the distance of the particle from the origin. Assuming Bohr’s model of quantization of angular momentum
and circular orbits, find the radius of nth allowed orbit.
Sol. The force at a distance r is,
dU
F=– = – 2ar
dr
Suppose r be the radius of nth orbit. The necessary centripetal force is provided by the above force. Thus,
mv 2
= 2ar
r
Further, the quantization of angular momentum gives,
nh
2
mvr =

Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii) for r, we get

 n 2h 2 
1/ 4

r  
 8am  2  Ans.
 

Ex. 22 An imaginary particle has a charge equal to that of an electron and mass 100 times the mass of the electron.
It moves in a circular orbit around a nucleus of charge + 4e. Take the mass of the nucleus to be infinite.
Assuming that the Bohr’s model is applicable to the system.
(a) Derive and expression for the radius of nth Bohr orbit.
(b) Find the wavelength of the radiation emitted when the particle jumps from fourth orbit to the second.
mp v 2 1 ze 2

4 0 rn2
Sol. (a) We have .....(i)
rn
The quantization of angular momentum gives,
nh
2
mp vrn = ......(ii)

RESONANCE 21
 Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get
n 2h 2  0
zmp e 2
r=

Substituting mp = 100 m
where m = mass of electron and z = 4
n 2h 2  0
400 me 2
we get, rn = Ans.

(b) As we know,
Energy of hydrogen atom in ground state = – 13.60 eV
 z2 
and En   2 m

n 

(13.60) ( 4 )2
For the given particle, E4 = × 100 = –1360 eV
( 4)2

(13.60) ( 4)2
and E2 = × 100 = – 5440 eV
( 2) 2
DE = E4 – E2 = 4080 eV
12400
  (in Å) = = 3.0 Å Ans.
4080

Ex. 23 A particle known as -meason, has a charge equal to that of an electron and mass 208 times the mass of the
electron. It moves in a circular orbit around a nucleus of charge +3e. Take the mass of the nucleus to be
infinite. Assuming that the Bohr’s model is applicable to this system, (a) derive an expression for the radius
of the nth Bohr orbit, (b) find the value of n for which the radius of the orbit is approximately the same as that
of the first Bohr orbit for a hydrogen atom and (c) find the wavelength of the radiation emitted when the –
meson jumps from the third orbit to the first orbit.
Sol. (a) We have,
mv 2 Ze 2

r 4 0 r 2

Ze 2
v 2r 
4  0m
or, ...(i)

nh
2m
The quantization rule is vr =

( vr )2 4 0m
The radius is r = =
2
v r Ze 2

n 2h 2  0
= ....(ii)
Zme 2
For the given system, Z = 3 and m = 208 me.
n 2h 2  0
r 
624 m e e 2
Thus

(b) From (ii), the radius of the first Bohr orbit for the hydrogen atom is
h2 0
rh 
m e e 2

n 2h 2  0 h20
m e e 2
For r = rh, =
624 m e e 2

RESONANCE 22
 or, n2 = 624
or, n = 25
(c) From (i), the kinetic energy of the atom is

mv 2 Ze 2
8 0r
=
2

Ze 2
and the potential energy is –
4 0r

Ze 2
8 0r
The total energy is En =

Z 2 me 4 9  208m e 1872   m e e 


4 4

En = – =–  
8  02n 2h 2 8 02n 2h 2 n 2  8 0 h
Using (ii), =

2 2

 me e 4 
 
But   2 2  is the ground state energy of hydrogen atom and hence is equal to – 13.6 eV..
 8 0 h 

1872  25459 .2 eV
From (iii), En = – × 13.6 eV =
n2 n2
E1
Thus, E1 = – 25459.2 eV and E3 = = – 2828.8 eV. The energy difference is E3 – E1 = 22630.4eV..
9
The wavelength emitted is
hc 1240 eV  nm
=
E
= 22630 .4 eV = 55 pm.

Ex. 24 A gas of hydrogen like atoms can absorb radiations of 68 eV. Consequently, the atoms emit radiations of
only three different wavelength. All the wavelengths are equal or smaller than that of the absorbed photon.
(a) Determine the initial state of the gas atoms.
(b) Identify the gas atoms.
(c) Find the minimum wavelength of the emitted radiations.
(d) Find the ionization energy and the respective wavelength for the gas atoms.
n(n  1)
Sol. (a) 3
2
 n=3
i.e., after excitation atom jumps to second excited state.
Hence nf = 3. So ni can be 1 or 2
If ni = 1 then energy emitted is either equal to, greater than or less than the energy absorbed.
Hence the emitted wavelength is either equal to, less than or greater than the absorbed wavelength.
Hence ni  1.
If ni = 2, then Ee  Ea. Hence e  0
(b) E3 – E2 = 68 eV
1 1
 (13.6) (Z2)  4  9  = 68
 
 Z=6

min =
12400 12400 12400
(c) = = = 28.49 Ans.
E 3  E1  1
(13.6 ) ( 6) 2 1  
435 .2

 9
(d) Ionization energy = (13.6) (6)2 = 489.6 eV Ans.
12400
= = 25.33 Å Ans.
489.6

RESONANCE 23
Ex. 25 An electron is orbiting in a circular orbit of radius r under the influence of a constant magnetic field of strength
B. Assuming that Bohr’s postulate regarding the quantisation of angular momentum holds good for this
electron, find
(a) the allowed values of the radius ‘r’ of the orbit.
(b) the kinetic energy of the electron in orbit
(c) The potential energy of interaction between the magnetic moment of the orbital current due to the
electron moving in its orbit and the magnetic field B.
(d) The total energy of the allowed energy levels.
Sol. (a) radius of circular path
mv
r= ....(i)
Be
nh
2
mvr = ....(ii)

Solving these two equations, we get

nh nhBe
2Be 2m 2
r= and v =

1 nhBe
4 m
(b) K= mv2 = Ans.
2

e
M = iA =   (r2) =
evr
T
(c)
2

e nh nhBe nhe
2Be 2m 4m
= 2 =
2
Now potential energy U=–M.B
nheB
4 m
=

nheB
2 m
(d) E=U+K=


11. EFFECT OF NUCLEUS MOTION ON ENERGY OF ATOM
Let both the nucleus of mass M, charge Ze and electron of mass m, and
charge e revolve about their centre of mass (CM) with same angular
velocity () but different linear speeds. Let r1 and r2 be the distance of CM
from nucleus and electron. Thier angular velocity should be same then r1 r2
m
M
only their separation will remain unchanged in an energy level. CM

Let r be the distance between the nucleus and the electron. Then
Mr1 = mr2
r1 + r2 = r
mr Mr

Mm Mm
r1 = and r2 =
Centripetal force to the electron is provided by the electrostatic force. So,
1 Ze 2
mr22 = 4
0 r2
 Mr  1 Ze 2
m   2 =
4 0
Mm
or .
r2

 Mm  Ze 2
  r3 2 =
Mm 4 0
or

RESONANCE 24
 e2
r32 =
4 0
or

Mm
=
Mm
where
Moment of inertia of atom about CM,
 Mm 
 = Mr12 + mr22 =   r2 = r2
Mm
nh
According to Bohr’s theory, = 
2
nh
r2 =
2
or

Solving above equations for r, we get

 0n 2h 2 n2 m
r = (0.529 Å) 
e 2 Z Z ì
r= and

Further electrical potential energy of the system,

 Ze 2  Z 2e 4
40r 4 02n 2h 2
U= U=

1 1 2 2 1
and kinetic energy, K= 2 = r  and K= v2
2 2 2
v-speed of electron with respect to nucleus. (v = r)
Ze 2
2 =
4 0 r 3
here

Ze 2 Z 2e4

8 0r 8  02n 2h 2
K= =

 Total energy of the system En = K + U

e 4
En = –
8 0 n 2h 2
2

this expression can also be written as

Z2  ì 
En = – (13.6 eV) 2   
n m
me 4
The expression for En without considering the motion of proton is En = – , i.e., m is replaced by 
8  0 n 2h 2
2

while considering the motion of nucleus.

Ex. 26 A positronium ‘atom’ is a system that consists of a positron and an electron that orbit each other. Compare
the wavelength of the spectral lines of positronium with those of ordinary hydrogen.
Sol. Here the two particle have the same mass m, so the reduced mass is
mM m2 m
=
mM
= =
2m 2
where m is the electron mass. We know that En  m
 1
 
E'n
 En m 2 energy of each level is halved.  Their difference will also be halved.

Hence ’n = 2n

RESONANCE 25

12. ATOMIC COLLISION
In such collisions assume that the loss in the kinetic energy of system is possible only if it can excite or
ionise.

Ex. 27 neutron
H atom at rest
in ground state
K, v and free to move

head on collision
What will be the type of collision, if K = 14eV, 20.4 eV, 22 eV, 24.18 eV
(elastic/inelastic/perectly inelastic)
Sol. Loss in energy (E) during the collision will be used to excite the atom or electron from one level to another.
According to quantum Mechanics, for hydrogen atom.
E = {0, 10.2 eV, 12.09 eV, ........., 13.6 eV)
According to Newtonion mechanics
minimum loss = 0. (elastic collsion)
for maximum loss collision will be perfectly inelastic m m vf
if neutron collides perfectly inelastically
then, Applying momentum conservation
m0 = 2mf

vf 
v0
2

2
× 2m × 0
1
final K.E. =
2 4

m 02
1
2 K
= =
2 2
K
maximum loss =
2
K
According to classical mechanics (E) = [0, ]
2

(a) If K = 14 eV, According to quantum mechanics

(E) = {0, 10.2eV, 12.09 eV}
According to classical mechanics
E = [0, 7 eV]
loss = 0, hence it is elastic collision speed of particle changes.
(b) If K = 20.4 eV
According to classical mechanics
loss = [0, 10.2 eV]
According to quantum mechanics
loss = {0, 10.2eV, 12.09eV,.........}
loss = 0 elastic collision.
loss = 10.2eV perfectly inelastic collision

(c) If K = 22 eV
Classical mechanics E =[0, 11]
Quantum mechanics E = {0, 10.2eV, 12.09eV, ........}
loss = 0 elastic collision
loss = 10.2 eV inelastic collsion

RESONANCE 26
 (d) If K = 24.18 eV
According to classical mechanics E =[0, 12.09eV]
According to quantum mechanics E = {0, 10.2eV, 12.09eV, ...... 13.6eV}
loss = 0 elastic collision
loss = 10.2 eV inelastic collision
loss = 12.09 eV perfectly inelastic collision

Ex. 28 A He+ ion is at rest and is in ground state. A neutron with initial kinetic energy K collides head on with the He+
ion. Find minimum value of K so that there can be an inelastic collision between these two particle.
Sol. Here the loss during the collision can only be used to excite the atoms or electrons.
So according to quantum mechanics
loss = {0, 40.8eV, 48.3eV, ......, 54.4eV} ....(1)
Z2
En = – 13.6 eV m 4m
n2 +
n K He
Now according to newtonion mechanics
Minimum loss = 0
maximum loss will be for perfectly inelastic collision.
let v0 be the initial speed of neutron and vf be the final common speed.
v0
so by momentum conservation mv0 = mvf + 4mvf vf =
5
where m = mass of Neutron
 mass of He+ ion = 4m
so final kinetic energy of system
1 1 1 v2 1 1 K
K.E. = m v 2f + 4m v 2f = .(5m ). 0 = .( mv 20 ) =
2 2 2 25 5 2 5

K 4K
maximum loss = K – =
5 5

 4K 
so loss will be 0, 
 5 
....(2)

For inelastic collision there should be at least one common value other than zero in set (1) and (2)
4K
 > 40.8 eV
5
K > 51 eV
minimum value of K = 51 eV.

Ex. 29 A moving hydrogen atom makes a head on collision with a stationary hydrogen atom. Before collision both
atoms are in ground state and after collision they move together. What is the minimum value of the kinetic
energy of the moving hydrogen atom, such that one of the atoms reaches one of the excitation state.
Sol. Let K be the kinetic energy of the moving hydrogen atom and K’, the kinetic energy of combined mass after
collision.
From conservation of linear momentum,
p = p’ or 2Km = 2K ' ( 2m) n=2
or K = 2K’ ....(i)
From conservation of energy, K = K’ + E ....(ii) E = 10.2 eV

K
Solving Eqs. (i) and (ii), we get E = n=1
2
Now minimum value of E for hydrogen atom is 10.2 eV.
or E  10.2 eV
K
  10.2
2
 K  20.4 eV
Therefore, the minimum kinetic energy of moving hydrogen is 20.4 eV Ans.

RESONANCE 27
Ex. 30 A neutron moving with speed v makes a head-on collision with a hydrogen atom in ground state kept at rest.
Find the minimum kinetic energy of the neutron for which inelastic (completely or partially) collision may take
place. The mass of neutron = mass of hydrogen = 1.67 × 10–27 kg.
Sol. Suppose the neutron and the hydrogen atom move at speed v1 and v2 after the collision. The collision will be
inelastic if a part of the kinetic energy is used to excite the atom. Suppose an energy E is used in this way.
Using conservation of linear momentum and energy.
mv = mv1 + mv2 ....(i)
1 1 1
and mv2 = mv12 + mv22 + E ....(ii)
2 2 2
From (i), v2 = v12 + v22 + 2v1v2 ,
2E
From (ii), v2 = v12 + v22 +
m
2E
Thus, 2v1v2 =
m

Hence, (v1 – v2)2 – 4v1v2 = v2 –

4E
m

As v1 – v2 must be real, v2 –
4E
0
m
1
or, mv2 > 2E.
2
The minimum energy that can be absorbed by the hydrogen atom in ground state to go in an excited state is
10.2 eV. Thus, the minimum kinetic energy of the neutron needed for an inelastic collision is

 2  10.2 eV  20.4 eV
1 2
mv min
2

Ex. 31 How many head-on, elastic collisions must a neutron have with deuterium nucleus to reduce its energy from
1 MeV to 0.025 eV.
Sol. Let mass of neutron = m and mass of deuterium = 2m
initial kinetic energy of neutron = K0
Let after first collision kinetic energy of neutron and deuterium be K1 and K2.
Using C.O.L.M. along direction of motion
2mK 0 = 2mK 1 + 4mK 2
velocity of seperation = velocity of approach

–
4mK 2 2mK 1 2mK 0
=
2m m m
Solving equaiton (i) and (ii) we get
K0
K1 =
9
Loss in kinetic eneryg after first collision
K1 = K0 – K1
8
K1 = K ....... (1)
9 0
After second collision
8 8 K0
K2 = K = .
9 1 9 9
 Total energy loss
K = K1 + K2 + ..... + Kn
8 8 8
As, K = K0 + 2 K 0 + .......... + n K 0
9 9 9

8 1 1
K = K0 (1 + + ......... + n 1 )
9 9 9

RESONANCE 28
  
1
1
K 8  9n 
   =1–
1
K0 9  
1
1 9n
 9 
Here, K0 = 106 eV, K = (106 – 0.025) eV
1 K 0  K 0.025
 = = or 9n = 4 × 107
9 n K0 10 6
Taking log both sides and solving, we get
n=8

Ex. 32 A neutron with an energy of 4.6 MeV collides with protons and is retarded. Assuming that upon each collision
neutron is deflected by 45º find the number of collisions which will reduce its energy to 0.23 eV.
Sol. Mass of neutron  mass of proton = m
K1
y
m m Neutron
45º
K0 
º
x
Neutron Proton Proton

K2

From conservation of momentum in y-direction

2mK 1 sin 45º = 2mK 2 sin  ....(i)

In x-direction 2mK 0 – 2mK 1 cos 45º = 2mK 2 cos  ....(ii)

Squaring and adding equation (i) and (ii), we have
K2 = K1 + K0 – 2K 0K 1 ....(iii)
From conservation of energy
K2 = K0– K1 ....(iv)
Solving equations (iii) and (iv), we get
K0
K1 =
2
i.e., after each collision energy remains half. Therefore, after n collisions,

 1
n

Kn = K0  
2

 1 4.6  10 6
n

 0.23 = (4.6 × 10 )   6 2n 
2 0.23
Taking log and solving, we get
n  24 Ans.


12.1 Calculation of recoil speed of atom on emission of a photon
h

momentum of photon = mc =

fixed
H-atom in first excited state

hc

(a) =10.2 eV

RESONANCE 29
 free to move

 H-atom h
(b) '

m - mass of atom
According to momentum conservation
h
'
mv = .... (i)
According to energy conservation

m 2 
1 hc
'
= 10.2 eV
2
Since mass of atom is very large than photon

m 2 can be neglected
1
hence
2
hc h 10.2
' 
= 10.2 eV = eV
c
10.2 10.2
m = eV =
c cm
10.2
recoil speed of atom =
cm


13. X-RAYS
It was discovered by ROENTGEN. The wavelength of x-rays is found between 0.1 Å to 10 Å. These rays are
invisible to eye. They are electromagnetic waves and have speed c = 3 × 108 m/s in vacuum.
Its photons have energy around 1000 times more than the visible light.
 increases

Rw mw IR v uv x 
When fast moving electrons having energy of order of several KeV strike the metallic target then x-rays are
produced.

13.1 Production of x-rays by coolidge tube :

Target (of Mo or w)

To vaccum pump
copper block
copper rod filament

·· ··
···
collimater 10 V
filament voltage

x-Rays

Accelerating voltage ~ kV
The melting point, specific heat capacity and atomic number of target should be high. When voltage
is applied across the filament then filament on being heated emits electrons from it. Now for giving
the beam shape of electrons, collimator is used. Now when electron strikes the target then x-rays
are produced.
When electrons strike with the target, some part of energy is lost and converted into heat. Since, target
should not melt or it can absorbe heat so that the melting point, specific heat of target should be high.

RESONANCE 30
 Here copper rod is attached so that heat produced can go behind and it can absorb heat and target
does not get heated very high.
For more energetic electron, accelerating voltage is increased.
For more no. of photons voltage across filament is increased. continuous
min
The x-ray were analysed by mostly taking their spectrum

13.2 Variation of Intensity of x-rays with  is plotted as shown in figure :

V'>V, Z
V, Z
continuous x-rays
V, Z'

min 

1. The minimum wavelength corresponds to the maximum energy of the x-rays which in turn is equal to
the maximum kinetic energy eV of the striking electrons thus
hc
 min
eV = hmax =

hc
Å.
12400
min = =
eV V(involts)
We see that cutoff wavelength min depends only on accelerating voltage applied between target and
filament. It does not depend upon material of target, it is same for two different metals (Z and Z’)

Ex. 33 An X-ray tube operates at 20 kV. A particular electron loses 5% of its kinetic energy to emit an X-ray photon
at the first collision. Find the wavelength corresponding to this photon.
Sol. Kinetic energy acquired by the electron is
K = eV = 20 × 103 eV.
The energy of the photon
= 0.05 × 20 = 103 eV = 103 eV.
h ( 4.14  10 15 eV  s)  (3  10 8 m / s) 1242 eV  nm
 10 3 eV  1.24 nm

Thus, = =
3
10 eV 10 3 eV


2. Charactristic X-rays
The sharp peaks obtained in graph are known as 
characteristic x-rays because they are characteristic of
V, Z
target material.
 1,  2,  3,  4, ........ = charecteristic wavelength of
material having atomic number Z are called characteris-
tic x-rays and the spectrum obtained is called
characteristic spectrum. If target of atomic number Z’ is
used then peaks are shifted. min 1 2 3 4 


Characteristic x-ray emission occurs when an energetic 

electron collides with target and remove an inner shell V, Z' < Z
electron from atom, the vacancy created in the shell is filled
when an electron from higher level drops into it.
Suppose vacancy created in innermost K-shell is filled by
an electron droping from next higher level L-shell then K V, Z
characteristic x-ray is obtained. If vaccany in K-shell is filled
by an electron from M-shell, K line is produced and so on
similarly L, L,.....M, M lines are produced. 
min 1 ´12 ´2 3 ´3 4 ´4

RESONANCE 31
 n=5 O
N
n=4 N
K M M
n=3 M
L L L
K
n=2 L
x-rays
K
n=1 K

Ex. 34 Find which is K and K

 2
1

l 1 l 2 

hc hc
E = =
 E
Sol. ,

since energy difference of K is less than K

Ek < Ek
k < k
1 is K and 2 is K
1
 2
Ex. 35

1 2 

Find which is K and L

Sol  EK > EL
1 is K and 2 is L


14. MOSELEY’S LAW :
Moseley measured the frequencies of characteristic x-rays for a large number of elements and plotted the
sqaure root of frequency against position number in periodic table. He discovered that plot is very closed to
a straight line not passing through origin.

  1,  1',  1'', 1'''

Z1 l 1 l 2

2 , 2',  2'', 2''' Z2 l 1' l 2'

Z3 l 1" l 2''

Z4 l 1"' l 2'''

Wavelength of charactristic wavelengths.

Z

Moseley’s observations can be mathematically expressed as

  a( Z  b)
a and b are positive constants for one type of x-rays & for all elements (independent of Z).

RESONANCE 32
 Moseley’s Law can be derived on the basis of Bohr’s theory of atom, frequency of x-rays is given by
 1 
CR  2  2 
1
 = n  . (Z – b)
 1 n2 
 1 1

1  2  with modification for multi electron system.
by using the formula n

= R z2 
 1 n2 
2

b  known as screening constant or shielding effect, and (Z – b) is effective nuclear charge.

for K line
n1 = 1, n2 = 2

 (Z – b)
3RC
 =
4

 = a(Z – b)

3RC
Here a= , [b = 1 for K lines]
4

K

Ex. 36 K

Z1
Z2

1 2 

Find in Z1 and Z2 which one is greater.

 1 1 
 
cR  2  2  . (Z – b)
Sol.  n 
 1 n2 
If Z is greater then  will be greater,  will be less
 1 < 2
 Z1 > Z2.

Ex. 37 A cobalt target is bombarded with electrons and the wavelength of its characteristic spectrum are measured.
A second, fainter, characteristic spectrum is also found because of an impurity in the target. The wavelength
of the K lines are 178.9 pm (cobalt) and 143.5 pm (impurity). What is the impurity?
Sol. Using Moseley’s law and putting c/ for  (and assuming b = 1), we obtain

 aZ c 0  a
c
c0

 aZ x  a
c
x
and

Dividing yields

c0 Zx  1

x Zc0  1
Substituting gives us
178 .9 pm Zx  1
143 .5 pm = 27  1 .
Solving for the unknown, we find Zx = 30.0; the impurity is zinc.

RESONANCE 33
Ex. 38 Find the constants a and b in Moseley’s equation v  a( Z  b) from the following data.

Element Z Wavelength of K X-ray

Mo 42 71 pm
Co 27 178.5 pm

Sol. Moseley’s equation is

v  a( Z  b)

 a( Z1  b)
c
Thus, 1 ....(i)

 a( Z 2  b)
c
and 2 ....(ii)

 1 1 
c   a ( Z1  Z 2 )
From (i) and (ii)    2 
 1

 1 1 
c  
a = (Z  Z ) 
2  1  2 
or,
1

(3  10 8 m / s)1/ 2  1

1 
 12 12 1/ 2 
 (71 10 m) (178.5  10 m) 
=
42  27
1/ 2

= 5.0 × 10 (Hz)1/2
7

Dividing (i) by (ii),

2 Z b
 1
1 Z2  b

178 .5 42  b

27  b
or,
71
or, b = 1.37

RESONANCE 34
Problem 1. Find the momentum of a 12.0 MeV photon.
E
Solution : p= = 12 MeV/c.
c

Problem 2. Monochromatic light of wavelength 3000 Å is incident nornally on a surface of area 4 cm2. If the
intensity of the light is 15 × 10–2 W/m2, determine the rate at which photons strike the surface.
Solution : Rate at which photons strike the surface

A 6  10 5 J / s
 = 9.05 × 1013 photon/s.
hc /  6.63  10 19 J / photon
=

Problem 3. The kinetic energies of photoelectrons range from zero to 4.0 × 10–19 J when light of wavelength 3000
Å falls on a surface. What is the stopping potential for this light ?
1eV
Kmax = 4.0 × 10–19 J ×
1.6  10 19 J
Solution : = 2.5 eV..

Then, from eVs = Kmax , Vs = 2.5 V.

Problem 4. What is the threshold wavelength for the material in above problem ?

12.4  10 3 eV.Å 12.4  10 3 eV.Å


3000 Å  th
Solution : 2.5 eV =

Solving, th = 7590 Å.

Problem 5. Find the de Broglie wavelength of a 0.01 kg pellet having a velocity of 10 m/s.

6.63  10 34 J.s

 = h/p = = 6.63 × 10–23 Å .
0.01kg  10 m / s
Solution :

Problem 6. Determine the accelerating potential necessary to give an electron a de Broglie wavelength of 1 Å,
which is the size of the interatomic spacing of atoms in a crystal.
h2
2m0 e2
Solution : V= = 151 V..

Problem 7. Determine the wavelength of the second line of the Paschen series for hydrogen.
 1 1 
= (1.097 × 10–3 Å–1)  2  2 
1
 = 12,820 Å.
  
Solution . or
3 5

Problem 8. How many different photons can be emitted by hydrogen atoms that undergo transitions to the
ground state from the n = 5 state ?
Solution : No of possible transition from n = 5 are 5 C2 = 70
Ans. 10 photons.

Problem 9. An electron rotates in a circle around a nucleus with positive charge Ze. How is the electrons’
velocity releated to the radius of its orbit ?
Solution : The force on the electron due to the nuclear provides the required centripetal force
1 Ze. e mv 2
40 r 2 =
r

Ze2 Ze2
v=
4 0 .rm 4 0 .rm
Ans. v= .

RESONANCE 35
Problem 10. (i) Calculate the first three energy levels for positronium.
(ii) Find the wavelength of the Ha line (3  2 transition) of positronium.
Solution :
In positronium electron and positron revolve around their centre of mass
1 e2 mv 2
4p0 2 = ———(1)
r r/2

= 2 × mvk/2 ———(2)
nh
2
From (1) & (2)
2
e2 e
× 2p =
1 1
. 4 .
4 0 nh
V=
2 0 nh

4
e
TE = – mv2 × 2 = – m.
1
16 0 n 2h 2
2 2

= – 6.8
1
eV
n2
(i) E1 = – 6.8 ev

E2 = – 6.8 × eV = – 1.70 eV
1
22

E3 = – 6.8 × eV = – 0.76 eV
1
32
(ii) E (3  2) = E3 – E2 = – 0.76 –(– 1.70) eV
= 0.94 eV
The corresponding wave length
1.24  10 4
= Å = 1313 Å
0.94
Ans. (i) –6.8 eV, –1.7 eV , –0.76 eV ; (ii) 1313 Å .

Problem 11. A H-atom in ground state is moving with intial kinetic energy K. It collides head on with a He+ ion in
ground state kept at rest but free to move. Find minimum value of K so that both the particles can
excite to their first excited state.
4K
Solution : Energy available for excitation =
5
Total energy required for excitation
= 10.2 ev + 40.8 eV
= 51.0 ev

 
4k
= 51 k = 63.75 eV
5

Problem 12. A TV tube operates with a 20 kV accelerating potential. What are the maximum–energy X–rays from
the TV set ?
Solution : The electrons in the TV tube have an energy of 20 keV, and if these electrons are brought to rest by
a collision in which one X–ray photon is emitted, the photon energy is 20 keV.

Problem 13. In the Moseley relation, v  a( Z  b) which will have the greater value for the constant a for K or
K transition ?
Solution : A is larger for the K transitions than for the K transitions.

RESONANCE 36