DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

ELECTRON EMISSION
The process of liberation of electrons from a metal surface is called electron
emission.

TYPES OF ELECTRON EMISSION

1. THERMIONIC EMISSION: Emission of electrons when a metal surface
is heated is called thermionic emission.
2. FIELD EMISSION: Emission of electrons when a metal surface is
subjected to a strong electric field (108 Vm-1) is called field emission.
3. PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION: Emission of electrons when light of
suitable frequency is illuminated on a metal surface is called photoelectric
emission.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of a metal when
radiation of a suitable frequency is incident on it.
➢ The electrons emitted are called PHOTOELECTRONS.
➢ The current produced by these electrons is called PHOTOCURRENT.

HERTZ’S OBSERVATIONS
While experimentally studying the production of electromagnetic waves using
spark discharge, Hertz found that the sparks across the detector loop were
enhanced when illuminated by UV light. This was the first discovery of
photoelectric effect.

HALLWACH’S AND LENARD’S OBSERVATIONS

They experimented on negatively charged zinc plate and found that on absorbing
ultraviolet light zinc plate became neutral, losing its net negative charge. On
further absorption of ultraviolet radiation, neutral zinc plate became positively
charged.
➢ This proved that electrons are released from the metal surface when
ultraviolet radiation is incident on it.
➢ They also observed that electrons are not emitted when the frequency of
light incident is less than a specific least value, called the THRESHOLD
FREQUENCY. They also found that the threshold frequency depends on
the nature of material used as an emitter.
WORK FUNCTION (φ0)
The minimum energy required by an electron to escape from the metal surface is
called the work function of the metal.
➢ It is measured in electron volt (eV)
➢ 1eV = 1.6X10-19 J
➢ The value of work function is a constant for a given metal.

ELECTRON VOLT (eV)

One eV is the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated by a
potential difference of one volt.

THRESHOLD FREQUENCY (ν0)

The minimum frequency of the incident radiation required for photoelectric effect
to occur is called threshold frequency (The minimum frequency of the incident
radiation below which photoemission does not occur is called threshold
frequency).
➢ SI unit: hertz (Hz)

THRESHOLD WAVELENGTH (λο)

The maximum wavelength of the incident radiation for which the photoemission
will occur is called threshold wavelength.
𝑐
𝜆0 =
𝜈0
➢ SI unit: metre (m)

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Where,
S – Source
C – Emitter Plate
A – Collector Plate
V – Voltmeter
μA – Microammeter
EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
1. Effect of intensity of light on photocurrent

For a given frequency of light, the photoelectric current (or the number
photoelectrons emitted per second) is directly proportional to the intensity
of incident radiation.

2. Effect of potential on photocurrent

➢ For a given frequency of incident light, as the collector potential is

increased, the photoelectric current increases and reaches a maximum
value and is called the saturation current.
➢ When negative potential is applied to the collector the photoelectric current
decreases and becomes zero for a particular value of negative potential,
called the stopping potential.
➢ The saturation current depends on intensity but the stopping potential (or
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) is independent of intensity.
 3. Effect of frequency of incident radiation on stopping potential

➢ For a given intensity of light the stopping potential depends on frequency

but saturation current is independent of frequency.

➢ For a given metal, above a minimum frequency called the threshold

frequency the stopping potential is directly proportional to frequency of
incident light.

4. Photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process

Photoemission takes place without any time lag (≈ 10-9 s or less) even when
the incident radiation is dim.

STOPPING POTENTIAL (V0):

The minimum negative (retarding) potential applied to the collector plate (A)
such that the photocurrent becomes zero.
The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectron is given by
𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝐞𝑽𝟎
WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT & PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
According to wave theory the free electrons near the surface of the metal absorb
energy continuously and get emitted.
But this theory could not explain the following experimental observations:
• According to the wave theory, when the intensity of incident radiation
increases, the amplitude of the wave increases and hence its energy also
increases. Hence the kinetic energy with which the electron is emitted
should also increase which means that kinetic energy will depend on
intensity.
But experimentally it was found that the kinetic energy/ stopping potential
is independent of intensity.

• According to wave theory a sufficient intense beam of incident light (over

a period of time) should be able to impart enough energy for the emission
of electrons.
Hence it was not able to explain the requirement of a minimum frequency
called threshold frequency observed experimentally.

• Since a large number of electrons have to absorb energy, calculations show

that it should take hours or more for a single electron to gain sufficient
energy and undergo photoemission.
This could not explain the fact that photoelectric effect is an instantaneous
process.
Hence the wave picture of light was not able to explain the experimental
observations of the photoelectric effect.
EINSTEIN’S EXPLANATION FOR PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Einstein’s explanation is based on Max Planck’s Quantum hypothesis. He
considered that the incident radiation is made up discrete packets of energy
(E=hν) which are called photons. The photons of the incident radiation collide
with the electrons in the metal surface and imparts its energy to it. The electrons
absorb this energy and overcomes the work function of the metal and the
remaining energy is used by the electron as its kinetic energy.
𝑬 = 𝝓𝟎 + 𝑲𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝟏
𝒉𝝂 = 𝒉𝝂𝟎 + 𝐦(𝐯𝒎𝒂𝒙 )𝟐
𝟐
The above equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
 1. According to the Einstein’s photoelectric equation the kinetic energy is
given by,
𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈0
Hence, 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 is directly proportional to frequency and is independent of
intensity in agreement with the experimental observation.
2. Since kinetic energy should be positive,
ℎ𝜈 > ℎ𝜈0
𝜙0
i.e., 𝜈 > 𝜈0 where, 𝜈0 =
ℎ
i.e. photoemission is possible only if the frequency of incident radiation is
greater than the threshold frequency.
3. The intensity of incident radiation is directly proportional to the number of
photons incident per unit area per unit time. Higher the intensity, more the
number of photons and hence more photoelectrons are emitted. Therefore,
the photoelectric current is directly proportional to intensity of incident
light.
4. Photoemission occurs due to collision between two microparticles a photon
and an electron inside the metal. During collision energy of the photon is
transferred to the electron and hence it is emitted without any time lag.

PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT: PHOTON

1. When radiation interacts with matter, it behaves as if it is made of particles
called PHOTONS.
𝑐 ℎ𝜈 ℎ
2. Each photon has the energy, 𝐸(= ℎ𝜈 = ℎ ), a momentum 𝑝(= = )
𝜆 𝑐 𝜆
and speed c (the speed of light).
3. All photons of a particular frequency (or wavelength) have the same energy
E and momentum p.
4. Photon energy is independent of intensity (as intensity is no. of photons per
area per s)
5. They are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric or magnetic
fields.
6. In photon-particle collision the energy and momentum are conserved (but
the number of photons may not be conserved).

WAVE NATURE OF MATTER

Radiation exhibits dual nature, sometimes behaving as wave and sometimes as
particles.
de-Broglie proposed a hypothesis that moving particles should also display wave
like properties.
MATTER WAVES
The wave nature associated with material particles is called matter waves (or de-
Broglie waves).

EXPRESSION FOR de-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH

Consider a photon with frequency ν and wavelength λ travelling with the speed
of light c.
Energy of the photon is,
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈
From theory of relativity,
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2
m𝑐 2 = ℎ𝜈
ℎ𝜈
𝑚𝑐 =
𝑐
The momentum of the photon is,
ℎ𝜈
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑐 =
𝑐
Since, 𝑐 = 𝜈𝜆
ℎ𝜈 ℎ
𝑝= =
𝑐 𝜆
ℎ ℎ
𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑐
The momentum of a material particle is given by, p=mv. Hence the de-Broglie
wavelength of the particle is given by,
𝒉 𝒉
𝝀= =
𝒑 𝒎𝐯

NOTE:
➢ de–Broglie wavelength in terms of kinetic energy (K)

𝒉
𝝀=
√𝟐𝒎𝑲

➢ de–Broglie wavelength in terms of potential difference (V)

𝒉
𝝀=
√𝟐𝒎𝒆𝑽