Tea Practices in Mongolia: A Field of Female Power and Gendered Meanings

Author(s): Gaby Bamana

Source: Asian Ethnology , 2015, Vol. 74, No. 1 (2015), pp. 193-214
Published by: Nanzan University

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/43610657

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 Gaby Bamana
University of Wales

Tea Practices in Mongolia

A Field of Female Power and Gendered Meanings

This article provides a description and analysis of tea practices in Mongolia

that disclose features of female power and gendered meanings relevant in
social and cultural processes. I suggest that women's gendered experienc
generate a differentiated power that they engage in social actions. Moreover
in tea practices women invoke meanings that are also differentiated by thei
gendered experience and the powerful position of meaning constructio
Female power, female identity, and gendered meanings are distinctive in t
complex whole of cultural and social processes in Mongolia. This article con
tributes to the understudied field of tea practices in a country that does n
grow tea, yet whose inhabitants have turned this commodity into an icon
social and cultural processes in everyday life.

keywords: female power - gendered meanings - tea practices - Mongolia -

female identity

Asian Ethnology Volume 74, Number 1 • 2015, 193-214

© Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture

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 At .tfau) .tfau)
the consumption
consumptiontime
was this
part research was life
of everyday partinwasMongolia.1
of conducted,
Tea waseveryday
an ordi-life salty in Mongolia.1 milk tea ( süütei Tea was tsai' an cyy™™ ordi-
nary beverage whose most popular cultural relevance appeared to be the expres-
sion of hospitality to guests and visitors. In this article, I endeavor to go beyond
this commonplace knowledge and offer a careful observation and analysis of social
practices - that I identify as tea practices - which use tea as a dominant symbol.
In tea practices, people (women in most cases) construct and/or reappropri-
ate the meaning of their gendered identity in social networks of power. Women
display aspects of female power and construct gendered meanings in a society that
is predominantly patriarchal. It is my task here to provide an analysis of some of
the meanings women construct in everyday life tea practices. My suggestion is that
tea practices are a field of female power and gendered meanings relevant in the
processes of sociality in Mongolia. Furthermore, I argue that tea practices are sym-
bolic actions whose meanings are about identities in social relations. Moreover,
beyond disclosing female power and identity, tea practices include processes of
meaning transmission that contribute to gender regeneration.
To construct an analysis of tea practices, I have relied heavily on my obser-
vations of tea practices during extensive field research in Mongolia undertaken
between 2006 and 2010. 1 discuss my own field research using a practice approach
(Bourdieu 1977; Ortner 2006) and gender theories (Moore 1988; 1994; Ort-
ner 1996) as a "tool kit" to understand how a commodity of foreign origin and
from a secondary economic activity (agriculture) became significant in the social
processes of pastoralist herders.
The following analysis comprises a brief discussion of the history of "the con-
quest" of Mongol social practices by tea leaves packed into rectangular bricks and
imported mainly from China. I then provide a description of tea practices before
discussing the meanings people invoke in everyday tea practices. Understandably,
this discussion does not represent any particular person's tea practices. On the con-
trary, I endeavor to present tea practice stories as well as I can recall observing
them, as I construct a narrative of the stories whose meanings and interpretation
concern identities in social and cultural processes. In the conclusion, I clarify my
suggestion that tea practices in Mongolia are a field of female power and gendered
meanings by highlighting a few of the processes I observed.

194 I Asian Ethnology Volume 74, Number 1 • 2015

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 BAMANA: MONOGOLIAN TEA PRACTICES | I95

The tale of a plant leaf that took over

SOCIAL PRACTICES IN MONGOLIA

Mongolia is not a tea-producing country and Mongolian

mentioned among renowned world tea consumers. However, peop
lia consider themselves to be tea consumers ( tsaisajr, yaucaa). The
tea to be the finest and the most symbolic source of all foodstuff
ideenii ekh' uÒ33huù Ò33otc, uÒ33huu 3x) (Gaadamba and Tseren
23). 2 Many informants across the country argue that tea has always b
drink in Mongolia, and Mongolian tea practices part of a traditio
passed on from their ancestors.
Although these assumptions imply that tea practices were part o
the legendary Mongol empire, a careful reading of The Secret History
(Damdinsüren, ed., 1957; shm hereafter), the thirteenth-century
the social and political history of the early days of the Mongol em
mention of any instances of tea consumption. The word "tea" (tsai;
of the chronicle's vocabulary, and tea certainly was not a prominent b
never mentioned as part of the imperial social life compared to mare's
hol.3 Mongolian historiography has generally avoided the topic of t
and authors such as Mair and Hoh (2009, 126) and Legrand (201
that tea consumption is absent from the early historical records of th
In his report to the French king, the Franciscan friar Guillaum
a meticulous observer and emissary to the Mongol empire between
mentioned that the Mongol people he met during his visit did n
water (Rubrouck 1997, 85). On the contrary, they drank fermen
(airag; afipar) during the hot summer days and boiled milky wat
xnpaM) during the winter. He does not mention tea at anytime. D
work, these dietary practices were still largely prevalent, yet tea h
the staple drink.
I am in agreement with these authors yet, in line with the popu
authority of the ancestors that sustains everyday tea practices, and
absence of the word "tea" in the shm, it is also important to examine
tea consumption from the perspective of social practices. In this r
researcher, Bürentögs (1991, 94), suggests that Mongol emperors
infusion and army soldiers were often punished by death for stealing
To reconcile these conflicting accounts, I understand that the
golia have always consumed a tea infusion from the wild plants tha
grow) in their vegetation {tisane). Not only are these plants medicinal
they are used to replenish energy), they also add flavor to water,
beverage in the harsh cold weather that can prevent waterborne d
that in the Mongolian countryside, people did not drink plain wat
boiled first. People in South Asia make similar choices to avoid wat
and to replenish their energy in a highly demanding environment - th
infusion and also chew tea leaves (Macfarlane and Macfarlane

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196 I Asian Ethnology 74/1 • 2015

However, Camellia Sinensis, the type of tea leaves from which tea is widely pre-
pared and that has been consumed in Mongolia since the sixteenth century, does
not grow in Mongolia due to the climate. These leaves are imported, mainly from
China and Georgia, and they have largely substituted the local tea plants because
of their particular economic value in the trade between Mongolia and China. It is
this Chinese tea that is largely used in tea practices in contemporary Mongolia that
is discussed in this article.
Nevertheless, the Mongols were not altogether strangers to Chinese tea before
the sixteenth century. Indeed, the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty in China (1271-
1368) organized the tea trade to provide income for the empire (Macfarlane
and Macfarlane 2004, 49; Mair and Hoh 2009, 129). However, tea was not
traded in the Mongol territories. The tea trade existed in Tibet and along the Silk
Road. After the collapse of the Yuan dynasty (1368) and a period of disintegration
of the Mongol political organization, the succeeding Ming dynasty (1368-1644)
restricted circulation between the Chinese-Mongol border to avoid raids and war
from the Mongols.
However, the Ming leaders' foreign policy to isolate the Mongol territories was
not sustainable in the long run. The Mongol population in the northern steppes
beyond the great walls needed to trade silk, grain, metals, and so on. Likewise, China
badly needed horses to equip its cavalry and counter nomadic attacks from the north
(Mair and Hoh 2009, 72). To supply their needs and answer the pressing demands
from the Mongol territories, Ming leaders opened a horse market at Khaalgan (1571),
where every fourth day, the Mongols could trade horses for Chinese goods (Sanj-
dorj 1963, 15; Mair and Hoh 2009, 71-85). However, there were restrictions at this
market due to the Ming leaders' security concerns. Tea was not traded at this time
as the government, which controlled tea trading, did not authorize it at the market
(Gongor 1970, 279; Yoshida 2004, 87-90; Mair and Hoh 2009, 126-27).
Meanwhile, Altan Khan, a Tümen-Mongol leader who claimed to be a descen-
dant of Chinggis Khan and wanted to reestablish the Mongol empire, converted
to Buddhism and established solid relations with Buddhist Tibet, whose religion
provided him with a basis for legitimacy over the Mongol population. In other
words, "political patronage was exchanged with religious prestige" (Mair and
Hoh 2009, 126), and this made Altan Khan a prominent leader.
The relation with Tibet and the conversion of the Mongol populace to Buddhism
obliged the Mongol believers, similar to the Tibetans, to continually offer tea bricks
( manz , tea offered to monks and monasteries) to monks as part of their religious
practices and obligations. The Mongol population also deperately needed to trade
with China for food supplies, including tea, after they endured a number of natural
disasters in 1531, 1542, 1551, and 1579 during the reign of Altan Khan (1507-1582)
(Jamsran ed. 2004, 92).
Altan Khan made several demands to the Ming emperor to open direct trade
relations with the Mongols but to no avail. Consequently, Khan regularly raided
and looted Chinese territories, not to conquer or occupy the areas, but to force
the Ming emperor to open up trade relations with the Mongols. Finally, in 1577,

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 BAMANA: MONOGOLIAN TEA PRACTICES | IÇ 7

the Ming emperor agreed to Khan's pressing demands through the good offices of
the Buddhist leader, the Dalai Lama. Thereafter, among the commodities traded
at Khaalgan, tea was traded for the first time to the Mongols (Gongor 1970, 279;
Yoshida 2004, 87-90; Mair and Hoh 2009, 126-27).
Other markets opened up progressively, and the Mongol population would
trade tea at different points in time, but always under the careful supervision of
the government. The Ming leaders strictly controlled trade to avoid any Mongol
raids that may have been camouflaged as trade expeditions. At the same time, they
promoted trade because they believed it sustained peace between the countries.
Indeed, through trade, the Mongols could get the consumer goods they needed
and therefore not resort to raiding Chinese territories.
The proximity between the Mongolian, Chinese, and Tibetan (mostly Bud-
dhist) leadership explains the mutual influence in lifestyles. The Altan Tobchi
(Luvsandanzan 1990, 173), a chronicle of the Mongol empire originally written
in the seventeenth century, mentions tea consumption among the Mongol lead-
ership. Jagchid and Hyer write that "the first mention of tea in a Mongol record
is in the Altan Tobchi : in the fifteenth century, the khatun or empress, Sain Man-
dukhai (1449-1510), in anger, poured tea on a minister who made a proposal with
which she did not agree" (Jagchid and Hyer 1979, 44).
Since the first formal tea trade between Ming-led China and Tümen ethnic
Mongol, the Mongols traded tea with China, following shifting geopolitical con-
texts until the establishment of the Tea Road with the signature of the Nerchinsk
trade and peace treaty between China and Russia in 1689 (Mair and Hoh 2009,
139-40). To guarantee trade safety through Mongol territories that were highly
unstable after the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, Russia and China
agreed, among other things, to place Mongolia under Chinese supervision, thus
politically connecting Russia to China (Michel 1992, 941-57).
The Nerchinsk treaty allowed trade caravans to travel from China to Russia
through Mongol territories. Accordingly, in

[T]he eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, hundreds of thousands of camels,

ox-carts, and sleighs laden with tea trudged their way from China across the
undulating Mongolian steppe, through the snowstorms of southern Siberia,
over the Ural Mountains, and to their final destination - the bustling fair of
Nizhny Novgorod, Imperial Russia's greatest emporium, situated on the bank of
the Volga river 250 miles east of Moscow. (Mair and Hoh 2009, 137)

Russia and China expanded their relations further and established a main
trade market following the Treaty of Kyakhta in 1727. The Kyakhta trade market
extended through two posts, with a Russian market located south of Lake Baikal
on the border with the Manchu-controlled Mongolia, and a Chinese market called
Maimaicheng located on the other side of the Russian market, yet separated only
by a wooden fence (Mair and Hoh 2009, 140). Tea caravans would travel from
the starting market at Khaalgan in China through the Mongol territories to the
trade market in Kyakhta.

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iç8 I Asian Ethnology 74/1 • 2015

As the caravans crossed Mongolia, tea became a valuable commodity in the

steppes, especially after the complete occupation of Mongolia by Manchu-led
China (1696) and the privatization of trade, which was a government monopoly
(Mair and Hoh 2009, 71-78). Chinese private companies saw in Mongolia an
immense business opportunity as they opened direct trade with the Mongol herd-
ers. Following the tea trade tradition along the Silk Road and Central Asia, tea
became legal tender in Mongolia (Maiskii 2001, 206; Atwood 2002, 2: 1062;
Macfarlane and Macfarlane 2004, 49; Gongor 2006, 86-87) and had indis-
pensable economic value for the aristocracy until around 1925.
Since tea bricks were a form of legal tender in the Mongol territories, Chi-
nese merchants estimated loans and interest in tea bricks, and Mongol aristocrats
and monastery leaders, as well as ordinary herders to a certain degree, ended up
being heavily indebted (Maiskii 2001, 223-26). The Mongol borrowers could
repay their loans and interest mostly using livestock. A tea brick was financially
equivalent to a sheep. A tea brick unit was divided into halves or tal tsai ( man tfaü ),
quarters or dörvön khuruu ( depeen xypyy ), and eighths or shoo (woo) (Gongor
2006, 30-32).4
Since then, tea leaves packed into bricks have largely taken over from local tea
plants because of their better quality and economic value. During the Second
World War, Mongolia experienced a shortage in tea imported from China because
of political circumstances, and the Soviet occupants of Mongolia (1924-1990)
imported tea from Georgia to make up for the shortage. Tea bricks imported from
Georgia bore the communist emblem of a sickle and hammer. After the normaliza-
tion of diplomatic relations between China, Russia, and Mongolia, the tea trade
resumed, and Mongolia could buy tea from China. Both Chinese and Georgian
tea were available on the market at the time of this research.
Since 1990, Mongolian tea plants have largely reemerged on the market. Mon-
golian scholar Rinchen (1979, 122-24) lists about ten herbal tea plants ( tisanes )
that grow in the Mongolian territories. People suggested to me that local tea
plants were of better quality than foreign tea leaves because they grow in the local
soil that nourishes life in Mongolia. Nevertheless, in the Mongol markets, Chinese
tea leaves were largely available.

Female power in tea practices

In rural Mongolia, it is common to observe the following sc

most households, the woman gets up early, before anyone else, to p
breakfast. Therefore, Mongol folk knowledge describes a housewif
who gets up early, prepares tea for the household, and performs s
practices (for example, tea libation, tea services). Consequently, peop
that tea is the face of a woman, as one judges a housewife by the qua
and tea services.

As the morning tea preparation continues, most household residents and guests
are still not up. In the £fer yurt), tea preparation breaks the silence of the

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 BAMANA: MONOGOLIAN TEA PRACTICES | I99

night, and the function of the morning tea rituals is to mark the starting point of
the day. This orchestrates the rest of the day's activities.
Preparation of the most popular tea recipe ( süütei tsai; cyy™™ takes about
fifteen minutes. It consists of boiling water in a large pot to which tea leaves are
added. After the tea has boiled, the woman adds fresh milk, lifting the ladle out of
the mixture several times to mix the tea and milk. The more she ladles, the better
the beverage gets. After ladling, she adds salt and then butter. It is the aroma of
the tea that tells the woman when it is ready.
Once the tea is ready and while still on the fire, she collects a sample that is
considered to be the first and best part of the tea. It is sprinkled in a libation to
nature and earth (khanjjai delkhii ; xamaü dsjixuu ), poured in an offering to deities
( burkhan ; ôypxan ), the spirits ( ongod , lus savdajjf; omod, Jiyc caedae ), and the spirits
of the deceased family members whose portraits and representations are kept on
the family shrine. In other regions of Mongolia (for example, western Mongolia),
part of this first sample of tea is also offered to the fire by pouring drops on the
four corners of the stove.

According to my female informants, tea offerings to deities and spirits are meant
to guarantee lasting health and wealth through the success of everyday work ( ctjlyn
bütemj' aotcjibiH ôymsMDtc). The ritual is particularly intended for the well-being of
children (ür khüükhdiin tölöö; yp xyyxduŮH menee). In the uncertain conditions of
the Mongolian pastoral economy, women negotiate with the spirits and deities to
guarantee conditions for success that lay beyond human control. It is only after the
morning tea offering rituals that other activities of the day can begin.
From inside the jjer , it is particularly recommended that one drinks the woman's
tea before commencing any activities (for example, a journey) outside the^r. In
drinking tea, one drinks the wishes (of good luck) she has for her household that
morning. Her wishes, prayers, and good intentions are imbued in the tea she pre-
pares in the silence of the morning; they are offered in tea rituals and extended to
those who drink the tea. It is thus important that people start any activities of the
day after drinking tea to guarantee success.
Moreover, tea offerings made to nature and the earth, to fire, deities, and the
spirits, depict a woman in a ritual leadership position in a society where ritual
power is predominantly patriarchal. In tea offerings, women negotiate their house-
hold well-being with nature and the earth, as well as with the spirits. This prac-
tice suggests a different and yet complementary domestic leadership from a female
position of power. As Ortner (1996, 140-43) suggests, women effectively con-
trol some spheres of responsibility that contribute to their sole gain of power and
privilege.
It is only after the woman has performed tea libation outside the^r and served
tea to deities and spirits on the family shrine that she serves household residents,
following a hierarchical order starting with her husband. The husband receives part
of the tea first because he is head of the household (jjeriin ezen' espuun 333h). Even
when he is absent or away for a short time, tea is served in his special bowl and set
aside before service continues. This first bowl of tea to the husband marks respect

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200 I Asian Ethnology 74/1 • 2015

( nökhör khündlekh' nexep xyHÒJi3x) for his hierarchical position in the household,
and sets the pattern of hierarchical domestic relations.
The woman serves residents according to a hierarchy of age, gender, and social
status, with guests (strangers) being served ahead of residents (intimates). Dur-
ing the tea service, she enacts a social hierarchy and reconstructs the hierarchy of
people connected to her household network. People become offended if they do
not feel respected during tea service, and she has the privilege of playing down a
person's social status. However, it is generally the man, her husband, who repre-
sents the household, and he uses this network of solidarity as a channel of services
and an exchange of goods.
The construction of social networks through serving tea implies that the
power of men is constructed through women's practices, to paraphrase the title of
Hamayon's (1979) article. In the case of a bowl of tea offered to express hospital-
ity, a woman partially negotiates the process by which a stranger is converted into
a member of her social network. In the exceptional case a guest is not offered a
bowl of tea, or is served in a way that expresses a low quality relationship, she dis-
closes her power in the ( reconstruction of social networks of power.
It is only after the consumption of breakfast tea that other daily activities can
commence. The woman and her morning tea practices set up order, as residents
wake up and have breakfast, and the daily work schedule is casually discussed at
this occasion. The woman embodies order as she organizes the onset of the day,
and thus it is correct to suggest, along with Humphrey (2012), that women main-
tain the idea of domestic order and the home in Mongolia. As tea is kept in the
home all day long for residents, and also for extending hospitality to guests, the
home becomes a place where there is always tea (and also a fire) to drink.
I found that tea practices are generally female activities and men are excluded from
this as a matter of principle. The practices are primarily concerned with domestic pro-
cesses of family replication (such as marriage and bride tea rituals - practices through
which the family as an institution regenerates itself) and the socialization of members.
Therefore, the ideas that exclude men from tea practices are femaleness and mother-
hood. Young women may perform tea practices either as a pedagogical activity that
introduces them to their gendered education, or on behalf of their absent mothers.
Only a housewife holds the position of performing tea practices, and these practices
enhance motherhood as a central feature of female identity in Mongolia.
In tea practices, the woman, as the matron, negotiates with nature and the spirits
about the well-being of her household, where children take a central role. It is her
responsibility as a wife and mother to nurture the family and this implies resorting
to ritual practices. Single women and childless women express awkwardness about
offering a tea libation everyday as they do not represent a household with children.
Newlywed women offer a daily libation because of its potential efficacy and because
they are expected to bear children.
Finally, although morning tea preparation and service portray the women as the
central figures of order and domestic power, they also set an asymmetrical pattern
in domestic power relations (for example, giving priority to the husband). This

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 HAMANA: MONOGOLIAN TEA PRACTICES I 20I

does not necessarily imply subordination as women use their position to resist and
engage in a variety of domestic life processes, making decisions in matters regard-
ing the home and leadership in domestic activities. Nonetheless, in tea practices,
women construct a different power, not necessarily in opposition to male power,
but a power that is anchored in female identity and gendered experience that they
apply in social relations to influence others.

Gendered meanings in tea practices

With a few exceptions, tea practices are ascribed to women ac

to the gendered labor division. Women have the experience and know
relate to particular social and cultural processes. The meanings women
tea practices are communicable, relational, and inclusive, although ge
shall consider a few of these processes in general terms.

Classification and Social Hierarchy in Tea Practices

People classify the types of teas served according to their regional dist
symbolic significance. For regional distribution, the types of teas serve
salty milk tea (davstai tsai ; daecmaů yau), drunk by people in western M
non-salty milk tea ( davsjjüi tsai ; daeceyu tļau)y drunk by those in eastern
Regional classification follows the level of sodium in water sources
Mongolia. In western Mongolia, water sources contain a higher level o
(khujirtai us ; xyotcupmau yc), which explains the large number of salt lak
region. In eastern Mongolia, there is less salt in the water, and so the
usually not salty. Although particular households have different cookin
the level of salt in the tea is one way people classify the inhabitants o
into these two principal groups. Western Mongolians consider their ea
patriots' tea to be tasteless or simply water-like tea.
Classification is not limited to salt and regions; people also classify te
to categories of symbolic significance. These are black tea ( khar tsai' x
6op ifaü ), milk tea ( süütei tsai ; */aw), and "supplemented tea" ( kh
xuūtļm3u tf au). In the latter, tea is supplemented with rice, dumplings, an
in a semi-food form and this is consumed in place of meals.5 Tea wit
generally known as "black tea" because of the color of the liquid rathe
of the tea leaves, is an exception in Mongolian tea consumption practic
lian black tea should not be confused with tea that is widely consumed
countries, which is commonly called baikhuu tsai ( ôauxyy tļaū) in Mon
is not discussed here.

Herders consume black tea when they do not have milk, which is common in
the spring when households run out of milk and the livestock are not lactating.
When people talk about tea, they generally mean salty milk tea, and folk knowledge
suggests that salty milk tea is composed of the finest five food ingredients {tav an
tansag idee ; maean mancaa ud33). These are tea leaves, water, milk, salt, and butter.
Of these five items, milk bestows tea its color (white) and subsequent symbolic

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202 I Asian Ethnology 74/1 • 2015

meaning. Five elements confer the meaning of the source ( ekh ; ax) of all foodstuffs
to tea according to the symbolic meaning of the number five as a foundational
unit for different universais: for example, five basic colors (white, black, red, yel-
low, blue), five basic directions (north, south, east, west, and center), and so on
(Dulam 2007, i: 93).
To account for the symbolic classifications and to obtain a high quality bever-
age for consumption, women in the western provinces of Mongolia prepare tea
in a way that displays the mixing of the five finest ingredients. This preparation is
known as tsai tavlakh (ifaü maenax ), which literally means "to fit the head to tea,"
and involves a woman pouring water in her cooking pot and adding tea leaves.
When the mix has boiled for about five minutes, she transfers the mix into a con-
tainer. I call this liquid a "water- tea mix." Thereafter, she thoroughly wipes the pot
so that there are no drops of the "water-tea mix" left in the pot. She then puts the
pot back on the fire and pours in milk to boil, adding very few tea leaves. I call this
other liquid "milk-tea mix." While the "milk-tea mix" is boiling, she pours the above-
mentioned "water-tea mix" into the boiling "milk-tea mix." This mix is now milk tea
that is ladled up and down several times. The woman then adds salt and eventually
butter to obtain a high quality beverage.
Folk knowledge has it that one should never pour milk on top of water, so the
"milk-tea mix" cannot be poured onto the "water-tea mix." Milk is white and goes
first into the pot. A woman respects this hierarchy of color, which implies that she
would not pour water in the pot first and then pour milk into it. Milk, similar to
the head that is the first among the human body, imparts meaning onto the whole.
Although people in Central Mongolia ( khalkh ; xcuix ) simply pour milk into the
boiling "water- tea mix" ( tsai chanakh, tsai butsaljjakh; ifaü nanax , ifaü õyifamax ), in
their discourse, they respect the hierarchical meaning of colors according to which
white remains the first of all colors.

Even when women make a tea infusion, as in eastern Mongolia (especially in

the Khentii province region), they respect the symbolic classification of color and
meaning. Following this process of tea preparation ( tsai khandlakh; if aü xandnax),
a woman boils water and adds tea leaves. When the mix is ready, she transfers
it into a small container (£uts' 2ytf)- This tea infusion is known in the region as
"tea juice" ( tsainy khand ; ifaŮHbi xand) and it is kept in the home for regular use.
Anytime there is a need to prepare tea (for example, for hospitality), the woman
simply boils milk and adds a few tea leaves before direcdy serving the guest, who
is also presented with the tea infusion container to add the infusion to the boiled
milk according to preferred tea strength.
When people are obliged by circumstance to drink black tea, they avoid using
the qualifier "black" to indicate tea without milk. Instead, they refer to this bever-
age as brown tea ( bor tsai; 6op ifau), "bare" tea ( shaldan tsai ; lucuidan if aü ), or red
tea ( ulaan tsai; ynaan if au). It is taboo to invoke the color black on such a valuable
beverage as tea (khar öngö tseerlekh ; xap emuue î/33/wax), and so black tea is in a
sense "hidden" so that people do not worry about failing to respect the taboos
related to the color black. The color black, Dulam (2007, 2: 7) writes, is a symbol

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 BAM ANA: MONOGOLIAN TEA PRACTICES | 203

of what is bad and negative. The color white is the symbol of what is good, posi-
tive, and of what lies ahead. One must not offer black tea to guests or sprinkle it in
a libation.

Tea Consumption
Tea is mostly consumed as the staple drink, a medicinal potion, or as a food sup-
plement. The practical choice of tea is understandable and not unique to Mongo-
lia. For Mongolian herders, even milk is not their staple drink due to its potential
to breed bacteria. Therefore, tea is usually kept at home for regular consumption
throughout the day.
Mongolian herders believe that drinking tea is instrumental in improving health
and well-being. It balances a diet high in fat, and many people suggested to me that
tea absorbs poisons ( khor. ; x op) from the body, and this is why people oppose tea to
anything that compromises health (for example, the water in a particular location).
In the same vein, women apply tea leaves ( tsainy shaar' ifaÜHbi luaap) on swollen
body parts to absorb toxins and alleviate pain. Some women insert a tea leaf vein in
their earlobe piercing to prevent infection. Moreover, in order to prevent infection,
gain strength, and improve overall well-being ( tenkhee oruulakh: ; m3HX33 opyyjiax ),
people give black tea (often referred to by a different name, such as brown tea)
baths to babies and elderly people.
In connection with the energy-giving properties of tea, herders mix tea leaf
residues to livestock feed to help them gain strength in the winter and spring. The
connection between tea consumption and an improvement in health is well estab-
lished, and the list of ailments that tea consumption may relieve is rather impres-
sive (Amarjargal 2004, 62-63).
Since the democratization of Mongolia in 1990, there has been a steady increase
in the consumption of local tea plant infusions. People believe that Mongolian tea
plants have better therapeutic effects because they absorb natural nutrients that are
suitable for sustaining life in the Mongolian environment. The assumption is that
local tea plants mediate health better than imported tea leaves. In the context of the
post-socialist transition of Mongolia, maybe national identity and pride play their
part in considering Mongolian tea as better than imported Chinese tea, which is
generally considered to be inferior.
The therapeutic qualities of tea are not limited to replenishing energy, and people
take these qualities to a symbolic level. Tea is used in a potion for symbolic healing
intended to alleviate extreme fatigue: the seven-dumpling-tea recipe ( doloon ban-
shtai tsai; dojioon ôamumaù y au). To prepare such a potion, women add seven meat
dumplings to the regular salty milk tea recipe, and the patient drinks the potion
once a day for thirteen consecutive days. On the first day, the patient drinks the
potion with one dumpling in it, with the number of dumplings gradually increasing
until the seventh day. From the seventh day, the dumpling intake gradually decreases
till the thirteenth day. The seven-dumpling-tea recipe is effective because people
believe in the principle of the healing power of the ritual symbols (see, for example,
Douglas 1970; Moerman 1979; Dow 1986).

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204 I Asian Ethnology 74/1 • 2015

According to some women, drinking tea every morning brings luck and success
in daily work ( ajlyn bütemj; ao/cjibin õymsMDic). These are the wishes that the women,
by serving tea, express. Tea mediates an exchange of wishes, and this is why when-
ever a guest enters a household while tea is being prepared, it is considered a sign
of good luck for the guest. Consequently, a guest is not allowed to leave a house
without drinking tea because the success of one's endeavors for the day depend on
the blessings conveyed through tea consumption.

Tea as a Symbol of Hospitality

Hospitality may be one of the most prominent and obvious meanings of tea prac-
tices in Mongolia and is a celebrated Mongol tradition of the steppe culture (for
example, see Sampildendev 2006). Upon entering a home, a guest is offered a
bowl of tea which, together with the greetings, is part of the hospitality protocol.
The gendered repartition in this protocol is that it is the man as the household
master who performs the greetings, and the woman, as the household matron, who
offers the hospitality tea. The gendered meaning of tea is already set at this point.
In most Mongolian homes where I have been a guest, I have never been
served tea by the household master unless his wife was away and there were no
girls to perform this duty normally ascribed to females. When hospitality protocol
involved alcohol and a meal of mutton, it was usually the male household master
who performed the service. The tea offered to the guest has to be milky and hot.
One should not offer black tea and/or cold tea as this may undermine the sym-
bolic meaning of hospitality. When a guest comes from far away, the matron may
prepare tea for hospitality, thus adding another quality to the hospitality tea: milky,
hot, and new.
When presented with the tea, the host expects the guest to drink or at least to
sip some of it. I was initially told that as a guest one should never turn down the
offer of the hospitality bowl of tea. My informants insisted that this should never
happen; turning down the bowl of tea would imply not accepting the hospital-
ity protocol which defines the relationship between the residents and the guests
(Humphrey 2012).

Transmission of Meanings and Gender Regeneration

Tea practice meanings are transmitted from one generation of women to the next
through everyday routines and are an ensemble of experiences collected under the
concept of "tea tradition." Tradition implies the transmission of experience and
meanings, and women progressively introduce their young adult daughters into
these meanings through handling tea. Some boys are also introduced to tea prac-
tices, yet there is a difference between a daughter's initiation and a son's initiation
into practices that are generally classified as female. The gender ideology connected
to the practice is not useful to a young boy because it is not valid in the social frame
that sustains his gender identity.6
Tea practices are part of a mother-daughter relationship. Not only are tea prac-
tices passed from mothers to daughters, but also attitudes, social behavior, and the

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 BAMANA: MONOGOLIAN TEA PRACTICES | 205

gendered division of labor are introduced together with tea practices. Gender ideol-
ogy is introduced not as a principle of life, but rather as a principle of practices that
have implications in everyday life. This latter aspect is absent in the case of a boy's
initiation into tea practices. Initiation into tea practices is necessary for daughters to
master both the practice and the attitude of the practitioner.
As young daughters acquire a mastery of tea practices, the meaning of the prac-
tices they learn contributes to the definition of their gender identification, which
offers a position from which they engage in social relations; mastery of practices
connect younger members to a larger complex of meaning and experience; and the
daughters' learning and subsequent knowledge connect them to tradition.

Tea Practices in Social Processes

People organize tea gatherings ( tsaillaga ; ifawuiaea) to celebrate different occasions

in the family life cycle. Such occasions include (although are not limited to) the cut-
ting of a child's hair for the first time ( daakhi ürjjeekh ; daaxb yp^x)y a name-giving
ritual, and a child's birthday. During tea gatherings, other foodstuffs are served, yet
tea is often prioritized to welcome guests and respect the hierarchy in food service.
Tea gatherings are small-sized receptions among kin and close friends.
Tea gatherings are not only for celebrations. Women gather to drink tea and
exchange information, and eventually exercise a certain level of social control over
each other. Tea gathering practices bind people together and bring back memories.
During my research in Central province, an elderly woman regularly invited her now-
independent children for tea drinking during weekends and holidays. The woman
reminisced about when her children were young and enjoyed her daily tea services
at breakfast. For this woman, a conversation about tea provided an opportunity to
discuss her relations with her children and to her own mother. For some people, the
best memory they have of their mothers is of being at home and drinking tea "pre-
pared and served by one's mother" ( eejiin chanasan tsai' 33otcum nanacan ifaů).
For both men and women, the memories of drinking tea primarily involve their
mothers. Missing one's mother (and her care) is associated with missing the tea
that she prepared ( eejiin chanasan tsai' 33DtcuuH nanacan y aü). Even though few
men evoke memories of their wives, the centrality of motherhood in relation to tea
practices emphasizes tea as a metaphor for women and whose symbolic meaning
defines female identity.
Tea as a symbol of women goes as far as people mocking a man who cannot
find a female companion by calling him a "tea companion" ( tsainy khani' iļaūuu
xaHb). On the contrary, the same expression is used as a metaphor for a woman
who is required to prepare tea every day and complete tea services. People asso-
ciate tea and women to the point that one represents the other. Men not only
endorse this association, but some also insist that the measure of a good husband
is his wife's character, and the measure of a good wife is the quality of the tea she
prepares. Accordingly, the ideal male lover sings for his beloved using metaphors
such as "would you be willing to be the person to prepare my tea?" ( tsai chanaj
ö£fökh khün maani bolooch' if aü nanaofc eaex xyn Maaub öojiooh).

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20 6 I Asian Ethnology 74/1 • 2015

Tea and Exchange

Although tea is mostly bought from local markets, there are other ways of acquir-
ing it. When a woman buys a supply of tea for her household, she usually buys the
most popular tea on the market at the time - tea leaves pressed into a rectangular
brick ( dugui bulantai tsai ; dyeyu óyjiawnau if aü). Women usually buy one tea brick
at a time and supply a new one only after the previous is totally consumed, or
almost consumed. Further, it is taboo to loan tea to each other even if one runs
out of stock.

Nevertheless, people borrow tea from each other. They break the taboo
because of the practicality of everyday life - there is ususally a ritual to make up
for a broken taboo. Married children borrow tea from their parents (for example,
a daughter from her mother). As a newly-married couple settling beside the in-
laws, the daughter or daughter-in-law are often allowed to borrow tea leaves from
the in-law's stock because they do not yet have their own stock, and also because
they are considered to be an extension of the in-law's household. Also, if one runs
out of tea and absolutely needs to borrow tea from the neighbors, this is consid-
ered as incurring a debt to be paid off later. In order not to incur any debt, the
lender gives a different food item next to the tea leaves, to cover the tea.
In addition, a tea brick is exchanged when a man requests a bride's hand. Among
the many gifts that the groom's family presents to the bride's family is a tea brick
for the bride's mother. This tea brick is wrapped in a blue fabric ( khadag ; xadae)
and placed on the bride's family's domestic shrine. The significance of this tea brick
exchange is the recruitment of a new family member. Parallel to this, occasionally
people exchange a tea brick to acquire a puppy because herders consider a dog to
be a member of the extended family.7
People also exchange tea as a gift, a gift that is generally intended for females -
in some cases, people insist that only children should give a gift of tea to their
mothers. The "gender of the gift" of tea - to borrow a phrase from Strathern
(1981) - is female, as opposed to alcohol, which is a male-gendered gift. Children
give tea to their mothers for major celebrations such as the Mongolian New Year,
or simply after a prolonged absence.
Nevertheless, the gift of tea is never free, and there is always an exchange gift
( khariu beleg; xapuy 631133). The exchange gift, different in nature and at different
times of giving (Bourdieu 1977, 5), is the parents' joy of receiving from their chil-
dren and an affirmation of the filial bond. It is important for children to make their
parents (their mother in this case) happy by offering presents (eejiigee bayarluulakh ;
33DICUÜ233 òanpjiyyjiax) , and a gift of tea is an excellent choice. People also place a
tea brick on a cairn ( ovoo; oeoo) as an offering to nature; tea represents other food,
and by placing a tea brick on the cairn, people wish to share ( khuvaaj idekh' xyeaaotc
ud3x) with nature and earth the best part of their food.
In a libation, tea is also exchanged with nature and earth and with the spirits of
the land and water. Every morning, most women in both rural and urban Mongo-
lia offer a tea libation. In the Khangai region of Mongolia (for example, Arkhangai

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 BAMANA: MONOGOLIAN TEA PRACTICES | 20 7

province, Övörkhangai province, and Zavkhan province), women say they offer tea
libation to Khangai delkhii (. Xamaù Ò3Jixuu) or to Bay an khangai (Bann xamaü);
women from the Gobi region talk about an offer to Altan delkhii (Ajiman Ò3Jixuu);
whereas those from the Altai Mountain region talk about Altai khanjjai ( Ajimaü
xamaü). All these linguistic expressions refer to an inclusive concept of nature and
earth in its different regional representations.
Stories about the exchange of tea with nature and earth also come up through
the evocation of taboos regarding turning the ground. As a matter of principle,
it is taboo for human beings to "turn up the ground" (jjazar ergüülekh; ea3ap
3p2YYA3x)-s However, when people are obliged by circumstance to dig the ground
(for example, digging a grave or the foundations for a house), they needed to ask
permission for the piece of land they are going to use {¿¡azar ¿fuikh ; 2a3ap eyüx).
This permission is obtained, among other ways, through placing a tea brick on the
ground to be dug. Therefore, a tea brick is placed in the foundations prior to the
erection of a building, as well as being placed in a grave.9
Other forms of tea exchange between human beings and nature can be found in
the offering of tea bricks at female shrines such as at the "Mother Rock shrine" in
Central province, as well as at the "Mother Tree shrine" in Selenge province. At these
particular shrines, there is an impressive amount of tea brick offerings. The gift and
the shrines are of the same gender (female) although tea is offered by both men and
women to request fertility (for women) and good health and success (for all).
Tea offerings by men in a religious context are also popular at the Mongolian
New Year as they suggest replication of the clan line (Humphrey and Onon 1996,
151-52). Indeed, at the first sunrise of the first day of the New Year, the household
master goes up to the local cairn with all the male children and unmarried female
children. The man makes a tea offering to the cairn to guarantee success for his
household during the upcoming year.
Tea leaf bricks may have lost their economic value as they have become a cheap
commodity on the local market. Nevertheless, I still observed one use of tea in the
economic process: the exchange of tea for labor in rural Mongolia. After herders
have received help with important domestic work (for example, assembling a ¿fer^
moving abode, and so on), they often offer a bowl of salty milk tea to the individu-
als who help with the work. Tea is exchanged for labor, and this has given rise to a
linguistic expression, "to put tea in someone's hand" (gar tsailgakh). The linguis-
tic expression ¿far tsailgakh (aap ijaümax) has come to mean offering a gift, and in
an urban setting it may imply offering a wage, especially when people involved do
not want to speak openly about money. This expression has also come to mean -
mainly in Ulaanbaatar - to offer a bribe in order to get a job done.

Tea Pollution Taboos

Apart from mastering tea recipes, daughters also learn what one should or should
not do with tea. Tea taboos introduce daughters to the particular meaning of tea
practices. Daughters gradually gain knowledge of, among other things, the proper

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2o8 I Asian Ethnology 74/1 • 2015

way to dispose of tea leaf residues. After tea preparation, it is necessary to dispose
of tea leaf residues correcdy so that these residues do not become polluted.
Some women bury tea leaf residues in the ground outside the ger and away
from the dust disposal pile that is usually placed outside to the left (east) of the
ger. Other women bury them at the front and very close to the ¿fer. There are also
instances when tea leaf residues are buried at the back, a distance away from the
ger, and they are also piled up in a cairn shape on an elevated place away from resi-
dential camps. In all cases, tea leaf residues are to be absorbed in the ground, and
people insist that this is the same as entrusting them to nature.
As an alternative, women toss tea leaf residues into a fire immediately after tea
preparation. They do the same with the tea leaf powder that remains in the tea
pouches after the brick is used. Burning tea leaf powder is related to offering tea
to the fire deity, similar to what women in western Mongolia do when offering tea
libations to the fire by pouring drops of tea on the stove. For these people, fire is
sacred {gal burkhan ; ¿cm õypxan ), which is an old religious concept of the Mongol
religious experience (Damdinsüren 2000, 2: 248-66).
Related to the therapeutic quality of tea, some people gather a substantial
amount of tea leaf residue to stuff pillows. These pillows are believed to balance
blood pressure and relieve headaches. In all cases, the tea leaf residue is to be pro-
tected from any human feet stamping on it and from being mixed with dirt - in
other words, to be protected from pollution.
The treatment of tea leaf residue concerns the boundaries between purity
and pollution that deal with social relations (Douglas 1966, 141-72). Pollution
(buzar, 6y3ap) is considered a source of misfortune. Tea taboos imply a moral-
ity whereby something that is pure, such as tea, must take precedence over other
things. Tea leaves and their residue are not to be associated with anything that
represents dirt (for example, feet or ashes). In everyday life, people know too well
that one never mixes what is pure with what is polluted because it endangers life.
Embedded within this practice are moral principles that discriminate what is good
from what is evil in everyday life.

Tea's Symbolic Actions

Most of my conversations about tea's symbolic actions evoked the baby cleansing
ritual that takes place four to seven days after childbirth and during the name-giv-
ing rite when "black" (but here called "brown," "red," or "bare" due to taboos)
tea is used to cleanse babies ( khüükhdiin ugaalga' xyYxàuÚH yzaaji2a' Sampil-
dendev et al. 2006, 109-15; Gantogtokh 2007, 23). The cleansing is performed
either by the baby's grandmother (on either descent line) or by the midwife. The
baby is taken to the honorific place inside the ger where the woman, with a mouth-
ful of "black" tea to regulate the tea to body temperature, pours the liquid onto
the baby's body for a quick wash.
During fieldwork in 2009, in Ulaanbaatar's Bayanziirkh district maternity hos-
pital, nurses cleansed newborn babies with "black" tea for both hygienic and ritual

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 BAMANA: MONOGOLIAN TEA PRACTICES I 209

purposes. This ritual was about strengthening the baby's body, while also cleansing
the baby from the blood pollution that covered its body at birth.
When the ritual is held at home, the midwife receives all honors as she sits at
the most honorific place in the ger where a table with ritual mutton is set up. The
midwife has the privilege of "reaching" the ritual mutton ( shüüs khöndökh' luyyc
x0HÒ0x)y that is, the most important person makes the first cut, not as an "honor-
ary male" (for example, Hastrup 1987, 95-98) but as an honor to her position of
power and her ritual leadership.
Tea cleansing is also done during funerary rituals. Corpses are specially prepared
before the burial, including, among other things, the washing of the corpse ( yas
barikh ; nc 6apux). People who wash the corpse, those who touch it, and those who
drive the coffin to the grave receive, among other things (for example, matches),
a pressed tea brick (or any different tea brand). Anyone who touches the corpse is
considered polluted, and the gift of tea implies cleansing. On these occasions, the
tea is presented to men, not as a gift, but rather as a cleanser.
I observed symbolic actions involving tea that included the symbolic marriage
of a woman with a tea jug during fieldwork in Erdenbüren county, Khovd prov-
ince, August 2008, and in Mörön city, Khövsgöl province, 2009. Western Mon-
golians, famous for being culturally conservative, symbolically married some of
their single women who reached forty-nine years of age to a tea jug. This ritual is
an alternative form of a wedding rite, yet since there was no groom, a (male) tea
jug was used to symbolize the groom. This ritual is known as dombotoi suulgakh
(doMÔomou cyymax ) or dombo tevrüülekh ( òomôo m3epYY^^)'> literally meaning
"(for the woman) to marry a tea jug" or "(for the woman) to embrace a tea jug."
A tea jug is the faithful companion of a woman who prepares tea everyday and
pours it in a tea jug. A (male) tea jug shares the external symbol of masculinity -
that is, a belt. A tea jug is thus used as a symbolic man. This symbolic marriage
allows an adult single woman both sexual and economic independence.

Conclusion

The above description has presented some tea practices and t

ings and has also provided features of female identity and power. In
women invoke a range of meanings that are relevant in a variety of soci
Furthermore, women engage in social relations from this particular
meanings of the social and cultural processes women negotiate in te
part of a larger web of significance in life. Both men and women r
meanings in their everyday lives and in their construction of identi
networks.

Tea practices provide women with a position of social action. Alt

metry is a prominent feature of these relations, these positions are n
those of subordination because they provide women with a position o
consider female power to be women's experiences of impacting socia
a female position. Gendered meanings are those that women invok

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2IO I Asian Ethnology 74/1 • 2015

practices from a female position of power. Women construct meanings of a spe-

cific world wherein the experience of their personal (female) identity is central and
influential. The female world of meanings orients social actions - including male
actions - because of the symbolic dimension of practices.
Female power in this discussion is not a tenure over specific domains of social
life; rather, it is a quality that only women exercise in their relation to other mem-
bers of society, including spiritual entities. This quality creates specific meanings of
social processes or gendered meanings.
As I have suggested, the meanings women invoke in tea practices are gendered
because of the differentiated position of power from which they are constructed.
Nevertheless, these meanings are no less part of an open and complex set of mean-
ings relevant in social processes - they are different and complementary. As Moore
(1994, 1) suggests, the difference is about forming and maintaining group bound-
aries. Meanings in tea practices enforce gender differentiation and replication.
Finally, it is imperative to mention that tea practices in Mongolia have been a
marginalized field of research, probably because of the gendered and elitist biases
in social discourse. Unlike China and Japan, where tea practices are associated with
institutions of power (Anderson 1987), tea practices in Mongolia are margin-
alized from the mainstream cultural discourse because of their association with
women and the domestic domain. Further, in the fast-growing urban and capitalist
economy of Mongolia, many features of tea practices have been altered, although
some urban women reappropriate and construct new meanings of their identity in
their lives using their memories of the old meanings.

Notes

I. Transliteration of Mongolian-language terms follows colloquial language pron

in the Republic of Mongolia.
2. With regard to Mongol publications, publishing during the socialist era (192
was a state-controlled business and publication companies did not exist. As such
books published during that period have no publisher name listed. Even today there
few publishing companies because the private sector has been slow to catch up with
cal changes.
3. Alcohol consumption was part of the social fabric of the Mongol empire, as attested
by the conversation Emperor Chinggis Khan has with his children and heirs to the empire
(Luvsandanzan 1990, 120), as well as the report of the meeting his best nine generals had
with an orphan boy about alcohol consumption (Damdinsüren 2000, 92-100).
4. Bawden also mentions khunz tsai , which means a "basket of tea" (1997, 470).
5. Macfarlane and Macfarlane (2004, 43) describe the "semi-food" tea in South Asia
as a "mushy tea soup." It is this very similar mushy tea soup that I call "supplemented tea" to
literally translate the Mongolian term khiitstei tsai .
6. 1 share Humphrey and Onon's (1996, 142) suggestion that rituals - and practices - are
not inherently ideological. Agents bestow ideological meaning onto practices. Young men
performing tea practices do not always have an idea of the ideological meaning of these prac-
tices. On the contrary, young women performing tea practices are very much aware of the
connection of these practices to their female identity.

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 BAMANA: MONOGOLIAN TEA PRACTICES | 211

7. Dogs are considered to be extended family members in Mongolia. People believe that
at death a dog could reincarnate into a human being because of its natural affiliation with
human beings (neg töröl). A dog has a relationship of mythical kinship to humans.
8. In Mongolia, a largely non-agrarian society, there is less work done on the land. I
observed during my fieldwork in Myangat county, Khovd province, August 2007, that the
taboo about not turning the ground also concerns the protection of pasturelands. Turning
the ground is considered to be a negative activity ( nügel ). When herders set up a new tent and
they need to turn the ground to place the ger platform, some use a pig tusk (gakhain soyo).
To the spirits of the land, it is the pig and not the human that turns the ground. The same
process is mentioned by Otgonbaatar (2009, 46-80), although in this case before turning
the ground.
9. Otgonbaatar (2009, 46-80) describes funerary rituals in Mongolia in detail and
mentions the process of placing a tea brick on the ground to request the piece of land from
nature for the burial.

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