By:

Maruti Center for Excellence

(MACE)

1
2
ULTIMATE GOAL OF AN ORGANIZATION

- Making Profits
- Survival &
- Growth

3
 SURVIVAL AND GROWTH: HOW?
- Products & Services must be
preferable to Customers over
Competitors.

- Organization must continually meet

Needs & Expectations of Customers
i.e. Voice of Customers also called
QUALITY

4
 WHAT IS A PROBLEM?
A “problem” is the gap between the present
Situation And the ideal situation or objective

Ideal situation or objective

Control characteristic

Good

Gap Problem = (ideal situation or objective) -

(present level)
Present Level

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6
 The Problem-Solving Process

•Grasp problem
Expose problem Expose problem •Set target
•Identify gap between
existing situation and target

Experience,
intuition, nerve, Analyze causes •Investigate cause
inspiration

•Plan countermeasures
Implement Implement
•Implement countermeasures
countermeasures countermeasures •Institutionalize

1. The conventional problem 2. The QC problem-solving

solving approach approach
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 WHAT ARE SEVEN QC TOOLS :
TOOLS ARE USED TO IDENTIFY, ANALYSE
AND RESOLVE PROBLEMS

TOOLS ARE SIMPLE, VERY POWERFUL

AND HELP TO IDENTIFY THE CAUSES FOR

WORK RELATED PROBLEMS AND TO FIND

SOLUTIONS FOR THE SAME IN A

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SYSTEMATIC MANNER.
1 Check sheets
2 Pareto diagram
3 Graphs / Flowcharts
4 Cause and Effect Diagram
5 Histogram
6 Scatter diagram
7 Control charts
9
 WHAT IS CHECK SHEET :
A check sheet is a paper form on which
items to be checked have been printed so
that data can be collected easily and
concisely. Its main purpose is twofold.

• To make data gathering easy

• To arrange data automatically so that they

can be used easily later on.

10
EXAMPLE -1 OF CHECK SHEET
Shown a check sheet used in final
inspection process of a certain molded
plastic product. At the end of the day we
can immediately calculate the total
number and types of defects that have
occurred.

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 Defective Item Check Sheet
Product: Date
Manufacturing stage: final insp. Section
Type of defect: sink mark, silver Inspector’s name
Streak,flow mark, crack, flash Lot no:.
Total no. inspected: 1525
Remarks: all items inspected Order no:.

Type Check Subtota

l
Sink mark //// //// //// // 17
Silver streak //// //// / 11
Flow mark //// //// //// //// //// / 26
Crack /// 3
Flash //// 5
Total defects 62
Total Rejects //// //// //// //// //// //// //// //// // 42
12
 CHECK SHEET
It is necessary to decide clearly how to
record the defects. When these are found in
a product. We should give proper
instructions to the staff regarding the
format in which the defects are to be
gathered. In this case, 42 out of 1525
components were found defective. However
the total nos. of defects was 62 because
two or more defects were found on the
same piece.

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 EXAMPLE -2
Check Sheet

Product : Date :

Manufacturing stage : Final Inspection Section :

Type of defect :scratch, dents, door gap uneven Inspector's name :
Total no. inspected : 1500
Remarks : all items
inspected

Type of defect Tally Mark Frequency

Scratch IIII IIII IIII 15
Dents IIII IIII 10
Door gap uneven IIII 4
Others III 3
Total No. Of Defects 32
14
Total No. Of Defectives IIII IIII IIII IIII 20
 Check Sheet
Purpose of data recording :
➢ Variation in the Quality Characteristics of a proces
• Applicable for Histogram, Run chart / Control Charts

➢ Difference between Groups/ Batches/ Machines

• Applicable for Pareto Diagram / Bar-chart.

➢ Relationship between two characteristics

• Applicable for Scatter Diagram

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 PARETO DIAGRAM
• Prioritization Tool
– It tells where to concentrate first.

• Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923) Italian

economist
– 20% of the population has 80% of the
wealth
• Juran used the term “vital few, trivial
many”. He noted that 20% of the quality
problems caused 80% of the dollar loss.
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 PRINCIPLE OF PARETO
Isolate vital few from trivial many.

80/20 principle. 80% improvement can be achieved

by

working on 20% of the causes.

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 WHAT IS PARETO DIAGRAM :
It is a combination of line and column graph.
Differentiating major

factors contributing to problem from other

factors which have less contribution. Thus it

helps fixing priority to take first. OR

A technique to segregate vital few from

trivial many 18
 DATA TALLY SHEET
DEFECT TALLY Total

A //// //// //// ....... //// 150

B //// //// //// …… //// 60
C //// //// …. //// 45
D //// //// …. //// 30
E //// //// 9
F //// / 6
TOTAL No. 300
of defects

Total No. of defectives : //// //// //// ……. //// 150

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What is a defective :
A unit that contains at least one
defect.

What is a defect :
An output of a process that does not
meet a defined specification.

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 DATA SHEET FOR PARETO DIAGRAM
S.No Type No. of Cumulative Percentage Cumulative
. of defects total of overall percentage
Defect total
1) A 150 150 50 50
2) B 60 210 20 70
3) C 45 255 15 85
4) D 30 285 10 95
5) E 9 294 3 98
6) F 6 300 2 100
Total 300 - 100 -

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 98 100
300
Pareto diagram 95
100
85
250 80
70

200
50 60

Cumulative %
150
No. of defects

150 40
100
60 20
50 45
30
0 9 6 0
A B CType of
D defect
E F
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 DATA TALLY SHEET
DEFECT TALLY Total
Flow mark //// //// //// ....... //// 200
Sink Mark //// //// //// …… //// 100
Warpage //// //// …. //// 50
Silver streak //// //// …. //// 25
Crack //// //// //// 15
Flash //// //// 10

TOTAL 400

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Total No. of defectives : //// //// //// ……. //// 250
 DATA SHEET FOR PARETO DIAGRAM
S.No Type of No. of Cumulative Percentage Cumulative
. Defect defects total of overall percentage
total
1) Flow 200 200 50 50
mark

2) Sink 100 300 25 75

mark

3) Warpage 50 350 12.5 87.5

4) Silver 25 375 6.25 93.75
streak

5) Crack 15 390 3.75 97.5

6) Flash 10 400 2.5 100
Total 400 - 100 -
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 Pareto diagram
100
400 87.5 93.75 97.5 100

Cumulative %
350 75 90
80
300
70
250 50 60
No. of defects

200 50
150 200 40
30
100 100 20
50 50 25 10
15 10
0 0
Warpage

Flash
Flow mark

Crack
Sink mark

Silver streak

25
Type of defect
 Flow Chart / Graphs
Flow Chart :

A Tool that graphically

represents the steps of a
process

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 Flow Chart
Different icons/symbols to indicate the
different types of actions in the process.
▪ Start / End :
▪ Process Activities :
▪ Decision points :
▪ Movement :
▪ Storage :

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 Flow Chart of annealing process:
Annealing Process :
Start

Rod receipt Heating Soaking

Inspection Purging Controlled End

cooling

Parameter
Storage setting Storag
Unloading
e

Base & Batch Furnace Controlled

cooling Testing
Preparation Loading
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 GRAPH : It is one of the means of data
stratification (separation of data so that a pattern
can be seen).
• Bar Graph
• Line Graph
• Pie Graph
• Radar Graph
Purpose of Graph: A picture is worth more
than thousand words

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BAR GRAPH : A graph to compare the
difference in numeric quantity.
DENT ANALYSIS

25
21.6
20 18.8
% OF DENTS

15 12.8 14.8 13.6

9.8
10 8.6

0
CTR PLLR
REAR BODY

PANEL
FRONT

ROOF

FR. DOOR

RR.DOOR

B.DOOR
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(Pie Chart) : A graph for the proportion of the different classifications
Others Spot Dent
10% 20%
2 4

9
5

Handling Gun Touch

Dents Dents 25%
45%
AREA OMNI W/B
PERIOD 05/01/2001
31
NO.OF.VEHICLE 150
LINE GRAPH : A graph to see the changes in condition of
any numeric changes

Line graph

30

20
10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
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 SYSTEM AUDIT REPORT
Audit Points % Achieved
1. Production preparation 40%
2. Initial supply control 60%
3. Initial control- Changed parts 40%
4. Preventive measures for defects 70%
5. Education and training 80%
6. Quality audit 80%
7. Supplier control 70%
8. Control of drawings and engg. Changes 100%
9. Inspection standard & PCS 100%
10. Operation standard 100%
11. Observance of operation standard 100%
12. Role of Manager/ Supervisor 100%
13. Quality improvement of process 0%
14. Control of Manufacturing machine/ jig 50%
15. Control of Inspection equipment and Jig 40%
16. Statistical method 100%
17. Prevention of missing process/ wrong assembling 75%
18. Control of non conforming product 100%
19. Storage of product 100%
20. First-in , First-out 100%
21. History management of A parts 100% 33
22. Implementation of inspection 100%
Radar Graph : To see the total sharp image as a composite
graph.

Radar Graph Series1

1. Production preparation, 40%
22. Implementation of inspection, 100.0% 2. Initial supply control, 60.0%
100%
90%
21. History management of A parts, 100.0% 3. Initial control- Changed parts, 40.0%
80%

20. First-in , First-out, 100.0% 70%

4. Prev entiv e measures for defects, 70.0%
60%
50%
19. Storage of product, 100.0%
40% 5. Education and training, 80.0%
30%
20%
18. Control of non conforming product, 100.0% 6. Quality audit, 80.0%
10%
0%
17. Prev ention of missing process/ w rong
assembling, 75.0% 7. Supplier control, 70.0%

16. Statistical method, 100.0% 8. Control of draw ings and engg. Changes,
100.0%
15. Control of Inspection equipment and Jig,
40.0% 9. Inspection standard & PCS, 100.0%
14. Control of Manufacturing machine/ jig,
50.0% 10. Operation standard, 100.0%
11. Observ ance of operation standard, 100.0%
13. Quality improv ement of process, 0.0% 12. Role of Manager/ Superv isor, 100.0%

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 CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM
• Shows the relationship between a
problem and its possible causes.

• Developed by Kaoru Ishikawa (1953)

• Also known as …
– Fishbone diagram
– Ishikawa diagram

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WHAT IS CAUSE AND EFFECT DIAGRAM :
A systematic arrangement of all possible causes
which give rise to the effect are made. The
causes are first divided into major sources (4Ms)

i.e., MAN, MACHINE, METHOD & MATERIAL.

Then each source is divided into sub-sources

and

so on. It helps to find out the root cause of the

problem.
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 METHODOLOGY : How to reach to root
cause of the problem
Step 1 : Make fish bone diagram and write all possible
causes in 4 M’s after brainstorming session.

Step 2 : Find out suspect or potential causes from the

possible causes. Highlight it.

Step 3 : Validate all the suspect or potential causes and

write the judgment. Write valid, where judgment is o.k.
and write invalid where judgment is not o.k.

Step 4 : Do the why-why analysis of the valid causes and

find out the root causes of the problem.
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METHODOLOGY : Step 1 : Possible
causes

Step 2 : Suspect or
Potential causes

Step 3 : Valid
causes

Step 4 : Root causes

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 Cause & Effect diagram - Major and subsidiary causes
Material Methods Environment

Procedures Noise level

Assemblies

Temperature

Consumables Humidity
Components Accounting

Suppliers Lighting
Policies
Quality
Variability
Instruments
Training
Experience Tests
Technology

Tooling
Attitude Gauging

Skill Fixtures Counting

Men Machine Measurement 39

 A P
C D
CAUSE & EFFECT DIAGRAM
METHOD MATERIAL

PROCESS
CAR SHAMPOO
PROCESS SEQUENCE TIME RUBBING CLOTH
LAYOUT WATER
POLISH QUALITY
BRUSHES
POOR
WASHING
QUALITY
EXPERIENCE
NOZZLE DIA JOB SKILL
TRAINING
VACUUM CLEANER

WORK LOAD
PUMP PRESSURE

MACHINE MAN
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VALIDATION OF POTENTIAL CAUSES
S. Potential Cause Validation Conclusion
No.

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 SAMPLE SIZE FOR VALIDATION
Formulae : np = 5 or n= 5 / p

Where n= number of sample size

p= proportionate defective or
no. of defectives / total components inspected.
Example : Suppose 1% defective is there, then p will be 1/100
and sample size will be
n= 5*100 / 1 = 500

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 5 WHY FOR ROOT CAUSE
ASK “WHY” FIVE TIMES.
When a problem has just been discovered, think about it by asking the
question “why?” five times. A haphazard idea of the cause cannot be
counted on. Thinking it over repeatedly will discover the root cause.

• For example , imagine that a bracket has broken from a pipe.

1a) Why did the bracket break?
1b) Because It was not welded properly.

2a) Why wasn’t it welded properly?

2b) Because the bracket wasn’t set in the proper position when it was welded.

3a) Why wasn’t the bracket placed in the proper position for welding?
3b) Because the welding jig was loose.

4. Why was the welding jig loose?

4b) Because the welding jig was worn out.

5a) Why was the welding jig worn out?

5b) Because the material specification of the jig was not proper. 43
 WHAT IS HISTOGRAM :
• A diagram that graphically depicts the
variability in a population.

• Histograms give a graphical view of the

distribution of the values.

• It reveals the amount of variation that any

process has within it.

44
 WHAT IS HISTOGRAM :
The frequency data obtained
from measurements display a
peak around a certain value. The
variation of quality
characteristics is called
distribution. The figure that
illustrates frequency in the form
a pole is referred to as a
Histogram. 45
 POPULATION AND SAMPLE
• The entire set of items is called the
Population.
• The small number of items taken from the
population to make a judgment of the
population is called a Sample.
• The numbers of samples taken to make this
judgment is called Sample size.

SAMPLE SIZE : THREE

POPULATION 46
 Histogram – steps
1.Obtain a set of 50 ~ 100 observations as shown below:
Sample Results of Measurement
Number

1-10 2.510 2.517 2.522 2.522 2.510 2.511 2.519 2.532 2.539 2.525

11-20 2.527 2.536 2.506 2.541 2.512 2.521 2.521 2.536 2.529 2.524

21-30 2.529 2.523 2.523 2.523 2.519 2.538 2.543 2.538 2.518 2.534

31-40 2.520 2.514 2.512 2.534 2.526 2.532 2.532 2.526 2.523 2.520

41-50 2.535 2.523 2.526 2.525 2.532 2.530 2.500 2.530 2.522 2.514

51-60 2.533 2.510 2.542 2.524 2.530 2.535 2.522 2.535 2.540 2.528

61-70 2.525 2.515 2.520 2.519 2.526 2.542 2.522 2.539 2.540 2.528

71-80 2.531 2.545 2.524 2.522 2.520 2.519 2.519 2.529 2.522 2.513

81-90 2.518 2.527 2.511 2.519 2.531 2.527 2.529 2.528 2.519 2.521
47
 Histogram – steps
2. Obtain the maximum value and minimum value:
Sample Results of Measurement Maximum Minimum value of the
Number value of the line
line
1-10 2.510 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.539 2.510
17 22 22 10 11 19 32 39 25

11-20 2.527 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.541 2.506
36 06 41 12 21 21 36 29 24

21-30 2.529 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.543 2.518
23 23 23 19 38 43 38 18 34

31-40 2.520 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.534 2.512
14 12 34 26 32 32 26 23 20

41-50 2.535 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.535 2.500
23 26 25 32 30 00 30 22 14

51-60 2.533 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.542 2.510
10 42 24 30 35 22 35 40 28

61-70 2.525 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.539 2.515
15 20 19 26 42 22 39 40 28

71-80 2.531 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.545 2.513
45 24 22 20 19 19 29 22 13

81-90 2.518 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.531 2.511
27 11 19 31 27 29 28 19 21

The largest value The smallest value 2.500

2.545
48
 Table
Number of data (N) Number of classes (K)
Under 50 5 - 7
50 - 100 6 - 10
100 - 250 7 - 12
Over 250 10 - 20

49
 Histogram- Steps
3. Determine the number of classes:
There are two methods to identify no of class.
1. As per table.
We have data of 90 pcs, which comes under 50-100 range.
We can take 9 class.

2. Second method
= N
= 90
= 9.48

Therefore, number of interval of classes be taken as 9.

50
 Histogram- Steps
3. Determine width of one class
Range = Max- Min
= 2.545- 2.500
= 0.045
Width of one = Range / No of class
= 0.045/9
= 0.005

51
 Histogram –Steps
4. Make a frequency table as given below:
Class Mid-Point Frequency Marks (Tally) Freque
of Class x ncy f
1 2.500 - 2.505 2.500 / 1
2 2.506 – 2.510 2.508 //// 4
3 2.511 – 2.515 2.513 //// /// 8
4 2.516 – 2.520 2.518 //// //// //// 14
5 2.521 – 2.525 2.523 //// //// //// //// / 21
6 2.526 – 2.530 2.528 //// //// //// // 17
7 2.531 – 2.535 2.533 //// //// // 12
8 2.536 – 2.540 2.538 /////// 8
9 2.541 – 2.545 2.543 //// 5
Total - 90

52
Histogram

53
 Histogram-Steps
5. Mark the horizontal axis with the class
boundary values.
6. Mark the vertical axis with a frequency
scale.
7. Erect the rectangles over the class
interval having area proportion to the
frequencies.
8 Draw a line on the Histogram to represent
Mean, number of data points and standard
deviation.
54
Histogram

55
 Histogram for grade wise
distribution in a class

35
No. of students

23 25

15
10
5

C- C B B+ A A+
Grade
56
 Normal Distribution

LSL USL
ử±3o
99.7%

ử±2o
95.4%

ử±o
68.3%
o

Out of Out of
Spec. Spec.

ử-3o ử-2o ử-o ử ử+o ử+2o ử+3o

57
 TYPES OF HISTOGRAMS

• Normal
– Bell shaped and natural.

• Comb like
– Regular ups and downs,
– indicates possible measurement error or rounding
problem

• Positive or Negatively skewed

– Possibly due to a limiting process parameter
58
 TYPES OF HISTOGRAMS
• Precipice type
– Indicate filtering out through inspection
– Or incorrect representation
• Plateau type
– From multiple sources with small differences in
averages
– Look for stratification
• Bimodal
– Two peaks – coming from two different
sources/populations
• Isolated peak type
– Outliers indicate mistake in sampling, data collection
or measurement
– Possibly process shift during data collection
59
Normal Distribution Curve– Relation between spread & sigma

99.73%
+/-3 sigma
-3σ +3σ
95.46%
+/- 2 sigma
-2σ +2σ
68.26%
+/- 1 sigma
-σ +σ

2.14% 13.6% 34.13% 34.13% 13.6% 2.14%

60
 WHAT IS A SCATTER DIAGRAM :
A graphical technique to show the dependency of
two variables.

It is used to study the variation of two

corresponding variables. For example, what

extent surface finish of a machined part be

varied by the change in speed of a lathe.

61
 Positive Correlation Negative Correlation

y n =30 y
n =30

6
6

4 4

2 2

0
0
2 4 6 x 2 4 6 x

62
Positive Correlation May Negative Correlation May
Be Present Be Present
n =30 n =30
y y

6
6

4 4

2 2

0
0
2 4 6 x x
2 4 6
63
 No Correlation
n =30

0
2 4 6 x

64
 Scatter Diagram

variation of strength with varying air

pressure

1.8

1.6
Strength

1.4

1.2

1
3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
02-Mar 03-Mar 04-Mar Air pressure 65

05-Mar 06-Mar
 EXAMPLE OF SCATTER DIAGRAM:
Speed of Petrol
Two variables : the car in consumption
in kms / Lt.
a) Speed of the car in kms / Hr. kms / Hr.
30 15, 15.5
b) Petrol consumption in kms / Lt. 35 16, 16.5
40 17, 17.5
EFFECT

45 18, 18.5
50 19, 19.5
55 20, 20.5
60 22, 22.5
65 21, 21.5
70 20, 20.4
75 19, 19.6
80 18, 18.6
85 18, 18.5
CAUSE
90 17, 17.4
Here
95 16, 16.2
Cause : Speed of the car in kms / Hr. 100 16, 16.1 66
Effect : Petrol consumption in kms / Lt.
EXAMPLE OF SCATTER DIAGRAM :
Positive and negative co-relation

24
22.5 21.5
FUEL AVERAGE

22 20.5 20.4
19.5 22 19.6
IN KMS / LT

20 18.5 21 18.6 18.5

17.5 20 20 17.4
18 16.5 19 19 16.2 16.1
15.5 18 18 18
16 17 17
16 16 16
14 15
12
10
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

SPEED IN KMS / HR.

67
OTHER EXAMPLES OF SCATTER DIAGRAM :

In machining process :
1) Cause : Speed of the machine, and
Effect : Surface finish of the component.
2) Cause : Feed of the machine and
Effect : surface finish of the component

68
 Correlation
• The measure of the strength of the linear
association in a correlation analysis is “R”
the correlation coefficient.
• Properties of R : -
• -1<R<1
• R > 0 indicates a positive linear
relationship
• R < 0 indicates a negative linear
relationship
The value of R varies between 1 and -1.
However to consider R as a significant factor,
R2 ≥ 2/√n
69
 Correlation Calculation
Calculating R : -
SS (xy)
R= SS (x) SS (y)

Where : ∑
( ∑ xi)2
SS (x) = ∑ (xi – x)2 = ∑ xi2 -
n
( ∑ yi)2
SS (y) = ∑ (yi – y)2 = ∑ yi2 -
n
(∑ xi) (∑ yi)
SS (xy) = ∑ (xi –x) (yi –y) = ∑ xi yi -
n
70
 Scatter Plot Calculations : Example
Date X (Hardness) Y (Tensile Strength) x2 y2 xy

1 84 38 7056 1444 3192

2 93 40.7 8649 1656.49 3785.1
3 89 35.3 7921 1246.09 3141.7
4 86 37.6 7396 1413.76 3233.6
5 87 36.2 7569 1310.44 3149.4
6 93 37.6 8649 1413.76 3496.8
7 88 33.1 7744 1095.61 2912.8
8 80 24.9 6400 620.01 1992
9 68 28.3 4624 800.89 1924.4
10 92 39.9 8464 1592.01 3670.8
11 69 31.8 4761 1011.24 2194.2
12 85 36.2 7225 1310.44 3077
13 93 39.1 8649 1528.81 3636.3
14 89 36.1 7921 1303.21 3212.9
15 91 39.5 8281 1560.25 3594.5
16 85 36 7225 1296 3060
17 90 37.9 8100 1436.41 3411
18 92 38.6 8464 1489.96 3551.2
19 76 32.3 5776 1043.29 2454.8
20 88 34.6 7744 1197.16 3044.8
21 87 39.8 7569 1584.04 3462.6
22 76 33.1 5776 1095.61 2515.6
23 92 38.8 8464 1505.44 3569.6
24 91 37.4 8281 1398.76 3403.4
25 83 36.9 6889 1361.61 3062.7
Total
12/13/2020 2147 899.7 185597 32715.29 77749.2
71
 Is the correlation positive or negative?
-RPM of the machine and surface finish.
-Feed of the machine and surface finish.
-Training hours of an employee and errors in his work.
-Qualification of an employee and his growth in his career.
-Shop floor rejections and customer complaints.
- High employee moral and customer complaints.
-Safety training in hours and accidents.
-Vehicle speed and fatality in road accidents.
-Ambient temperature and shelf life of food/chemicals.
-Level of cleanliness and no of infections
-Overeating and weight of people
-Height and weight of people 72
WHAT ARE CONTROL CHARTS :
Control charts serve to detect
abnormal trends with the help of line
graphs.

Control charts differ from standard

line graphs as they have control limit
lines at the center, top and bottom
levels.

73
Control chart was invented by Dr. W.A.
Shewhart of Bell Telephone Laboratory in
1924 as an application of systematic
method to process control. This control is
also called three sigma method with a
control line (center line and control limit )
expressed by the formula below.
Center line = Average value
Control limit = Average value +/- 3 X
standard deviation.

74
CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLES
• The variable control charts that are
most commonly used are average or
X-bar-charts, range or R-charts and
sigma-standard deviation charts.

75
 WHAT IS X CHART

X chart shows the centering

of the process, i.e. it shows
the variation in the average of
samples. It is the most
commonly used variable
chart.
76
 WHAT IS R CHART
R chart shows the uniformity
or consistency of the process
i.e. it shows the variation in
the range of samples.

77
 CONTROL CHARTS (VARIABLE)

Average – Range (X – R ) Chart

➢ When ?
✓Measurement must be variable.
✓Situation must be practically feasible to have at least 2
measurements in short span.
✓Mass Production.
✓Suitable for Product (Output) Characteristics.
✓Suitable for both Normal & Non- Normal Data.
78
 CONTROL CHARTS (VARIABLE)

Average – Range (X – R ) Chart

➢ Data Collection
✓Decide the Subgroup Size
▪ Rational Subgroup: Variability within subgroup
should be small.

79
 CONTROL CHARTS (VARIABLE)

Average – Range (X – R ) Chart

➢ Data Collection
✓Decide Subgroup Frequency
▪ Detect change in the process over span of time.
▪For initial study, may be consecutive or a very short
interval.

80
 CONTROL CHARTS (VARIABLE)

Average – Range (X – R ) Chart

➢ Data Collection
✓Decide no. of subgroups
(For initial study: To Define the control limits)
▪ To incorporate Major Source of Variation (Generally
25 subgroups or more Containing about 100
individual Measurements)

81
 AVERAGE RANGE CHART

CUSTOMER : PART NAME: PART NO.:

PARAMETER: SPEC.(NOMI): 0.70 MACHINE:

TOLERANCE: +/- 0.2

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1 0.65 0.75 0.75 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.7 0.60 0.65 0.60 0.80 0.85 0.70 0.65 0.90 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.65 0.60
5

2 0.70 0.85 0.80 0.70 0.75 0.75 0.7 0.70 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.80 0.65 0.60 0.70 0.85
0

3 0.65 0.75 0.80 0.70 0.65 0.75 0.6 0.80 0.85 0.60 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.85 0.60 0.85 0.65
5

4 0.65 0.85 0.70 0.75 0.85 0.85 0.6 0.65 0.75 0.65 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.65 0.65 0.80 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.70
5

5 0.85 0.65 0.75 0.65 0.80 0.70 0.8 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.65 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.85 0.65 0.80 0.60 0.70 0.65
0

82
 AVERAGE – RANGE CONTROL CHARTS (X – R )

➢Calculate Average of each Subgroup.

➢Calculate the Range of Each Subgroup.

R = Xmax – Xmin

❖ X1 ,X2 ,…. Xn are individual values within the subgroup

❖n is the Subgroup Sample Size.

83
 AVERAGE RANGE CHART

CUSTOMER : PART NAME: PART NO.:

PARAMETER: SPEC.(NOMI): 0.70 MACHINE:

TOLERANCE: +/- 0.2

01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1 0.65 0.75 0.75 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.75 0.6 0.65 0.60 0.80 0.85 0.70 0.65 0.90 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.65 0.60
0

2 0.70 0.85 0.80 0.70 0.75 0.75 0.70 0.7 0.80 0.80 0.70 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55 0.80 0.65 0.60 0.70 0.85
0

3 0.65 0.75 0.80 0.70 0.65 0.75 0.65 0.8 0.85 0.60 0.90 0.85 0.75 0.85 0.80 0.75 0.85 0.60 0.85 0.65
0

4 0.65 0.85 0.70 0.75 0.85 0.85 0.65 0.6 0.75 0.65 0.70 0.60 0.60 0.65 0.65 0.80 0.60 0.65 0.70 0.70
5

5 0.85 0.65 0.75 0.65 0.80 0.70 0.80 0.7 0.75 0.75 0.65 0.70 0.70 0.60 0.85 0.65 0.80 0.60 0.70 0.65
5

X 0.70 0.77 0.76 0.68 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.7 0.76 0.68 0.75 0.74 0.68 0.67 0.75 0.75 0.73 0.64 0.72 0.69
0

R 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.15 0.2 0.20 0.20 0.25 0.25 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.15 0.25 0.15 0.20 0.25
0

84
 AVERAGE – RANGE CONTROL CHARTS (X – R )

➢Calculate Average of each Subgroup.

x1 + x2 + x3 + .....xk
x=
k
➢Calculate the Average Range.

R1 + R2 + R3 + .....Rk
R=
k

❖k= No. of subgroups

85
 AVERAGE – RANGE CONTROL CHARTS (X – R )

➢Calculate Trial Control Limits for Range Chart.

➢Calculate Trial Control Limits for Average Chart.

❖D4 , D3 & A2 are Constant varying as per sample size (n)

86
 Table of Constants for Control Charts

Use the table below where n is the number of samples in a subgroup.

n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3.267 2.575 2.282 2.115 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816 1.777
D4
0 0 0 0 0 0.076 0.136 0.184 0.223
D3
1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337 0.308
A2
1.128 1.693 2.059 2.326 2.534 2.704 2.847 2.970 3.078
d2

87
 AVERAGE – RANGE CONTROL CHARTS (X – R )

x= 0.718
R= 0.21
For R Chart
UCL = D4 X R = 0.433
LCL = D3 X R = 0.000
For X Bar Chart
UCL = x + A2 X R = 0.837
LCL = x - A2 X R = 0.5991

88
DRAW AVERAGE – RANGE CHART

89
 A Few Words on Control Limits
➢Basis for control limits :
•Control limits are also referred to as natural process limits.
•Control limits are based on the mean and standard deviation of the
process as it is, not how we wish it to be.
•There is no connection to specification limits.

➢Purposes of control limits

•To determine when local action is necessary and to act on it (i.e., when
special cause variation exists).
•To display the natural variation of the process, that is, the common cause
variation.
•To show any obvious, unnatural patterns in the data.
Specification limits do not belong on control charts.
90
 Process Capability :
➢ Calculate Process Standard Deviation Subgroup Size (n) d2
2 1.128
σ = R / d2
3 1.693
d2 is a constant varying as per sample size (n) 4 2.059
5 2.326
6 2.534
➢ Calculate Process Capability ( Cp )
7 2.704
8 2.847
9 2.970

Cp = (USL – LSL) / 6σ USL = Upper Specification Limit

LSL = Lower Specification Limit

= Tolerance / 6σ

91
 A Problem With Cp :

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
✓ Cp considers only spread, not the location.
✓ For a truly capable process

▪ Process spread must be smaller to specification and

▪ It should be located in a manner that its spread on both the sides

falls well within the specification.

▪ Capability index that considers both location and spread is called Cpk

92
 Process Capability Study :
Compare Voice of Process with Voice of customer
(Specification)

Voice of Process

LSL USL
-3σ +3σ

Process Width

Design Width
Voice of Customer
93
 Process Capability :
Calculate Process Capability (Cpk)

Cpu = (USL – X) / 3σ = ZUSL / 3 Subgroup d2

size(n)
2 1.128
Or CpL = (X – LSL) / 3σ = ZLSL / 3
3 1.693
4 2.059
Whichever is minimum will be Cpk
5 2.326
6 2.534
7 2.704
8 2.847
9 2.970

94
 Process Capability :
Standard Deviation (σ) = R / d2

= 0.205 / 2.326 USL = 0.900

= 0.088
LSL = 0.500
Process Capability :
Cp = (USL-LSL) / 6σ = (0.900-0.500) / 6 X 0.088
= 0.7575
Cpu = (USL – X) / 3σ = (0.900-0.718) / 3 X 0.088
= 0.689
Cpl = (X – LSL) / 3σ = (0.718 – 0.500) / 3 X 0.088
= 0.8257
Cpk = 0.689
LSL USL
(0.500) (0.900)
X
0.718

95
 Process Capability :

Cp Cpk Remarks

• Process Capable
• Continue Charting
• Bring Cpk closer to Cp
• Process has potential Capability
X • Improve Cpk by Local action

• Process lacks basic Capability

X X • Improve process by Management
action
96
 What about PROCESS PERFORMANCE ?

• Process Capability (Cp, Cpk) indicates the ability of the

process to meet the specification (Voice of customer) when Process
operates under the common causes.

•In practical situation, a process shows variation due to both common

as well as assignable causes.

•One must analyze process behaviour due to combined effect of

Common and Assignable causes. The index is known as Process
Performance Index (Pp, Ppk)

97
 Process Capability vs Performance :

Cpk Ppk Remarks

• Process Capable and performing

• Continue Charting

• Process has Capability but not

performing due to assignable causes
X • Remove assignable causes by Local
action
• Process neither capable nor
X X performing
• May require Management action
98
Other Capability Indices: Machine Capability (Cm, Cmk)

A process variation is affected σ2 Long-Term = σ2 Short-Term

by many factors like
+ σ2 Machines
• Raw material variation
+ σ2 Day to Day
• Tools
• Operators + σ2 Operators
• Measurement System + σ2 Batches
+ σ2 Seasonal
• Time
+ ……
• Environmental change etc…

Machine capability is an index which is calculated on the basis of

variation contributed by Machine only

99
 Machine Capability (Cm, Cmk)

• Take 50-100 consecutive samples/ measurements in short span.

• Ensure the following do not change during sampling.
Raw material batch
Operator
Tooling
Method of process
Measurement system
Environment etc…

Calculate Cm, Cmk using the same formulae used for Cp, Cpk

100
 CONTROL CHART: Validation of Control Limit

• Control limits should indicate the variation which comes

due to common causes only. So that, any assignable
assignable cause variation is reflected.

• Hence, it should be based on data when there is no

assignable cause.

• Any control limit based on assignable cause data can not

be considered as Reliable.

•What to do ?

101
Validation of Control Limit
Identify any out of control or special cause situation
➢ Any point above UCL or below LCL:
R CHART
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
 Validation of Control Limits

• For initial control chart,

✓ Discard all the subgroup showing out of control situation (starting from R-chart)
✓ Re-calculate Control Limits, plot and analyse for any out of control situation.
✓ Re discard if any out of control situation again found.
✓ Continue the above cycle until all plot indicate a control situation.
✓ Repeat same exercise with Average chart.
✓ If more than 50% data are required to be discarded, reject all data and re-
collect.
✓ Once initial control chart indicates control situation.

• Calculate Initial Capability

• Extend control limits for ongoing control.

103
 Control Charts Ongoing Process Control

• Collect the data at the frequency as established.

• Plot on control chart.

• Perform instant analysis and interpretation.

• Give immediate feedback to the process for action if any

indication of process behaviour change.
•Record significant process events (Tool change, Operator change,
Shift change, breakdown etc…
•This helps identifying assignable causes.

104
 Interpreting Control Charts - Ongoing
The interpretation of control charts is based on the statistical
probability of a particular pattern occurring by complete chance (or
being caused by random variation).
• All of the tests identify events that have a less than 0.3% chance of
occurring by random chance (outside of 3s probability of being
caused by random variation).
• Control charts are divided into sigma zones above and below the
average line.

• Zone C is <1 from the mean.

• Zone B is between 1 and 2
• Zone A is between 2 and 3
• Beyond Zone A is > 3

105
 TWO KINDS OF VARIATIONS
1) Variation due to chance causes
2) Variation due to assignable causes.
1) Variation due to chance causes:
Variations due to chance causes are inevitable in
any process or product. They are difficult to trace and
difficult to control even under best conditions of
production. Since these variations may be due to
some inherent characteristic of the process or
machine which functions at random. For example, a
little play between nut and screw at random may
lead to back-lash error and may cause a change in
dimension of a machined part.
106
2) Variation due to assignable causes:
These variations possess greater magnitude
as compared to those due to chance
causes and can be easily traced or
detected. The variations due to assignable
causes may be because of the following
factors:
a) Differences among machines.
b) Differences among workers
c) Differences among materials
d) Change in working conditions
107
 How to read CONTROL CHARTS :

• Whether a process is in the controlled

state or not is judged by the following
criteria from the control chart.
• Control charts are divided into sigma
zones above and below the average line.
• Zone C is < 1 sigma from the mean.
• Zone B is between 1 sigma and 2 sigma
• Zone A is between 2 sigma and 3 sigma.
• Beyond Zone A is > 3 sigma 108
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:1 One point beyond zone A
x
UCL
A
B
C
CL
C
B
A
LCL
x
Test 1 The basic test

o Caused by a large change in the process.

o Requires Immediate action

109
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:2 Seven points in a row on one side of center line.

UCL
A
B
C
CL
C
B x
A
LCL

o Caused by a process mean shift

110
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:3 Six points in a row steadily increasing or decreasing

UCL
A
B
C x
CL
C
B x
A
LCL

o Caused by
➢Mechanical wear
➢Chemical depletion
➢Increasing contamination 111
➢ etc
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:4 Alternating Patterns
Fourteen points in a row alternating up& down
UCL
A
B
C
CL
C x
B
A
LCL

o Caused by

➢Over adjustment
➢Shift-to-shift variation
➢Machine-to-machine variation 112
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:5 Two out of three points in a row in the same zone A or beyond
x x
UCL
A
B
C
CL
C
B
A x
LCL

Test 5 The second basic test

o High variation without exceeding the 3 sigma limit

o Major special cause variation

113
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:6 Four out of five points in a row in the same zone B and beyond

UCL
A x
B
C
CL
C
B x

A
LCL

o Another test for shift

oTest 1,5,6 are related and show conditions of high special cause variability.

114
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test:7 Fifteen points in a row in zone C (Above & below center line)

UCL
A
B
x
C
CL
C
B
A
LCL

Test 7- The Whitespace test

➢Occurs when within subgroup variation is large
compared to between group variation or
➢Old or incorrectly calculated limits
115
 Control Chart Interpretation
Test 8 Eight points in a row on both sides of center line with none in zone C

UCL
A
B x
C
CL
C
B
A
LCL

Test 8 Alternating Means

➢Mixtures
➢Over control
➢Two different processes on the same chart.
116
 A Problem is not a Problem
but Should be considered as an
“ OPPORTUNITY ”
for
Improvement.

117
 Pareto Diagram
• How to make Pareto Diagram using excel chart
• Data is given as below :-
Type of defect No. of defects Cumulative %

A 100 50

B 50 75

C 30 90

D 20 100

118
Open an excel worksheet, write the data as given below in excel
worksheet, select the data, go to insert, select column and click it.
Select 2D column and click it.

119
Blue columns are for number of defects and red columns are for
cumulative %.

120
Click red columns and then do the right click. Select change series chart
type.

121
Red Column graph has been changed to line graph.

122
Click on column graph and then do the right click. Select format axis

123
Select maximum and write 200. This 200 will be on primary scale.

124
Click on line graph and then do the right click. Select format axis

125
Select secondary axis and close it.

126
Click on secondary value and then click format axis.

127
Select maximum and write 100. This 100 will be on secondary scale.

128
Select column graph and then do right click. Reduce gap width to 0.

129
Select column graph and then do right click. Select add data labels.

130
 Glossary
• Data : The set of reading that provide some
information. As a result of measurement, the
available data may be attribute or variable.
• Attribute/Discrete Data : the data results from
counting the occurrence of events. For example,
Number of units unfit for sale or Number of
successes in n trials.
• Variable/ Continuous Data : The data results
from measurement on a continuous scale like
length, temperature
• Control Chart : A control chart is a
statistical tool used to distinguish between
variation in a process resulting from
common causes and variation resulting
from special causes. It presents a graphic
display of process stability or instability
over time.
• Control Limits : A line on control chart
used for judging the stability of a process.
• Range: The difference between maximum
value and minimum value.
THANK YOU
133