Building construction assignment

#1 The primary function of a wall in a building is to provide structural support and create separation
between different spaces. Walls are fundamental components of a building's framework and serve
several important functions:

Structural Support: Walls help distribute the weight of the building, transferring loads from the roof and
upper floors down to the foundation. They contribute to the overall stability and integrity of the
structure.

Enclosure and Division: Walls create physical boundaries that enclose and divide the interior space of a
building into rooms, corridors, and other areas. They define the layout and organization of the structure,
separating different functions and providing privacy.

Load Bearing: Load-bearing walls carry the weight of the floors, roof, and other structural elements
above them. They are designed to withstand vertical loads and transfer them to the foundation. Non-
load-bearing walls, on the other hand, do not support structural loads but are used for partitioning and
aesthetic purposes.

Sound Insulation: Walls help reduce the transmission of sound between different areas of a building.
Properly constructed walls with soundproofing materials can minimize noise transfer, ensuring acoustic
privacy and a more comfortable living or working environment.

Thermal Insulation: Walls play a crucial role in maintaining comfortable indoor temperatures. Insulated
walls with appropriate materials help to prevent heat loss during colder months and heat gain during
warmer months. This contributes to energy efficiency and reduces the reliance on heating and cooling
systems.

Fire Resistance: Walls can provide fire protection by acting as fire barriers. Certain types of walls are
designed and constructed with fire-resistant materials and techniques to prevent the spread of fire and
smoke, providing occupants with more time to evacuate the building safely.

#2 The functional requirements of a wall are :Strength , Stability , Weather and ground moisture
resistance , Durability , Fire safety and Resistance to heat passage , Sound resistance

#3 Factors Affecting the Selection of wall Construction Materials: Strength ,Durability ,Cost and
Locally Available Materials ,Climate , Required Skills and Availability skilled labour and Sustainability.

#4 A, process of manufacturing bricks, the following distinct operations are involved.

• Preparation of clay

• Molding
 • Drying: The bricks are allowed to dry until the bricks are become leather hard of moisture content
about 2%

• Burning : burned at high temperature to gain the strength, durability, density and red color

Appearance

B, types of brick: Sun-Dried or Un-burnt Clay Bricks , Burnt Clay Bricks , Facing bricks , Engineering
bricks , Fire bricks

Test conducted on bricks : Compressive strength test , Water Absorption test , Efflorescence test ,
Hardness test and Soundness test

# 5 Closer: It is a portion of the brick with the cut made longitudinally and is used to close up bond at
the end of the course.

Queen closer: It is a portion of a brick obtained by cutting a brick length wise into two portions.

King closer: It is obtained by cutting the triangular piece between the center of one end and the center
of the other side.

Bevelled closer: A special form of king closer in which half width is maintained at one end and full width
is maintained at the other end.

Mitred closer: It is a portion of a brick whose one end is cut splayed or mitred for full width

Bat: It is the portion portion of the brick cut across the width. Thus, a bat is smaller in length than the
full brick.

Half bat: equal to half the length of the original brick

A three-quarter-bat: its length equal to three-quarters

Bevelled bat: A bat with its width beveled

#6 Stretcher bond: Is the one in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers on the faces of the wall. This
pattern is used only for those walls which have thickness of half brick. Used as partition walls, sleeper
walls, chimney stacks, etc

. Header bond: Is the one in which all the bricks are laid as headers on the faces of walls. The width of
the brick is along the direction of the wall. The pattern is used only when the thickness of the wall is
equal to one brick. This bond does not transmit transmit pressure pressure in the direction direction of
the length of the wall. Thus it is unsuitable for load bearing walls.

Dutch bond: This is another modified form of English bond. In this bond the corners of the wall are
strengthened. Alternate courses of headers and stretchers are provided Every stretcher course starts at
the quoin with the three quarter bat. In every alternate alternate stretcher stretcher course, course, a
header is placed next to the three- quarter brick bat provided at the quoin.

Garden wall bonds: Is used for the construction of garden walls, boundary walls, compound walls
where the thickness is one brick and the height doesn’t exceed 2m. This type of bond is not so strong as
English English bond, but is more attractive.

Garden walls are of three types:

Garden wall English bond , Garden wall Flemish bond and Garden wall monk bond

#7
#8

#9 Supervision of brickwork involves overseeing the construction process to ensure that the brickwork
is built to the desired standards and specifications. Here are some important points connected with the
supervision of brickwork

Quality control: The supervisor needs to ensure that the bricks being used are of the correct type, size,
and quality. They should check for any damaged or defective bricks and ensure that only approved
bricks are used in the construction.

Mortar mix: The mortar used for brickwork should be of the appropriate composition and consistency.
The supervisor should check the mortar mix proportions, ensuring that it meets the required strength
and durability standards.

Bonding: The supervisor should pay attention to the bonding of the bricks. They need to ensure that the
bricks are laid in a uniform and level manner, with consistent mortar joints. Proper bonding ensures
structural integrity and aesthetic appeal.

Alignment and plumb: The supervisor should regularly check the alignment and plumb of the brickwork.
This involves verifying that the walls are straight, vertical, and properly aligned. Any deviations should be
corrected promptly to maintain the structural stability of the construction.

Jointing and pointing: The supervisor should ensure that the joints between the bricks are properly
filled with mortar, without any gaps or voids. They should also check the pointing, which refers to the
finishing of the mortar joints, to ensure a neat and uniform appearance.
#10 a) Various defects in brickwork:
Efflorescence , Cracks , Bulging or leaning walls , Hollow spots

b) Failure mechanisms of brickwork:

Overloading , Settlement , Moisture penetration ,Thermal expansion and contraction

c) Maintenance of brickwork:

Cleaning , Repointing , Waterproofing

#11 Reinforced brick masonry refers to the construction technique where bricks are reinforced with
the use of additional materials to enhance the strength and stability of the structure. This reinforcement
is typically achieved by incorporating steel bars or mesh within the brickwork. The reinforcement helps
to distribute the load and resist various forces acting on the structure, such as tension, compression, and
shear. Reinforced brick masonry is used in situations where the standard brickwork alone may not
provide sufficient strength or resistance to external forces. Some examples of when reinforced brick
masonry is used include: Load-bearing walls , Retaining walls ,Shear walls

#12 a) Classification of Rocks:

Rocks can be classified into three main types based on their formation process and composition:

Igneous Rocks: These rocks are formed from the solidification of molten magma or lava. Igneous rocks
can be further classified into intrusive rocks, which cool and solidify beneath the Earth's surface, and
extrusive rocks, which form on the Earth's surface after volcanic eruptions. Examples of igneous rocks
include granite, basalt, and pumice.

Sedimentary Rocks: Sedimentary rocks are formed from the accumulation and compaction of sediments,
which can include fragments of other rocks, organic materials, and minerals. Over time, these sediments
are cemented together to form sedimentary rocks. Examples of sedimentary rocks include sandstone,
limestone, and shale.

Metamorphic Rocks: Metamorphic rocks are formed when existing rocks undergo a process of
transformation due to intense heat, pressure, or chemical activity. This process causes the minerals
within the rocks to re-crystallize, resulting in the formation of metamorphic rocks. Examples of
metamorphic rocks include marble, slate, and quartzite.

b) Tests Conducted on Stone:

Several tests are conducted on stones to assess their quality and suitability for various construction
purposes. Some common tests include:

Crushing Strength Test , Water Absorption Test , Density Test , Acid Test
c) Qualities of Good Stones:

Good stones for construction purposes possess certain desirable qualities, including:

Strength , Durability , Hardness , Density , Appearance , Workability

#13There are various types of stone masonry used in construction. Here are some of the commonly
classified types:

Rubble Masonry: In rubble masonry, irregularly shaped and sized stones are used. The stones can be
used as they are or broken into the required size using a hammer. The masonry has wide joints due to
the irregularity of the stones. There are two main types of rubble masonry:

Random Rubble: Stones are arranged without any specific pattern, avoiding long vertical joints.

Coursed Rubble : Stones are arranged in courses or layers, with each course having stones of the same
height.

Ashlar Masonry :Ashlar masonry uses accurately dressed stones with uniform and fine joints.

The stones are cut and shaped to specific dimensions and arranged in various patterns. Different types
of ashlar masonry include:

Ashlar Fine Masonry: Stones with a thickness of about 3mm and fine joints.

Ashlar Block in Course: Stones arranged in courses with uniform height.

Ashlar Chamfered Masonry: Stones with chamfered edges.

#14 Advantages of Dressing Stones:

Improved Appearance , Uniform Size and Shape , Reduced Weight.

Types of Surface Finishes in Stone Masonry:

Axed Finish , Boasted Finish , Combed Finish , Circular Finish , Chisel- Draughted Margins , Molded
Finish , Furrowed Finish , Plain Finish , Polished Finish

#15 Concrete block masonry refers to the construction method that utilizes concrete blocks as the
primary building units. These blocks are made of concrete and are commonly referred to as concrete
masonry units (CMUs). Concrete block masonry offers several advantages over traditional brick
masonry, especially when using hollow concrete blocks.

Advantages of Hollow Concrete Block Masonry:

Lightweight Construction
Improved Insulation

Sound Insulation

Faster Constructio

Cost-effective

Fire Resistance:

Durability.

Points to Consider during Production and Construction of Concrete Blocks:

Quality Control

Curing

Dimensional Accuracy

Proper Mortar Mix

Correct Block Orientation

proper Bonding

Reinforcement and Grouting

#16 a) Walls of Monolithic Construction: Walls of monolithic construction refer to walls that are
constructed as a single, continuous unit without any joints or seams. This construction method involves
pouring or placing concrete or other materials into formwork or molds to create a solid and seamless
wall structure. Monolithic walls are commonly used in various construction applications, including
residential, commercial, and industrial buildings.

b) Composite or Panel Walls: Composite or panel walls are constructed using prefabricated panels made
of different materials. These panels are manufactured off-site and then transported to the construction
site for installation. The panels can be made of materials such as concrete, steel, wood, or composite
materials. They are designed to provide structural support, insulation, and other desired properties.

#17 a) Partition Wall: A partition wall is an interior wall that is constructed within a building to divide
or separate spaces into different rooms or areas. Unlike load-bearing walls, partition walls do not carry
any structural load and are primarily used for functional and spatial purposes. These walls can be made
of various materials such as bricks, concrete blocks, wood, glass, or metal, depending on the desired
characteristics and requirements of the partition.
b) Requirements to be Fulfilled by a Partition Wall: Partition walls need to fulfill several requirements
to ensure their effectiveness and suitability for their intended purpose. Some of these requirements
include:

Sound Insulation

Fire Resistance

Stability and Durability

Thermal Insulation

Aesthetics.

Flexibility

Ease of Installation

c) Different Types of Partition Walls:

Partition walls can be classified based on the materials used for construction. Some common types of
partition walls include:

Brick Partition Wall

Concrete Partition

Glass Partition Wall

Wooden Partition Wall

Metal Partition Wall

Gypsum Board Partition Wall

Composite Partition Wall

#18 Cavity Wall : A cavity wall is a type of wall construction that consists of two separate walls, known
as leaves, with a space or cavity between them. The inner wall is called the internal leaf, and the outer
wall is called the external leaf. The cavity between the two leaves is typically filled with insulation
material, such as glass fiber wool or mineral wool, to enhance thermal performance and reduce heat
loss .

Advantages of Cavity Walls

Cavity walls offer several advantages compared to solid walls:

Thermal Insulation.

Energy Efficiency

Moisture Resistance

Sound Insulation

Fire Resistance

Reduced Weight

Cost-Effectiveness

General Features of Cavity Walls

The general features of cavity walls include:

Cavity Size: The size of the cavity between the leaves of a cavity wall typically ranges from 4 to 10 cm .

Leaf Thickness: The internal and external leaves of a cavity wall should have a minimum thickness of 10
mm .

Insulation Material: The cavity is filled with insulation material, such as glass fiber wool or mineral wool,
to enhance thermal performance .

Ties or Links: Metal ties or links are used to interconnect the internal and external leaves of the cavity
wall, providing stability and structural integrity .

Construction Materials: The leaves of a cavity wall can be constructed using various materials, including
bricks, concrete blocks, or other masonry materials.

#19 Lintel: A lintel is a horizontal structural member that spans an opening, such as a door or window,
to support the load from the structure above. It is typically made of materials like wood, steel, or stone
and is placed across the top of the opening. Lintels are commonly used in construction to provide
structural support and distribute the weight of the wall or roof above the opening evenly to the
surrounding walls.

Arch: An arch is a curved structural element that is used to span an opening and support the weight
above it. Unlike a lintel, which relies on horizontal support, an arch transfers the load vertically and
horizontally along its curved shape. Arches are typically made of materials like stone, brick, or concrete
and are known for their strength and ability to distribute weight effectively

Types of Lintels and Their Relative Use

There are various types of lintels used in construction, each with its own advantages and suitable
applications. Some common types of lintels include:
Wooden Lintels

Steel Lintels

Reinforced Concrete Lintels

Precast Concrete Lintels

Stone Lintels

#20 Arches are recommended in various architectural and structural applications due to their
strength, stability, and aesthetic appeal. They are commonly used in bridges, tunnels, buildings, and
even in the design of the human foot. Here are some types of arches commonly used:

Flat Arch: The intrados (inner curve) of a flat arch is apparently flat, acting as the base of an equilateral
triangle formed by the horizontal angle of 60 degrees by skewbacks. Flat arches are generally used for
light loads and spans up to 1.5 meters .

Segmental Arch: A segmental arch has a curved shape with a rise less than a semicircle. It is formed by a
segment of a circle. This type of arch is commonly used in openings where a semicircular arch is not
feasible or desired.

Semi-Circular Arch: A semi-circular arch is a half-circle shape, with the intrados forming a perfect
semicircle. It is one of the most common types of arches used in architecture and provides excellent
structural stability.

Pointed Arch (Gothic Arch): The pointed arch has a pointed or Gothic shape, with the intrados forming
two intersecting arcs. This type of arch is commonly associated with Gothic architecture and is known
for its elegance and ability to distribute weight efficiently.

Elliptical Arch: An elliptical arch has a curved shape resembling an ellipse, with the intrados forming an
elliptical curve. This type of arch is often used in architectural designs where a more graceful and
elongated curve is desired.

Parabolic Arch: A parabolic arch has a curved shape formed by a parabolic curve, with the intrados
following the shape of a parabola. This type of arch is known for its ability to distribute weight evenly
along its curve, making it suitable for large spans.

Horseshoe Arch: The horseshoe arch has a rounded shape resembling an upside-down U or a
horseshoe, with the intrados forming a rounded curve. It is commonly found in Moorish and Islamic
architecture and adds a distinctive aesthetic to buildings.
.