UNIT-III LATTICES AND

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

• Partial Ordering.
• Posets.
• Lattices as Posets.
• Properties of Lattices.
• Lattices as Algebraic Systems.
• Sub Lattices.
• Direct product and homomorphism.
• Some special Lattices.
• Boolean Algebra.
 Partial Ordering

A relation 𝑹 on a set 𝑨 is called a partial

ordering or partial order relation, if 𝑹 is
reflexive, anti symmetric and transitive.
(i.e) 𝑹 is a partial order relation on 𝑨 if it has the
following three properties.
• 𝐚𝐑𝐚 for every 𝐚 ∈ 𝐀
• 𝐚𝐑𝐛 and 𝐛𝐑𝐚 ⟹ 𝐚 = 𝐛
• 𝐚𝐑𝐛 and 𝐛𝐑𝐜 ⟹ 𝐚𝐑𝐜
 Poset

A set 𝑨 together with a partial order

relation 𝑹 is called a partially ordered set
or poset.

Example :
The greater than or equal to ≥ relation is
a partial ordering on the set of integers 𝒁,
Since

𝒂 𝒂 ≥ 𝒂 for every integer 𝒂

(i.e) ≥ is reflexive.

𝒃 𝒂 ≥ 𝒃 and 𝒃 ≥ 𝒂 ⟹ 𝒂 = 𝒃

(i.e) ≥ is anti symmetric

𝒄 𝒂 ≥ 𝒃 and 𝒃 ≥ 𝒄 ⟹ 𝒂 ≥ 𝒄

(i.e) ≥ is transitive.

Hence, 𝒁 , ≥ is a poset.
1. S h ow that 𝑵,≤ is a partially ordered set
where 𝑵 is set of all positive integers and ≤ is
defined by 𝒎 ≤ 𝒏 iff 𝒏 − 𝒎 is a non-negative
integer.

Solution :
To prove 𝑵 , ≤ is a partially ordered set, we have
to prove the relation ≤ is reflexive, anti
symmetric and transitive.
(i) As 𝒂 − 𝒂 = 𝟎 which is a non-negative integer,
𝒂 ≤𝒂
Therefore, ≤ is a reflexive.
(ii)Assume 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 and 𝒃 ≤ 𝒂
𝒃 − 𝒂 ≥ 𝟎 and 𝒂 − 𝒃 ≥ 𝟎

This is possible only if 𝒃 − 𝒂 = 𝟎 = 𝒂 − 𝒃

Therefore, 𝒂 = 𝒃

(i.e) ≤ is anti symmetric.

(iii)Assume 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 , 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄

𝒃 − 𝒂 ≥ 𝟎 and 𝒄 − 𝒃 ≥ 𝟎

𝒄 −𝒃+𝒃 −𝒂 ≥𝟎
 𝒄 −𝒂 ≥𝟎

𝒂 ≤𝒄

(i.e) 𝒂 ≤ 𝒃 , 𝒃 ≤ 𝒄 ⟹ 𝒂 ≤ 𝒄

Therefore, ≤ is transitive.

Hence, 𝑵 , ≤ is a partially ordered set.

 Hasse Diagrams for Partial Orderings

The Hasse diagram representing a partial

ordering can be obtained from its digraph by
removing all the loops, by removing all edges
HasseDiagram

Let S be a partially ordered set

let a, b  S
If a  b, then
a is called an predeces of b, or b is known
an successor of a,
that are present due to transitivity and by
drawing each edge without arrow so that
its initial vertex is below its terminal
vertex.
1. Draw the Hasse diagram for 𝑷 = 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟐 , 𝟐𝟒
and ≤ is a relation such that 𝒙 ≤ 𝒚 if and only if
𝒙|𝒚 .

Solution : The Hasse diagram for 𝑷 = 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟐 , 𝟐𝟒

is given by
24

12

2 3
2 . Draw the Hasse diagram for 𝑷 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟐
and ≤ is a relation such that 𝒙 ≤ 𝒚 if and only if
𝒙|𝒚 .

Solution :

The Hasse diagram for 𝑷 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟐 is given

12
by

4 6

2 3

1
3. Draw the Hasse diagram of 𝑺𝟐𝟒 , | where 𝑺𝟐𝟒
denotes the set of positive divisors of 𝟐𝟒 and |
denotes the relation “division”.

Solution :
𝑺𝟐𝟒 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟒 , 𝟔 , 𝟖 , 𝟏𝟐 , 𝟐𝟒

The Hasse diagram for 𝑺𝟐𝟒 , | is given by

 24

8 12

4 6

2 3

1
4. Obtain the Hasse diagram of 𝑷 𝑨𝟑 , ⊆ where
𝑨𝟑 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 .

Solution :

Given 𝑨𝟑 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑
𝑷 𝑨𝟑
= ∅ , 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟏 ,𝟐 , 𝟏 ,𝟑 , 𝟐 ,𝟑 , 𝟏 ,𝟐 ,𝟑

The Hasse diagram of 𝑷 𝑨𝟑 , ⊆ is given by

 {1,2,3}

{1 ,2} {1,3 } {2,3 }

{1 } {2 } {3 }

{φ }
Minimal and Maximal Elements

Let S be a partially ordered set.

An element a in S is called minimal if no other
element of S strictly precedes a.
Element having no predecessor
• An element b in S is called maximal if no
element of S strictly succeeds b.
• Elements having no succesor.
Least and Greatest Elements(Unique)
An element a in a poset S is called least (or first)
element if a precedes every other element of S.

An element b in poset S is called the greatest (or last)

element if b succeeds every other element of S.

Ex Find greatest and least elements in Hasse diagrams

d
b c d d e d

b c
e c c

a b b a
a a
Note :
1. The m aximal, minimal, the greatest and
least member of a poset can be easily
identified using the Hasse diagram of the
poset. They are the top and bottom
element in the diagram.
2. A poset can have more than one maximal
member and more than one minimal
member whereas the greatest and least
member, when they exist, are unique.
Ex. Which elements of the poset
({2, 4, 5, 10, 12, 20, 25}, | ) are maximal, and
which are minimal.
20
12

4 10 25

2 5

The maximal elements are 12, 20 and 25, and the

minimal elements are 2 and 5.
Upper and Lower Bound
Let A be a subset of partially ordered set S.
An element u in S is called an upper bound of A if u
succeeds every element of A.
An element l in a poset S is called a lower bound of A if l
precedes every element of A.

Supremum
If an upper bound of A precedes every other upper bound of
A, then it is called the supremum or least upper bound of A
and is denoted by sup(A) or lub(A).

Infimum
If a lower bound of A succeeds every other lower bound of
A, then it is called the infimum or greatest lower bound of A
and is denoted by inf(A) or glb(A).
Ex. Find the lower and upper bounds of the subsets
{a, b, c}, {j, h} and {a, c, d, f} in the poset with the
given Hasse diagram.
Sol. For {a, b, c},
Upper bounds : e, f, j, h Lower bound : a
For {j, h}, No Upper bound.
Lower bounds : a, b, c, d, e, f
For {a, c, d, f}, h j

Upper bounds : f, h, j
Lower bound : a g f

d e

b c

a
⚫ Ex. Find glb and lub of {b, d, g}, if they exist, in the
poset.
Upper bounds of {b, d, g}= { g, h}
Since g ≺ h, g is the least upper bound
lub = {g}
Lower bounds of {b, d, g} = { a, b}
Since a≺b, b is the greatest lower bound.
h j
glb = {b}
g f

d e

b c

a
⚫ Ex. In the poset shown below , find upper bound, lub ,
lower bound and glb for A = {2, 3} and B ={4, 6}, if they
exist.
For A= {2, 3}
Upper Bound = {4, 5 , 7, 8}
lub = does not exists
Lower Bound = does not Exists
glb = does not exists
For B = {4, 6}
Upper Bound = {8}
lub = {8}
Lower Bound = {1, 3}
glb =does not exists
In the poset shown below , find upper bound, lub,
lower bound and glb for {a, b, c} if they exist

Upper Bound = {e, f , h, i}

lub ={e}
Lower Bound = {a}
glb ={a}
In the poset shown below , find upper bound, lub,
lower bound and glb for {i, h} if they exist.

Upper Bound = Does not exists

lub = Does not exists
Lower Bound ={a, b, c , d, e
f} glb = {f}
1. Draw the Hasse diagram representing the
partial ordering 𝑨,𝑩 ;𝑨 ⊆ 𝑩 on the power set
𝑷 𝑺 where 𝑺 = 𝒂 ,𝒃 ,𝒄 . Find the maximal,
minimal, greatest and least elements of the poset.

Solution :
Given 𝑺 = 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄

𝑷 𝑺
= ∅ , 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 , 𝒂 ,𝒃 , 𝒂 ,𝒄 , 𝒃 ,𝒄 , 𝒂 ,𝒃 ,𝒄
The Hasse diagram is given by

{a,b,c}

{a,b} {a,c} {b,c}

{a} {b} {c}

{φ}
1. The element 𝒂,𝒃,𝒄 does not precede
any element of the poset and hence it is
the only maximal element of the poset.

2. The element ∅ does not succeed any

element of the poset and hence it is the
only minimal element.
3. All th e elem ents of the poset are related
to 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 and precede it. Hence 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄
is the greatest element of the poset.

4. All the elements of the poset are related

to ∅ and succeed it. Hence ∅ is the
least element of the poset.
2. Let 𝑫𝟑𝟎 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 and the
relation 𝑹 be divisor on 𝑫 𝟑𝟎 . Find

(i) all the lower bounds of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓.

(ii) the 𝒈𝒍𝒃 of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓.
(iii) all upper bounds of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓.
(iv) the 𝒍𝒖𝒃 of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓.
(v) Draw the Hasse diagram.
Solution :

Given 𝑫𝟑𝟎 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎

The Hasse diagram is given by

30

6 10 15

2 3 5

1
(i) All th e lower bounds of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓 are 𝟏

and 𝟓.

(ii) The 𝒈𝒍𝒃 of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓 is 𝟓.

(iii) All the upper bounds of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓 is 𝟑𝟎.

(iv) The 𝒍𝒖𝒃 of 𝟏𝟎 and 𝟏𝟓 is 𝟑𝟎.

 Lattices as a poset

A partially ordered set 𝑳,≤ in which

every pair of elements has a least upper
bound and a greatest lower bound is called
a lattice.
The 𝑳𝑼𝑩 of a subset 𝒂, 𝒃 ⊆ 𝑳 is denoted by
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 and is called the join of 𝒂 and 𝒃.

The 𝐆𝐋𝐁 of a subset 𝒂, 𝒃 ⊆ 𝑳 is denoted by

𝒂 𝒃 is called the meet of 𝒂 and 𝒃.
3. Determine whether the poset
represented by the Hasse diagram given
below are lattices.
f

c d

a
Solution :
The poset represented by the Hasse
diagram is a lattice, since every pair of
elements of this poset have both least
upper bound and greatest lower bound.
 Lattice as Algebraic System

A lattice is an algebraic system 𝑳 ,∨ ,𝖠

with two binary operations ∨ and 𝖠 on 𝑳
which satisfy the commutative, associative
bsorption and Idempotent law.

Commutative Law :
For any 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑳, we have
(i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 = 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂
(ii) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 =b ∧ a
Associative Law :

For any 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄 ∈ 𝑳, we have

(i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒄
(ii) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 𝖠 𝒄 = 𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 𝖠 𝒄
Absorption Law :

For any 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑳, we have

(i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 = 𝒂
(ii) 𝒂 ∧ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 = 𝒂
And Idempotent law: a∧a=a and a ∨ a=a for all a
in L
 Distributive Lattice

A lattice 𝑳 ,∨ ,𝖠 is called a distributive

lattice, if for any element 𝒂 , 𝒃 , 𝒄∈ 𝑳

𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∨𝒄 = 𝒂 ∧𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∧𝒄

and 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∧𝒄 = 𝒂 ∨𝒃 𝖠 𝒂 ∨𝒄
 Bounded Lattice

A lattice 𝑳 is said to have a lower bound

denoted by 𝟎, if 𝟎 ≤ 𝒂 for all 𝒂 ∈ 𝑳.

Similarly, 𝑳 is said to have an upper bound

denoted by 𝟏, if 𝒂 ≤ 𝟏 for all 𝒂 ∈ 𝑳.

The lattice 𝑳 is said to be bounded lattice

if it has both a lower bound 𝟎 and an upper
bound 𝟏.
The bounds 𝟎 and 𝟏 of a lattice 𝑳 ,∨ ,𝖠 , 𝟎 , 𝟏
satisfy the following identities, which are seen
to be true by the meanings of ∨ and 𝖠.

For any 𝒂 ∈ 𝑳, 𝒂 ∨ 𝟏 = 𝟏 ; 𝒂 𝖠 𝟏 = 𝒂 and

𝒂 ∨𝟎=𝒂; 𝒂 𝖠𝟎=𝟎
Since, 𝒂 ∨ 𝟎 = 𝒂 and 𝒂 𝖠 𝟏 = 𝒂, 𝟎 is the identity
of the operation ∨ and 1 is the identity
element of the operation 𝖠.

Since, 𝒂 ∨ 𝟏 = 𝟏 and 𝒂 𝖠 𝟎 = 𝟎, 𝟏 and 𝟎 are the

zeros of the operations ∨ and 𝖠 respectively.
 Complement of an element

If 𝑳 ,∨ ,𝖠 , 𝟎 , 𝟏 is a bounded lattice and 𝒂 ∈ 𝑳, then

an element 𝒃 ∈ 𝑳 is called a complement of 𝒂 if

𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 = 𝟏 and 𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 = 𝟎.
Since 𝟎 ∨𝟏=𝟏 and 𝟎 𝖠 𝟏 = 𝟎 ,𝟎 and 𝟏 are
complements to each other.

When 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 = 𝟏, we know that 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 = 𝟏 and when

𝒂 𝖠𝒃=𝟎 , 𝒃 𝖠𝒂=𝟎 . Hence when 𝒃 is the
complement of 𝒂, then 𝒂 is the complement of 𝒃.
 Complemented Lattice

A lattice 𝑳 ,∨ ,𝖠 , 𝟎 , 𝟏 is called
a complemented lattice if every
element of 𝑳 has at least one
complement.
1. If 𝑺𝟒𝟐 is the set of all divisors of 𝟒𝟐 and 𝑫 is
the relation “divisor of ” on 𝑺𝟒𝟐 . Prove that
𝑺𝟒𝟐 , 𝑫 is a complemented lattice.

Solution :
𝑺𝟒𝟐 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟔 , 𝟕 , 𝟏𝟒 , 𝟐𝟏 , 𝟒𝟐
The Hasse diagram of 𝑺𝟒𝟐 is given by
42

6 14 21

2 3 7

1
The zero elemen t of the lattice is 𝟏 and
unit element of the lattice is 𝟒𝟐.

𝟏 ∨ 𝟒𝟐 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏 , 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟒𝟐 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟏 𝖠 𝟒𝟐 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏 , 𝟒𝟐 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟐 ∨ 𝟐𝟏 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐 , 𝟐𝟏 = 𝟒𝟐 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟐 𝖠 𝟐𝟏 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐 , 𝟐𝟏 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟑 ∨ 𝟏𝟒 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟒𝟐 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟑 𝖠 𝟏𝟒 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
𝟔 ∨ 𝟕 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟔 , 𝟕 = 𝟒𝟐 (≡ 𝟏)
𝟔 𝖠 𝟕 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟔 , 𝟕 = 𝟏 (≡ 𝟎)
Now 𝟏 ′ = 𝟒𝟐

𝟐 ′ = 𝟐𝟏

𝟑 ′ = 𝟏𝟒

𝟔′ = 𝟕

𝟕′ = 𝟔

𝟏𝟒′ = 𝟑

𝟐𝟏′ = 𝟐

𝟒𝟐′= 𝟏

Since every element of 𝑫𝟒𝟐 has a complement,

𝑺𝟒𝟐 , 𝑫 is a complemented lattice.

2. If 𝑫𝟒𝟓 denotes the set of all divisors of 𝟒𝟓 under
divisibility ordering, find which elemenets have
complements and which do not have
complements.

Solution :
𝑫𝟒𝟓 = 𝟏 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟗 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟒𝟓

The Hasse diagram of 𝑫𝟒𝟓 is given by

 45

9 15

3 5

The zero element of the lattice is 𝟏

and unit element of the lattice is 𝟒𝟓.
 Sub Lattice

A no n - em p ty subset 𝑴 of a l a tti ce {𝑳 ,∨ , ∧ } is called a

sublattice of 𝑳, iff 𝑴 is closed under both t h e operation ∨ and
∧.

(i. e) if 𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑴, t h e n 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑴 and 𝒂 ∧ 𝒃 ∈ 𝑴
Fro m t h e definition, i t is obvious t h a t t h e sub l a t ti ce itself
is a l a t t i c e with respect to ∨ and ∧.
If 𝑺𝒏 is the set of all divisors of the positive
integer 𝒏 and 𝑫 is the relation of „division‟
, prove that 𝑺𝟑𝟎 , 𝑫 is a lattic e. Find also
all the sub-lattices of 𝑺𝟑𝟎 , 𝑫 that c ontain
𝟔 or more elements.

Solution :
𝑺𝟑𝟎 = 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎

The Hasse diagram of 𝑺𝟑𝟎 is given by

 30

6 10 15

2 3 5

1
𝟐 ∨ 𝟑 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐 , 𝟑 = 𝟔
𝟐 ∧ 𝟑 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐 , 𝟑 = 𝟏
𝟏𝟎 ∨ 𝟏𝟓 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟏𝟎 ∧ 𝟏𝟓 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 = 𝟓
𝟑 ∨ 𝟏𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟑 ∧ 𝟏𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟑 , 𝟏𝟎 = 𝟏
𝟓 ∨ 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟓 ∧ 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 =𝟓
𝟐 ∨ 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑳𝑪𝑴 𝟐 , 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟑𝟎
𝟐 ∧ 𝟑𝟎 = 𝑮𝑪𝑫 𝟐 , 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟐
Similarly every pair of elem ents has LUB and
GLB.

Hence, 𝑺𝟑𝟎 , 𝑫 is a lattice.

The sub lattices of 𝑺𝟑𝟎 , 𝑫 containing 𝟔 elements
are 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 , 𝟏 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 ,

𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟑 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟑𝟎 , 𝟏 , 𝟑 , 𝟓 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎 ,

𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟓 , 𝟔 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟑𝟎 and 𝟏 , 𝟐 , 𝟓 , 𝟏𝟎 , 𝟏𝟓 , 𝟑𝟎
 Lattice Homomorphism

If 𝑳𝟏 ,∨ , ∧ and 𝑳𝟐,∨ ,∧ are two lattices, a

mapping 𝒇 ∶ 𝑳𝟏 → 𝑳𝟐 is called a lattic e
homomorphism from 𝑳𝟏 and 𝑳𝟐 if for any
𝒂 , 𝒃 ∈ 𝑳𝟏,

𝒇 𝒂 ∨𝒃 = 𝒇 𝒂 ∨𝒇𝒃

𝒇 𝒂 𝖠𝒃 =𝒇 𝒂 ∧ 𝒇𝒃
 Complete Lattice

A lattice (𝑳 ,∨ , ∧) is said to be complete

lattice if every non empty subset has a
least upper bound and a greatest lower
bound.
1. Give an example of a lattice that is not
complemented.

Ans : 𝑺𝟒𝟓 , | and 𝑺𝟕𝟓 , 𝑫 .

2. Give an example of a distributive lattice
but not complemented.

Ans : 𝟏 ,𝟐 ,𝟒 ,≤ .
3. Give an example of bounded lattice
which is distributive and
complemented.
Ans : 𝑷 𝑺 ,𝖴,∩ , 𝑫𝟕𝟎, | and 𝑺𝟒𝟐, 𝑫 .
 Boolean Algebra

A Lattice which is complemented and

distributive is called a Boolean Algebra.

Alternatively, Boolean Algebra can be

defined as follows:
 If B is a nonempty set with two binary
operations + and . , two distinct elements 0
and 1 and a unary operation ′ ,then B is
called a Boolean algebra if the following
properties hold.

For all 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 in B
𝑩𝟏 : Identity laws
𝒂+𝟎=𝒂
𝒂 .𝟏 = 𝒂
𝑩𝟐∶ Commutative laws

𝒂+𝒃 =𝒃+𝒂

𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒃. 𝒂

𝑩𝟑: Associative laws

𝒂+ 𝒃+𝒄 = 𝒂+𝒃 +𝒄

𝒂. 𝒃. 𝒄 = 𝒂. 𝒃 . 𝒄
𝑩𝟒: Distributive laws

𝒂 + 𝒃. 𝒄 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 . 𝒂 + 𝒄

𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒄 = 𝒂. 𝒃 + 𝒂. 𝒄

𝑩𝟓 : Complement laws

𝒂 + 𝒂′ = 𝟏

𝒂. 𝒂′ = 𝟎
Note :
1. In Boolean algebra, we use the operation + and .

Instead of ∨ (join) and ∧ (meet).

Boolean algebra listed in the definitions.

1. Idempotent law :

𝒂 + 𝒂 = 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂. 𝒂 = 𝒂 for all 𝐚 ∈ 𝑩

2. Dominance law :

𝒂 + 𝟏 = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂. 𝟎 = 𝟎 for all 𝐚 ∈ 𝑩

3. Absorption law :

𝒂. 𝒂 + 𝒃 = 𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒂 + 𝒂. 𝒃 = 𝒂 ∀ 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩
4. Demorgan‟s law :

𝒂 + 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ . 𝒃′

𝒂. 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂′ + 𝒃′ ∀ 𝒂, 𝒃 ∈ 𝑩

5. Double complement or Involution law :

(𝒂′)′ = 𝒂 for all 𝒂 ∈ 𝑩

6. Zero and one law :

(𝟎)′ = 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 (𝟏)′ = 𝟎

1. Prove that Demorgan‟s law hold good for a
complemented distributive lattice 𝑳, 𝖠, ∨ .

(i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂 ′ 𝖠 𝒃 ′ and (ii) 𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂 ′ ∨ 𝒃 ′ .

Proof : (i) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂 ′ 𝖠 𝒃 ′
𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ 𝖠 𝒃′

= 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ 𝖠 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′
[By Distributive law]

= 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ 𝖠 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′
[By Commutative law]
 = 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ 𝖠 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′

[By Associative law]

= 𝒃 ∨𝟏 𝖠 𝒂 ∨𝟏

[By complement law]

= 𝟏 𝖠𝟏 [By dominance law]

=𝟏 [By Idempotent law]

(i. e) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ′ 𝖠 𝒃 ′ = 𝟏 … … . (1)
Now, 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 𝖠 𝒂′ 𝖠 𝒃′
= 𝒂 𝖠 𝒂′ 𝖠 𝒃′ ∨ 𝒃 𝖠 𝒂′ 𝖠 𝒃′
[By Distributive law]
= 𝒂 𝖠 𝒂′ 𝖠 𝒃′ ∨ 𝒃 𝖠 𝒃′ 𝖠 𝒂′
[By Commutative law]
= 𝒂 𝖠 𝒂′ 𝖠 𝒃′ ∨ 𝒃 𝖠 𝒃′ 𝖠 𝒂′
[ By Associative law]

= 𝟎 𝖠 𝒃 ′ ∨ 𝟎 𝖠 𝒂 ′ [By Complement law]

 = 𝟎 ∨𝟎 [By Dominance law]

=𝟎 [By Idempotent law]

(i. e) 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 𝖠 𝒂 ′ 𝖠 𝒃 ′ = 𝟎 … … … … (2)

From (1) and (2), we have 𝒂 ′ 𝖠 𝒃 ′ is the

complement of 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃

Hence, 𝒂 ∨ 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂 ′ 𝖠 𝒃 ′ .
(ii) 𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂 ′ ∨ 𝒃 ′
𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′

= 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ 𝖠 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′

[By Distributive law]

= 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ 𝖠 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′ ∨ 𝒂′

[By Commutative law]

= 𝒂 ∨ 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′ 𝖠 𝒃 ∨ 𝒃′ ∨ 𝒂′

[By Associative law]

 = 𝟏 ∨ 𝒃′ 𝖠 𝟏 ∨ 𝒂′
[By complement law]
= 𝟏 𝖠𝟏 [By dominance law]
=𝟏 [By Idempotent law]
(i.e) 𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 ∨ 𝒂 ′ ∨ 𝒃 ′ = 𝟏 … … . (3)
Now
𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 𝖠 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒃′

= 𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 𝖠 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 𝖠 𝒃′
[By Distributive law]
= 𝒃 𝖠 𝒂 𝖠 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 𝖠 𝒃′

[By Commutative law]

= 𝒃 𝖠 𝒂 𝖠 𝒂′ ∨ 𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 𝖠 𝒃′

[By Associative law]

= 𝒃 𝖠𝟎 ∨ 𝒂 𝖠𝟎

[By Complement law]

=𝟎∨𝟎

[By Dominance law]

 =𝟎 [By Idempotent law]

(i. e) 𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 𝖠 𝒂 ′ ∨ 𝒃 ′ = 𝟎 … … … … (4)

From (3) and (4), we have 𝒂 ′ ∨ 𝒃 ′ is the

complement of 𝒂 𝖠 𝒃

Hence, 𝒂 𝖠 𝒃 ′ = 𝒂 ′ ∨ 𝒃 ′ .
1. Simplify the Boolean expression 𝒙+𝒚 ′ 𝒙𝒚 ′ .

Solution :

𝒙+𝒚 ′ 𝒙 𝒚 ′ = 𝒙′. 𝒚′ . 𝒙′ + 𝒚′

[By Demorgan‟s law]

= 𝒙′ . 𝒚′ . 𝒙′ + 𝒙′ . 𝒚′ . 𝒚′

[By Distributive law]

= 𝒙′ . 𝒚′ + 𝒙′ . 𝒚′

[By Idempotent law]

= 𝒙′. 𝒚′ [By Idempotent law]

2. Simplify the Boolean expression
𝒂 ′ . 𝒃 ′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂 . 𝒃 ′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂 ′ . 𝒃 ′ . 𝒄 ′ using Boolean identities.

Solution :

𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂 . 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄′

= 𝒂 ′ + 𝒂 . 𝒃 ′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂 ′ . 𝒃 ′ . 𝒄 ′ [By distributive law]

= 𝒂 + 𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄′ + 𝒂′ . 𝒃′ . 𝒄′ [By Commutative law]

= 𝟏. 𝒃 ′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂 ′ . 𝒃 ′ . 𝒄 ′ [By Complement law]

= 𝒃 ′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂 ′ . 𝒃 ′ . 𝒄 ′ [By Identity law]

= 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒃′ . 𝒂′ . 𝒄′ [By Commutative law]

= 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂′ . 𝒄′ [By distributive law]

= 𝒃 ′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂 ′ . 𝒄 + 𝒄 ′ [By distributive law]

= 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒂′ . 𝟏 [By Complement law]

= 𝒃′ . 𝒄 + 𝒃′ . 𝒂′

[By Identity law and Distributive law]

= 𝒂′. 𝒃′ + 𝒃′. 𝒄 [By Commutative law]

 442 DISCRETE MATHEMATICS
a
It follows that = ä2, which contradictsthe assumption that clement has two differentcomple_
ments. Hence, each element in Boolean algebra has a unique complement.
VTheorem (IdempotenLaw) 13.3 (i) a + a (ii) a •a = a
Proof (i) We can write
RHS [Identity]
[Complement lawl
[Distributive lawl
- LHS [Complement
lawl
(ii) RHS
[Complement lawl
[Distributive lawl
LHS [Complement lawl

eorem (Identity Law) 13.4 (i) a + I = 1 (ii) a 0

Proof (i) Since RHS [Complement lawl

[Distributive lawl
RHS [Complement lawl

(ii) LHS
[Since a • ä = 01
[Distributive lawl

eorem (InvolutionLaw) 13.5 (i) (ä) (ii) — (iii) =I

Proof (i) Sincea + ä l, a • ä = 0, therefore,a is the complementof ä and hencea =
(ii) Since I +0 = l, 1.0 = 0, therefore,0 is the complementof I and hence 0 = i.
(iii) As above, 0 is complement of l, i.e. 0 = (T) 1.

eorem (DeMorgan'sLaw) 13.6 (a) (a + b) = or (a v b)' = a' A b' and (b) (a •b)
=

Proof (a) By definition, an element is called the complement of x in Boolean algebnlprovided

x+ = I and x • =0
To prove these results we have to show that (ä • D) is the complement of (a + b).
[Distributive

[Associative
I
[Complement
I
[Identity
- 1-1
 DISCRETE MAIIAEMATICS
Il
Examplo 11 Prove that [ {(Fnj') u z} n (x u z)]
[{(Fnj)uz} u (x u z) J
Solution I-IIS

[since n j
Example 12 Simplify. [(x u j; ) n (x nj;n i)]
Solution (x or ) u (xn fnz)

Example 13 Simplify the Boolean expression:

Solution have,
[Distributive law)
[Since ä a = 0]
[Associative law)
[Distributive law)
[Since x + = Il
[Since I •a = al
[Since I + z = Il
Example14 Using properties of Boolean algebra, prove that for each x in a Boolean algebra,if
x + y = I and x •y 0, theny = F.
Solution We have,
[Since x = x = 01
[Since x x = 0 (given))
[Distributive law)
[Since x + =
[Since x + y = I (given))
[Commutative law]
[Distributive lawl
[Since x • = 01
ample 15 Simplify the Boolean expression:

Solution We have,

[DeMogran's lawl

[Since (f) =
(x + z) • (x + 57) [Since (a + b) • (a + c) = a + b •c))