Lecture Notes on

FORENSIC BALLISTICS

I. INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

The term ballistics evolved from two ancient words: ‘ballista’ and ‘ballein’. Ballista was the
description of a huge catapult (an ancient military weapon) used by the Romans to hurl large
stones at a particular distance to kill animals or to fight their enemies. Ballistics basically
means an activity that involves throwing.

In a technical sense, ballistics is the science of the motion of projectiles from the moment of
firing until impact at the target. It covers the scientific study of the propulsion (driving force),
flight, and impact (destructive action) of projectiles.

A. BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

1. Internal ballistics, also called initial ballistics deals with the motion of a projectile while it is
still inside the gun. It is the study focused on what happens inside the gun during firing.

2. Transitional ballistics, also known as intermediate ballistics, is the study of a projectile's

behavior from the time it leaves the muzzle until the pressure behind the projectile is equalized.
Therefore, it lies between internal ballistics and external ballistics.

3. External ballistics deals with the motion of the projectile from the time it escapes from the
gun muzzle until it reaches the target. It is the study of what happens during the bullet's flight.

4. Terminal ballistics deals with the effect of the projectile on the target. It is the study of what
happens when the projectile strikes the target.

Another significant area of ballistics is wound ballistics. Closely associated with terminal
ballistics, wound ballistics is however primarily concerned with the nature and medical
implications of physical injury and shock caused by bullets and explosively driven fragments.

Forensic ballistics is the more important area of this science in relation to police works. It is the
application of ballistics principles to legal matters. Forensic ballistics embodies the principles of
internal, transitional, external, and terminal ballistics.

B. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

1. PROJECTILE - an object that can be fired or launched, such as bullet, artillery shell, or rocket;
could be a metallic or non-metallic object propelled from a firearm.

2. FIREARM - basically termed as a gun; a portable weapon such as pistol or rifle that discharges
ammunition; technically, it is a weapon consisting essentially of a metal tube that fires a
projectile by using the force of an explosive propellant; a firearm is an instrument used for the
propulsion of projectiles by means of the expansive force of gases coming from burning
gunpowder.
 Legally speaking, firearms or arms include rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, pistols,
revolvers, and other deadly weapons from which bullets, balls, shots, shells, or other
missiles maybe discharged by means of gunpowder or other explosives. This term also
includes air rifles except those of small caliber and of limited range that are used as toys.
The barrel of any firearm is considered a complete firearm for all purposes under the
law.

3. AMMUNITION - general term applied to metallic cartridges and shot shells used in firearms;
any unfired assembly of primer, powder and ball which might be used in a firearm.

Legally speaking, ammunition refers to any loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbines,
shotguns, revolvers, and pistols, from which a bullet, ball, shot, shell, or other missile
may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosive. The term also includes
ammunition for air rifles, except those that are loaded in toy rifles that have small caliber
and limited range.

4. PROPELLANT - an explosive charge that projects a bullet from a gun; the gunpowder loaded in
a cartridge or shotgun shell which, when ignited by the primer flash, is converted to gas under
high pressure and launches a projectile through the barrel and on to the target

5. RIFLING - spiral lands and grooves found at the bore of the gun barrel

C. INTERNAL BALLISTICS

Since internal ballisticians are interested on what is happening inside the gun during firing, their
analysis is directed on the following phenomena:

1. How the firing pin hits the primer

2. Ignition of the priming mixture
3. Combustion of the gunpowder/propellant
4. Expansion of heated gases
5. Development of pressure – generation of energy
6. Recoil
7. Velocity of the bullet in the barrel
8. Rotation of the bullet in the barrel
9. Engraving of the bullet’s surface

D. EXTERNAL BALLISTICS

Trajectory, velocity and range of projectiles are the more important ballistics phenomena studied
by exterior ballisticians. More significant factors that affect these external ballistics phenomena
are as follows:

1. Interior ballistics data such as: shape of projectile, caliber of the projectile, projectile weight,
and rotation of bullet
2. Initial velocity (IV) which also called muzzle velocity
3. Air resistance also called drag
4. Drift
5. Projectile stability
 6. Gravitational pull

TRAJECTORY refers to the curved path of projectile from the moment it leaves the gun muzzle
until it hits the target. Galileo claimed that trajectory of projectile is like a parabola however this
is true only in a vacuum.

DRIFT significantly affects the normal trajectory of projectiles. It refers to the lateral deviation of
the bullet’s trajectory from the vertical plane through the axis of the bore caused by the rotation
of the projectile.

RANGE simply refers to the linear distance between the gun muzzle and the target. In exterior
ballistics, the two types of range discussed are:

1. Accurate range - also called maximum effective range; the distance within which the shooter has
control of his shots such that he can place his bullets at the desired specific spots.

2. Maximum range - also called absolute maximum range; the farthest distance that a projectile can
be propelled from a firearm

AIR RESISTANCE (drag) is the force that opposes the forward motion of projectiles.

E. TERMINAL BALLISTICS

Terminal ballisticians are involved in studying these phenomena:

1. Terminal penetration - the depth of bullet penetration on the target

2. Terminal energy - the striking power/force of the projectile when its strikes the target.
3. Terminal velocity - the speed of the projectile when it strikes the target
4. Terminal accuracy - the size of the bullet group on the target

When a projectile hits its target, terminal ballistics phenomenon that occurs may be one or a
combination of the following:

1. Indentation
2. Penetration
3. Perforation
4. Ricochet
5. Fragmentation
6. Detonation and other related blast phenomena
7. Combustion and incendiary effects

II. FIREARMS

A. HISTORY

The first firearms that were developed were small arms in the form of miniature artillery
weapons and were at first called hand cannons. These are classified as follows.

1.FIRELOCK - a simple, smooth-bore tube of iron, closed at the breech end except for an opening
called a touchhole. It was set into a rounded piece of wood for holding under the arm.
 2. MATCHLOCK - essentially the same as the firelock, except that the slow match was clamped in
the top of a device called serpentine - an S-shaped piece of metal pivoted in the center.

3. WHEEL-LOCK - has improved firing mechanism compared to firelock and matchlock; the
firing mechanism consisted of a spring-driven wheel.

4. FLINTLOCK - the final development of the flint-ignition firearm. It resembled the snaphance,
except that the striker plate was L-shaped. The bottom limb of the L was used as a cover for
the priming pan, to protect the powder from moisture until the upper limb was struck by the
flint of the hammer.

In 1807, the Scottish clergyman named Alexander John Forsyth invented the percussion-
ignition system that led to the development of the first effective breech-loading firearms.
Breech-loading firearms are those loaded through the rear of the barrel rather than through
the muzzle. The first 19th-century breech-loading guns used cartridge containing only
black powder and a ball. Such weapons was usually equipped with a nipple holding a
percussion cap that was fired by the impact of the hammer (or striker) when released by the
trigger.

During the early 20th century, before World War I, rifles were invented that used the forces
of recoil or the pressure of the propellant gases to operate the reloading mechanism. Some
of these improved weapons fed with continuous belts of cartridges were called machine
guns. The first known true machinegun was the Maxim gun developed by an American
inventor named Hiram Stevens Maxim.

The earlier versions of automatic rifles are called semiautomatic because they reload and
re-cock automatically after each shot, and require release and another pull of the trigger to
fire each succeeding shot. One of the more popular semiautomatic rifles that were used
during the 2nd World War was the caliber 30 M1 Garand rifle developed by John C. Garand.
This rifle was officially adopted by the US military in January 9, 1936 as the first automatic
rifle to be the standard infantry arm of a major army.

It was during the 2nd World War that military troops such as artillerymen, engineers, and
signalmen were armed with the M1 Carbine. The first known carbine was developed by
David Williams a.k.a Carbine. M1 Carbine was considerably lighter and has shorter range
compared to rifle thus it is more suited to occasional use for defense.

In 1957, the M14 rifle was adopted by the US Army to replace the M1 carbine. The M16
rifle, which permits full- or semi-automatic fire, was introduced in 1966, during the
Vietnam War.

B. CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS

According to the caliber of projectiles propelled, the two main types of firearms are artillery and
small arms.
 1. Artillery - firearms that propel projectiles with diameter of more than one inch; large-
caliber guns such as mortars, bazookas and howitzers, including cannons.

2. Small arms - portable weapons that developed from artillery and cannons; this group
usually includes rifles, carbines, muskets, shotguns, revolvers, pistols, and submachine guns

Another way to classify firearms is according to gun barrel internal construction. Basing on
interior construction of the barrel, the two general types of firearms are:

1. Smooth-bore firearms (or simply smoothbores)

2. Rifled-bore guns (or simply rifled guns/firearms)

Smoothbores are those that do not have rifling inside their barrels. The interior surface of their
bore is smooth from end to end. On the other hand, rifled guns are those that have spiral lands
and grooves at the bore (interior surface of their barrel). Almost all modern pistols, revolvers and
rifles have rifling while most muskets and shotguns do not have.

Small arms maybe classified according to barrel length. Small arms could either have long or
short barrels. Long-barreled weapons are designed for long-range shooting while short-barreled
guns are accurate only at relatively short ranges. All shoulder firearms and high-caliber
machineguns fall under long-barreled weapons. On the other hand, pistols, revolvers and
submachine guns are classified as short-barreled weapons.

Small arms can be categorized also according to general use and design. Based on this, small arms
can be classified as handguns, shoulder firearms, machine guns, and sub-machine guns.

Another basis in classifying small arms is the mechanical construction of the loading and firing
mechanism. The types of firearms according to mechanical construction are as follows:

1. Single-shot firearms: These are guns designed to fire only one shot for every loading.

2. Bolt-action type: Firearms of this type are usually classified also as single-shot types.
Reloading is done by manual manipulation of the bolt.

3. Repeating firearms: These are weapons that are capable of firing several shots in one
loading since they are equipped with semi-automatic firing mechanism.

4. Automatic-loading type: These are rapid-fire weapons since they are equipped with full-
automatic firing mechanism. After the first shot, the chamber is automatically fed with new
cartridge.

5. Slide-action type: Firearms of this type are capable of feeding the chamber by the
backward-forward manipulation of the gun’s fore-end.

6. Lever-type: The loading takes place by applying lever action gun’s stock. This group of
firearms is also called break-type.

From the very start, handguns were designed as compact weapons for self-defense. There are two
general groups of handguns:
 1. revolvers
2. pistols

Pistols refer to small portable firearm that can be held, aimed, and fired with one hand. They have
a short barrel (not longer than one foot) with a lock-and-load firing mechanism at the breech area.

One way to classify revolver is according to mechanical firing action. Based on this, revolvers can
be classified as:

1. Single-action type - revolvers that need manual cocking of the hammer before squeezing the
trigger
2. Double-action type – the type that does not need manual cocking; pressing the trigger both
cocks and releases the hammer causing a more rapid manner of firing

Shoulder firearms are those normally fired at shoulder level using both hands. This group of
firearms includes the following:

1. Muskets
2. Rifles
3. Carbines
4. Shotguns

C. PARTS OF FIREARMS

The 4 basic mechanisms of firearm:

1. BARREL MECHANISM:

This firearm mechanism is primarily composed of a metallic tube that initiates the path of the
bullet. It includes the front sign, flash suppressor and other attachments. The interior surface
of the barrel may be smooth or rifled. Revolvers, pistols, rifles, machine guns and submachine
guns have rifled barrels while common shotguns have smooth-bore barrels.

2. CHAMBER:

This is a widened hole at the breech end of the barrel. The chamber serves to contain the
cartridge while it is properly positioned for firing.

3. BREECH MECHANISM:

This mechanism closes the rear end of the barrel, holding the cartridge in the chamber. All
modern small arms have some way by which the breech can be opened for loading and locked
for safety. Most small arms usually have a metal cylinder called bolt that is locked when the
gun is fired. This is drawn back to eject the empty cartridge case and to reload.

4. FIRING MECHANISM:

In most firearms, the firing mechanism consists mainly of the firing pin, hammer, sear, and
trigger. For hammerless firearms, a spring drives the firing pin through the breech bolt against
the primer of the cartridge. The firing pin is cocked (drawn back) against a hook called the
sear. When the trigger is pulled, the sear releases the firing pin, which in turn strikes the
primer. Some machineguns have firing mechanism activated by a small amount of electricity.
 Functions of the standard parts of common firearms:

Part Description/Purpose
Action - the main operating mechanism of a firearm that loads, fires, and ejects the
cartridge
Barrel - gives direction to the bullet; the part of the gun that initiates the path of the
bullet
Breech - the part of the barrel at the opposite end of the muzzle
Breech-block - also known as the bolt, it is the steel block that closes the breech against the
force of the charge during firing; the face of this block which comes in
contact with the base of the cartridge is the breech-face
Butt - the part of the stock which is held against the shoulder to stabilize the gun
during firing (for rifles and shotguns)
Chamber - the part of the bore into which a cartridge is placed; the enlarged space at
the breech of the barrel where the cartridge is fed
Choke - the constriction in smoothbore barrels designed to cause the shot to leave
the bore in a more dense pattern and retain this pattern for longer range
Cylinder - the part of the revolver that serves as the magazine as well as chamber for
cartridges
Ejector - the mechanism that throws the empty shell (cartridge case) from the
firearm
Extractor - the mechanism that pulls the empty shell from the chamber
Forearm - also called for-end; the part of the stock under the barrel held by one hand
of the shooter to maintain proper balance of the gun while firing
Frame - also called receiver, the part of the gun that houses the internal parts; the
body of a firearm to which the barrel, stock, pistol grip, sights, etc. are fixed
and within which lies the firing and breech mechanism
Grip - the smaller part of the stock behind the trigger guard (for rifles and
shotguns); the part of the gun firmly held the shooter thus stabilizing the
aim while squeezing the trigger;
Hammer - the part of the firing mechanism in revolvers and some pistol that is
released by the sear or the main spring once the trigger is pressed; it strikes
the firing pin causing the pin to move forward and hit the primer
Magazine - a device for storing cartridges in a repeating firearm for loading into the
chamber
Main spring - the spring in a pistol or revolver which propels the hammer
Muzzle - the end of the front end of the barrel where the bullet or pellet exits
Front sight - the fixed sight on top of the barrel near the muzzle used to aim the gun at
the target
Rear sight - the sight found at the top of the breech area; this sight can be moved to
change where the bullet will hit
Recoil spring - the spring in automatic or self-loading weapons which returns the bolt or
breech block after recoil; sometimes known as the return spring
Trigger - the part of the gun that initiates the action when the shooter is ready to fire
his weapon
Trigger Guard - the safety device designed to protect the trigger from accidental bumping or
pressing that may result to accidental firing
Safety - the gun mechanism that prevents the firearm from firing; it may be a
button, moveable pin, lever, thumb hammer or sliding plate
Note: A hard blow or dropping the firearm could still cause it to fire. Always
 have your safety on until ready to shoot.
Sear - the part of the firing mechanism, linked to the trigger, which engages with
the hammer or striker against spring pressure and, when pulled clear by
trigger action, allows firing
Stock - the wooden, plastic, or metal frame that holds the barrel and action; used
to get and keep the aim of the shooter; it helps in absorbing the recoil when
firing
Striker - alternative term for the firing pin when that firing pin is axially mounted
and spring propelled inside the bolt

III. AMMUNITION

Technically, the term cartridge is used to describe a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet,
cartridge case, propellant (gun powder), and primer. Ammunition for large caliber guns (such
as artillery) is called shell, ammunition for rifles and handguns is usually called cartridge.

Parts of Standard Ammunition for Small Arms:

1. Bullet - also called slug; the projectile propelled from a firearm by means of the expansive force
of gases coming from burning gunpowder.

2. Cartridge Case - also called shell; is the tubular metallic container for the gunpowder.

3. Propellant - the powder charge intended to be burned thus generating an energy that will
launch the bullet.

4. Primer - also called percussion; composed of the metal cup and priming mixture which is
highly sensitive.

The other specific parts of a cased center-fire cartridge are as follows:

1. Head stamp
2. Primer cup
3. Priming mixture
4. Anvil
5. Flash hole – vent
6. Rim
7. Extractor groove – true only to pistol and rifle cartridges
8. Brass case
9. Shoulder – true only to rifle cartridges
10. Neck – true only to rifle cartridges
11. Crimp
12. Cannelure – lubricant grooves
13. Metal jacket
14. Lead core
15. Nose / tip

General Types of Ammunition:

 1. Dummy - a carefully made replica of a cartridge, usually made of steel and discreetly
dimensioned to be used by weapons instructors, inspectors and repairmen when checking if
weapons are functional.

2. Drill ammo - completely inert and without an explosive propellant; used in military training to
practice loading and manipulation of firearms.

3. Blank ammo - a cartridge without a bullet; may contain gunpowder and priming mixture thus
designed to produce gunshot to indicate firing; used for theatrical performance and military
training.

4. Live ammo - the real ammunition since it is composed of a complete unit of unfired cartridge.

Classification of cartridges according to location of primer:

1. Pin-fire cartridge

2. Rim-fire cartridge

3. Center-fire cartridge - This is the type of cartridge mostly used today. The primer cup is
centrally placed at the base of the cartridge. The priming mixture is exploded by the impact of
the firing on the primer cup which is supported by the anvil.

Some books mention two other early types of cartridges under this category: the tit-fire cartridge
and tail-fire cartridge. Just like needle-fire cartridge, these are no longer manufactured today.

Classification of Cartridges according to Rim:

1. Rimmed cartridge

2. Semi-rimmed cartridge

3. Rimless cartridge

4. Rebated cartridge

5. Belted cartridge

Classification of Cartridges according to Power:

1. Low-power cartridge - fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity of less than 1,850 fps.

2. High-power cartridge - fires a projectile with a muzzle velocity bet’n 1,925 & 2,500 fps.

3. High-intensity cartridge - has muzzle velocity of more than 2,500 fps.

CARTRIDGE CASE for small arms ammunition is also called shell and casing. The cartridge case of
center-fire ammunition has three important functions, which are as follows:
 1. to hold the bullet, gunpowder and primer thus assembling them as one unit;

2. to serve as waterproof container for the gunpowder; and

3. to act as ‘gas seal’ at the breech end of the barrel during firing.

Standard cartridges of center-fire ammunitions have a shell that is usually made of brass - 70%
copper and 30% zinc. Some other special cartridges are coated with of plastic varnish, zinc, copper
or tungsten. Some are made of plastic and hard paper, such as the tubes for shotgun shell.

Types of Cartridge Case according to Shape:

1. Straight case - true to pistol and revolver ammunition; the casing of all rimmed-cartridges for
revolvers and all center-fire pistol ammo that are now manufactured.

2. Bottleneck case - always true to rifle ammunition; the casing of most modern center-fire rifle
ammo; the type of shell that provides the greatest power capacity commensurate with over-
all case length.

3. Tapered case - an obsolete type; very rare but presently being used in magnum jet cartridge
of caliber .22 firearms.

PRIMER of center-fire cartridges refers to a small metallic ignition cup at the center of the
cartridge base. The primer is designed in such manner that once the priming mixture is
compressed, it undergoes rapid combustion thus producing flame or sparks to ignite the
propellant loaded in the cartridge case. Parts of the primer are:

1. Primer cup - the container of the priming mixture; composed of brass and copper or any
other gilding metal.

2. Anvil - a thin but rigid metal strip where the priming mixture is crushed once the firing pin
strikes the primer cup.

3. Primer pocket - the space at the center bottom of the shell where the primer cup, priming
mixture and anvil occupy.

4. Disc - small piece of paper or disc of tin foil which is pressed over the priming mixture.

5. Priming mixture - the chemical component of the primer.

Types of Primer:

1. Berdan type - the European type invented by Hiram Berdan; the anvil, which is actually a
part of the cartridge case, is sticking out from the center of two or three flash holes.

2. Boxer primer - the American type which is also called separate anvil type.

The GUNPOWDER is a chemical substance of varied compositions, sizes, shapes, and colors that
function as propellant. Although it burns rapidly upon ignition, it is classified as low-explosive
mixture. There are two main types of gunpowder: the black powder and the so-called smokeless
powder. Almost all modern guns use smokeless powder.
Gunpowder serves as the source of energy to propel a projectile. Once it is burned in a confined
place, it produces large volume of heated gasses that expand thus generating energy capable of
pushing through the gun barrel and launched it to fly towards a target.

Most historians agree that it was the Chinese alchemists who first developed the black powder
sometime in the 9th century during the Han Dynasty. The formula for black powder first appeared
in the writings of the 13th-century English monk Roger Bacon.

Berthold Schwarz, a German monk of the early 14th century whose real name is Constantin
Anklitzen, may have been the first person to employ gunpowder for propelling a projectile.

Black powder can be prepared following this optimum proportion:

1. 11.85% sulfur: This is main fuel component of the gun powder.

2. 74.64% saltpeter: Scientifically known as KNO 3 (potassium nitrate), saltpeter provides

oxygen to the reaction.

3. 13.51% carbon

In 1886, Paul Vieille in France developed the first smokeless gunpowder called Poudre B. In 1887,
Alfred Nobel also developed smokeless gunpowder which he called ‘ballistite’. Nobel’s gun powder
is composed of 40% nitroglycerine and 60% nitrocellulose, a powder easier to handle and more
powerful than Poudre B.

The term smokeless powder is a misnomer for this propellant is neither a powder nor smokeless.
Most smokeless powder used as propellant appears as flakes. When they are burned, they produce
smoke but not as many compared to huge cloud of white smoke produced by black powder.

The 4 Main Classes of Propellants:

1. Single-based propellant: This is composed of pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with

nitrocellulose.

2. Double-based propellant: This type is composed of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin mixed

with any or all of the following minor ingredients: centralite, vaseline phathalate esters, and
inorganic salts. This type appears as gray-green to black in color and the grains are similar
in size and shape to single-based propellant.

3. Triple-based propellant: This is composed of three principal ingredients, which are

nitrocellulose, nitroglycerine, and nitroguanidine. This type of propellant was developed in
attempting to compromise the low-power sing-based propellant and high-power but
excessive heat of double base powders. Triple-based propellant contains small percentage
of nitroglycerin but sufficient to provide added power.

4. HIT (high-ignition temperature) Propellant: The main ingredient of this class of propellant
is the RDX (cyclonite) group of high explosives.

The BULLET is a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by means
of the expansive force of gasses coming from burning gunpowder.
 One of the more important developments in the history of the rifle bullet occurred in 1883, when a
Swiss military major named Eduard Alexander Rubin invented the small-caliber rifle, one of
whose essential features was the employment of an elongated compound bullet, with a lead core in
a copper jacket.

IV. FIREARM CHARACTERISTICS

A. CLASS CHARACTERISTICS

Firearm class characteristics refer to intentional or design characteristics that are common to a
particular group or family of firearms. These are characteristics that can be determined even
before the firearm is manufactured.

The following are class characteristics of firearms that can be determined in fired bullets:

1. Bore diameter

2. Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the firearm

Rifling pattern contained in the barrel of the firearm consist of the following items.

1. Number of lands and grooves: The lands are the elevated portions in the bore surface while the
grooves are the canals or depressed areas. The number of lands present in the bore is always
equal to the number of grooves. The number may range from 2 to 22 but usually 4 to 6.

2. Width of lands and grooves: In all kinds of rifling patterns, the grooves are always wider than
the lands.

3. Depth of grooves: This depth is equal to the height of the lands just after the gun is
manufactured but it becomes shallower as the firearm is used. It is measured in thousands of
an inch or in millimeters.

4. Direction of twist: Rifling either twist to the right or to the left. The direction initiates the
bearing of the gyroscopic action of the projectile that passes through the bore.

5. Pitch of rifling: This is also called degree of rifling twist. It simply refers to the distance
(measured either in inches or centimeters) traveled by the lands and grooves to complete a
single rotation (360 degrees).

Small arms can be identified according to rifling class characteristics, otherwise called rifling pattern.
There are seven basic types of rifling pattern for small arms. Their class characteristics are as follows:

1. Steyr type - 4RG=L (or 4GLRHT) meaning there are 4 lands and grooves with equal width that
twist to the right direction.

2. Carbine type - 4RG2X, which means there are 4 lands and grooves that twist to the right but
the grooves are twice wider than the lands.

3. Smith & Wesson type - 5RG=L (five lands and grooves with equal width that twist to the right
direction).
4. Browning type - 6RG2X (six lands and grooves, right hand twist, grooves twice wider than
lands)

5. Colt type - 6LG2X (6 lands and grooves twist to the left direction and that grooves are twice
wider than the lands).

6. Winchester type - 6RG3X (six lands and grooves twist to the right, groove width is three times
wider than the land).

7. Webley type - 7RG3X (seven lands and grooves with right twist, grooves are three times wider
than the lands).

B. INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FIREARMS

Firearm individual characteristics refer to those characteristics of firearms that can be determined
only after a gun is manufactured. For firearm examiners, individual characteristics are marks
produced by the random imperfections or irregularities of tool surfaces. These random
imperfections or irregularities are unique in every firearm.

Specifically, sources of individual characteristics of firearms are the following:

1. Wear and tear of the tools used in manufacturing the firearm

2. Corrosion or oxidation effect on the metallic surface of firearm components
3. Wear and tear due to normal use
4. Damage due to improper operation and handling/caring

C. MAKING THE GUN BARREL

Gun barrels are made of solid steel. There are 2 classes of steel currently used in making gun
barrels: chrome molybdenum steel and stainless steel. Chrome molybdenum steel is mostly used
in hunting rifles and military firearms.
Firearm examiners must be sufficiently acquainted with the principal steps in making the gun
barrel. Knowledge on this matter enables them to explain the source of cause of marks found on
bullets. Manufacturing the gun barrel involves four stages, which are as follows:
1. DRILLING: This is the process of making a hole from one end to another end through the
center of a steel rod. The result of this stage is a rough hole with almost uniform diameter from
end to end of the barrel.

2. REAMING: This stage involves the process of cleaning or uniformly scrapping the interior
surface of the barrel to achieve the desired bore diameter. The reaming instrument removes
the metal from the entire surface because its diameter is slightly larger than the driller.

3. RIFLING: This stage is the process necessary for making the helical grooves inside the barrel.
This stage produces a barrel with lands and grooves at the interior surface. There are four
types of rifling technique being used today:

1. Button Rifling. - Button rifling is a cold forming process that swages rifling in the
barrel with a carbide tool that has grooves in a specific dimension and twist rate. Button
 rifling is a single pass operation, where the button is pushed or pulled at a controlled
rate through the bore of a barrel blank, resulting in the desired lands and grooves.

2. Single Point Cut Rifling. - Also referred to as Hook Rifling, this is a metal cutting
process that uses a carbide "hook" to cut a single groove in the barrel. The process
requires several passes to cut the groove to its final depth. The tool cuts one of the
grooves, indexes, then cuts the next groove and indexes again until the desired number
of grooves have been cut. The hook is advanced out or deeper via a wedge type system,
and the process is repeated. The whole cycle may include many passes to achieve the
final depth of the groove in a barrel.

3. Broach Rifling. - Broach rifling is a metal cutting process that uses a long tool with
multiple teeth that take small amounts of material out of each groove. The broach is fed
down the barrel with a rotation that matches the twist ground in the tool, with each
progressive tooth increasing the depth of cut. This is a similar process to single point cut
rifling, but only requires a single pass. It can be done on a similar machine to that of
button rifling.

4. Hammer Forging. - The cold hammer forging process pushes an oversized metal tube
over a hardened mandrel, which has the negative of the grooves ground into the outside
profile. With some modern mandrels, the chamber is also included. During the process,
the tube is fed and forged in small sections, and results in a finished barrel blank that is
formed not just to the desired twist and caliber, but also length and sometimes, outside
contour.

4. LAPPING: This is the process of polishing the inner surface of the gun barrel. It simply
involves rubbing the bore surface using a polishing compound to remove machining marks and
any tight spots in the rifling thus making the bore’s surface dimensionally uniform from end to
end.

No matter how long polish the interior surface of the gun barrel is polished, minute
imperfections cannot be removed. These macroscopic, and sometimes microscopic,
imperfections are surface irregularities that impart distinctive scratches on the bullet’s bearing
surface. Such marks, usually called by experts as striations, are the mechanical fingerprints of
the gun which are found in fired bullets. These striations in the form of linear scratches are
used as basis in identifying the specific weapon where a particular bullet has been fired.