Bataan Heroes College

Balanga City, Bataan

FORENSICS 6
FORENSICS BALLISTICS

JESSIE ABAO-HERNANDO, MPA, MSCRIM, DPA(CAR)

CRIMINOLOGY DEPARTMENT

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 BATAAN HEROES MEMORIAL COLLEGE
Balanga City, Bataan 2100

Course Information.
1. Course Title Forensics Ballistics
2. Program Criminology
3. Course Code Forensics 6
4. Credit Units 3 (2Lec/1Lab)
5. Prerequisite CDI
Instructor Information.
1. Name : Jessie Abao-Hernando, MPA, MSCrim, DPA (CAR)
2. Contact Information:
Email: jessiebhmc@heroes1979.edu.ph

Course Description.
This course intends to provide students fundamental knowledge regarding branches of
ballistics, classification of firearms, classes of bullet and cartridge and cartridge case, source and
origin of gunpowder, and primer. Provide basic knowledge in differentiating class and individual
characteristics found in firearm, bullets and cartridges cases. Identify appropriate agencies that
can handle issued related to firearm examination and apply knowledge in criminal law,
procedure and evidence in qualifying a case related to firearm investigation and in court
presentation.,

Learning Objectives:
1. Recall the history of the origin of firearms, gun powder and the personalities behind the
development of firearms and ammunition;
2. Identify the different branches of ballistics;
3. Differentiate the different kinds and classification of firearms and ammunition;
4. Recognize and apply the importance in the study of the class and individual
characteristics of firearms and ammunition;
5. Proficient and care in handling firearms;
6. Skills in labeling/marking of evidence in firearms cases;
7. Can operate instruments and equipment used in firearms investigation;
8. Cognizant the importance and application of laws on firearms and knowledge of the
importance of evidence for court proceedings.
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Course Schedule.

Weeks Module # Topic/Contents ILO

1 1 Definition & Origin of Ballistics; the time and the 1
personalities in the development of firearms.
2 2 Branches of Ballistics 2

3 3 Classification of Firearms; Types of Firearms 3; 5

4 4 Ammunition and its parts 3

5 5 Cartridge Cases, Primers and Gunpowder 3

6 6 Class and Individual Characteristics of Firearms and

Ammunition 4

7 7 Marking of Evidence in a Case Involving Firearms 6

8 8 Different equipment used in the Laboratory for Firearms and 7

Ammunition;
9 9 Comparison of Specimen for test and fired bullets; 8
Preparation of Evidence for Court Proceedings
Final Examination

References:

1. Forensic Ballistics by Ariel C. Manlusoc, Wisemans Books Trading, 2016;

2. Forensic Ballistics by Dr. Peckly F. Miller, Wisemans Books Trading, 2011 Revised
Edition;
3. Forensic Ballistics by del Rosario;

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 Module 1
Learning Objectives.
1. Memorize the different definition of terms;
2. Recall the different personalities who greatly helped in the development of firearms;
3. Understand the origin of firearms;
4. Identify the country who first used gunpowder for military used.

Definition & Origin of Ballistics; the time and the personalities in the development of
firearms.

Ballistics is the science of the motion of projectiles and the condition that affects its motion. It is
a science since it is an orderly arranged knowledge and there is involved experimentation,
observation and testing.

Motion refers to the mobility or movement of the projectile from time to time it leaves the shell
or cartridge case; it leaves the gun muzzle and until it reaches its target or falls on the ground.

Projectile in a generic term which refers to any metallic or non-metallic ball that is propelled
from a firearm.

The three motions of projectiles:

1. Direct motion – is the forward motion of the bullet or shots out of the shell by the action
of the expansive force of gases from a burning gunpowder;
2. Rotary motion – is the action of the bullet passing through a rifled bore barrel firearm
which either twisted to the left or to the right;
3. Translational – is the action of bullet once it hits an object or the target and subsequently
ricocheted (changes in motion)

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 The word Ballistics is derived from two Greek words; the word “ballo” and the
word “ballien” which means is “to throw”. The term also is said to have derived from the
Roman war machine called “Ballista”, it is a gigantic catapult that was used to hurl missiles or
large objects like stones, dead animals or even dead persons at a distance and to deter animals
and enemy forces in coming near.

Forensic Ballistics. It is the application of ballistics principles to legal matters. It includes

firearms identification, forensic internal ballistics; forensic external ballistics and forensic
terminal ballistics.

The Discovery of Black Powder:

It is first developed by Chinese alchemists. It was used for military reasons. Its
components are potassium nitrate; charcoal and sulfur. It was used by Chinese in the form of
rockets and explosive bombs fired from a catapult and using bamboo tubes in killing their
enemies. Then from China it spread to Europe.

Men Behind the Firearms:

John M. Browning – He pioneered the breech loading single shot rifle that was adopted by
Winchester. Browning is considered the wizard of modern firearms what it originated in his
name the BAR – Browning Automatic Rifle;

Samuel Colt patented the Colt Revolver, one of the famous revolvers in history;

Alexander John Forsyth – The father of percussion powder. He invested the priming mixture
and case the integration of the primer, bullet, gunpowder and shell into one unit;

Major Uziel Gal – An Israeli army who design the UZI, 1950;

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Col Calvin H. Goddard - The Father of modern Ballistics who utilized the bullet comparison
microscope to prove the identity of a fired bullet through comparison with a test bullet;

John C. Garand – He designed and invested the semi-automatic U.S. Rifle Cal. 30. M1
Garand;

George Hyde -An expert in the field of SMG (grease gun)

Michael Kalashnikov- Designed the AK 47 (Automatic Kalashnikova), used by the Russian

army in 1951;

George Luger – Designed the German Luger MP08;

Peter Paul Mauser – Invested and designed the Mauser M1912 used by Germans;

Eliphalet Remington – Maker of Remington rifles;

Horace Smith & Dan Wesson – Founded the great firm Smith and Wesson;

John Thompson – Developed the WW1 Thompson A1 sub-machine gun;

David “Carbine” Williams – Maker of carbine rifle;

There are many more gun makers in the world other are not mentioned here, but there are
modern firearms that are developed not by an individual person but by a government for use in
their Armed Forces. As early as 1242 AD on Roger Bacon published a book that mentioned of a
black powder formula.

1200 AD – Chinese designed a hallow tube loaded with powder and balls of tallow known as the
“Roman Candle “;

End of Module 1

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 MODULE 2

Learning Objectives:

1. Familiarize the movement of projectiles while inside the firearms (internal ballistics);
2. Learn the different attributes in external ballistics;
3. Illustrate the movement of projectile when at its terminal (target); and
4. Understand the duties and responsibilities of the investigator in case involving firearms.

Branches of Ballistics are:

1. Internal Ballistics – is that branch of ballistics which treats of the motion of the
projectile while it is still inside the firearm which extends from the breech to the
muzzle.
a. Firing pin hitting the primer;
b. Ignition of the priming mixture (percussion action)
c. Combustion of the gun powder/powder charge or propellant;
d. Expansion of the heated gas;
e. Pressure developed;
f. Energy generated;
g. Recoil of the gun;
h. Velocity of the bullet inside the barrel;
i. Rotation of the bullet inside the barrel;
j. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.
2. Exterior (external) Ballistics – the treats of the attributes or movement of the
projectile after leaving the gun muzzle. It is extended from the muzzle of the gun to
the target or any attributes to the motion of the projectile while it is in its flight and
before reaching, the target.
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 a. Muzzle blast;
b. Muzzle energy;
c. Trajectory (flight; course; path; line) Three stages of trajectory: 1) straight
travel; 2) the curving due to loss of energy; 3) drop of the bullet.
d. Range (the imaginary straight distance from the muzzle of the gun to the
target. There are 3 ranges such as: 1) accurate range; 2) effective range; 3)
maximum range.
e. Velocity (this refers to the rate of speed of the bullet (during its flight) per unit
of time).
f. Pull of gravity;
g. Air Resistance.

3. Terminal Ballistics – It is that branch of ballistics that deals with the effects of the
projectiles upon impact on the target.
a. Terminal Accuracy
b. Terminal Energy
c. Terminal Velocity
d. Terminal Penetration

4. Forensic Ballistics – this includes:

a. Field Investigation
b. Ballistics Technical Examination of the Exhibits/evidence

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BALLISTICS IS ALSO DIVIDED INTO FOUR BRANCHES 

1. Interior ballistics is the branch of the science that deals with the projectile while it is still
in the gun.
2. Transitional ballistics is the branch of the science that deals with the motion of the
projectile from the time it leaves the muzzle until the only forces acting upon it are due to
exterior ballistics
3. Exterior ballistics is the branch of the science that deals with the projectile after it clears
the muzzle and throughout its time of flight.
4. Terminal ballistics is that branch of the science that deals with the impact,
and force imparted on the target.

ILLUSTRATION OF THE MOVEMENT OF PROJECTILE.

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 MODULE 3

Learning Objectives:
1. Memorize the legal definition of firearms;
2. Identify the different firearms and familiarize its parts and functions;
3. Differentiate the revolver and pistol to its advantages and disadvantages.

Firearms (Technical Definition) – is an instrument used for the propulsion of projectile by

means of the expansive force of gases coming from a burning gunpowder, (FBI manual of
firearms Identification).

Firearms (Legal Definition) -includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotgun, pistol, revolvers, and
all other deadly weapons, to which a bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missiles may be discharged
by means of gunpowder or other explosives. This term includes air rifles, except those of small
caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall be considered complete
firearms for all purposes hereof.

Classification of Firearms According to Barrel Construction:

1. Smooth Bore Firearms. Firearms that have no rifling (land & grooves) inside their gun
barrel. (Ex. Shotgun, musket)

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 2. Rifled Bore Firearms. Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel. (Ex. Pistols,
revolvers and other modern weapons).

Classification of Firearms According to Caliber of the Projectile Propelled:

1. Artillery. It refers to those types of firearms that propels projectile with more
than one inch diameter. (Ex. Canons, bazookas and mortars).
2. Small Arms. These are firearms that propel a projectile with less than one inch in
diameter and can be handled, move and operated by one man. (Ex. Machine guns,
shoulder arms and hand guns).

Classification of Firearms According to Mechanical Construction:

1. Single shot firearms. Types of firearms designed to fire only one shot for every loading.
(Ex. Single shot pistols, revolvers and shotguns).
2. Repeating arms. Types of firearms designed to fire several shots in one loading and for
every press of the trigger (Ex. Automatic pistols, revolvers, rifles, shot guns).
3. Automatic firearms. Types of firearms that constitute continuous firing in a single press
and while the trigger is pressed.
4. Slide action type. Types of firearms in which loading takes place by back-and-forth
manipulation of the under/over forearms of the gun. (Ex. Shotgun and pistols).

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 5. Bolt action type. Types of firearms which reloading takes place by manipulating the bolt
back & forth. (Ex. Rifles, shotgun and machine guns).

Parts of a Revolver:

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 Parts of an Automatic Pistol:

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Advantages of Pistols and Revolvers:

A. Revolvers:
1. It is an old standard weapon that is easy to operate, hence almost everyone knows
how to handle;
2. Safer for inexperienced users to handle and carry that an of automatic pistol;
3. Its mechanism allows the trigger pull to be better than an average automatic pistol;
4. A misfire does not put a revolver out of action;
5. It will handle satisfactorily old or new or partly deteriorated ammunition which gives
a reduced velocity that would jam as average automatic pistol.
B. Pistols:
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 1. It has better grip; the hands point naturally;
2. It is more compact for same firing power;
3. It is easier to load in comparison with that of a revolver;
4. In case of worn out or corroded barrel, a new one can be put in at a little expense
without sending he gun to the factory;
5. It gives greater number of shots that a revolver;
6. It is easier to clean that a revolver;
7. It gives greater firing power and greater cases of firing;
8. There is no gas leakage in its operation.

Disadvantages:

A. Revolvers:
1. It is bulky to carry than an automatic pistol;
2. Its grip or handle is generally not good as that of pistol;
3. It is slower to load;
4. It is hard to clean;
5. It is harder to replace worn out or broken parts;
6. Worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy due to improper
lining of cylinder.

B. Pistols:
1. Ammunition must be perfect, otherwise, a jam might be experienced;
2. A misfire stops the functioning of a gun;
3. When loaded for long time, the magazine spring is under tension and may deteriorate
and caused problem;
4. It has poorer trigger pull;
5. More dangerous to handle and fire;
6. The mechanism injects the shell towards the face of the shooter;
7. It cannot be fired from the pocket without jamming;

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 8. It throws out empty shell to remain as evidence.

End of Module 3

MODULE 4

Learning Objectives:

1. Memorize the legal and technical meaning of ammunition;

2. Identify the different calibers of an ammunition and shotgun gauges:
3. Explain how the bullet/projectile is propelled from a cartridge;
4. Discuss the different characteristics of an ammunition.

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Ammunition (Legal Definition). It refers to loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbine, shotguns,
revolver and pistols from which a ball, shot shell or other missiles maybe fired be means of gun
powder or other explosive. The term also includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned
elsewhere in the code.

Ammunition (Technical Definition). It refers to a group of cartridges or to a single cartridge.

Cartridge is a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet (ball), primer (cap), cartridge case (shell)
and gun powder (propellant).

General Types of Ammunition:

1. Dummy (fake) model. It is a type of ammunition which merely resembles the genuine
one, It is a carefully made replica of a cartridge, usually of tool steel and dimensioned to
be used by weapons instruction, inspector and repairman when checking the functioning
of a weapon.
2. Drill Ammunition (without gun powder). It is a type of an ammunition that is
completely inert, without explosive and are use in military training to practice loading
and manipulation of the gun. It is sometimes called “dummy” although in the strict sense
there is a difference.

3. Blank ammunition (without bullet). It is an ammunition without bullet, containing

gunpowder that is designed to generate a loud noise to indicate firing. This type of
ammunition is used for theatrical performances or film making, training dogs and
military training.
4. Live Ammunition. It is the term applied for complete unit of unfired cartridge.

Parts of a cartridge:

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Bullet (Projectile). It refers to metallic or non-metallic ball that is propelled from a firearm. It
may refer to as bullet, slug, shot or missile.

Cartridge Case (Casing or shell). It is the metallic or non-metallic tubular container usually
made of brass (copper & zinc), it is designed to unite the bullet, primer and the gun powder.

Gun Powder (Propellant or Powder Charge). It is a mixture of chemicals of various

compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of its expansive force of gas when
burned.

Primer (Cap). It is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type, containing a
highly sensitive chemical compound that would easily ignite or burst into flame when struck by
the firing pin. It is also known as percussion cup.

Classification of Cartridge According to Location of Primer:

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 a. Pin-fire Cartridge. It is a type of a cartridge in which the ignition cap (primer) is
concealed inside the cartridge case and has a pin resting upon it. This was used during
1830s seldom used today and/or manufactured.
b. Rim-fire Cartridge. It is a type of cartridge in which the priming mixture is located at
the hallow rim of the case and can be fired if the cartridge is strucked by the firing pin on
the rim of the case. This kind of cartridge is strictly confined only to caliber .22 short,
long or magnum.
c. Center-fire Cartridge. It refers to a cartridge in which the primer cap (ignition cap) is
centrally placed in the base of the cartridge case and the priming mixture is exploded by
the impact of the firing pin and with the support of the anvil.

Classification of Cartridge According to Rim Diameter.

a. Rimmed case type

b. Semi-rimmed type
c. Rimless type
d. Rebated type
e. Belted type

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Classification of Cartridge According to Caliber:

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Shotgun Cartridge. It refers to a complete unit of unfired cartridge consisting of pellets, primer,
case, wads and gun powder.

Examples of different shotgun cartridge according to gauge.

Parts of a shotgun cartridge.

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Difference of a shotgun cartridge and a rifle cartridge.

End of Module 4

MODULE 5 & 6

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Projectiles, Cartridge Cases, Primers and Gunpowder

Projectile is a generic term used when referring to any metallic or non-metallic ball that is
propelled from a firearm which may referred to also as bullet, slug, shot or missiles. The word
“Bullet” was derived from a French word “Boullette” which means a small ball.

General Types of Bullets:

1. Lead type. This is a type of bullet that is basically composed of lead metal.
2. Jacketed type. It is a type of bullet consisting of the regular lead core, coated with a
copper alloy in order to prevent lead fouling of the barrel.

Lead Type Jacketed Type

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Types of Bullets According to their Maximum Effects of Target:

1. Ball type. This a type of bullet intended for anti-personnel and general use;
2. Armor Piercing Bullets. It is a type of military bullet designed to penetrate light steel
armor;
3. Explosive Bullets. It is a small bullet containing a charge of explosives that detonates on
impact;
4. Incendiary Bullets. This is a type of military bullet used to cause fire in target, generally
design for use by aircrafts armament in order for fuel tanks to ignite.
5. Tracer Bullets. It is a type of military bullet capable of leaving visible marks or traces
while in flight giving the gunner the chance to observe the strike of the shot or make
adjustments in the event of a missed.

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CARTRIDGE CASE.

It is the metallic or non-metallic tubular container usually made of brass (70% copper &
30% zinc); it is designed to unite the bullet, primer and the gun powder into one unit. It is also
known as shell or casing.

Functions of a Cartridge Case:

1. It properly locates the bullet relative to the bore of the firearm;

2. It is used to carry the means of ignition;
3. It provides gas seals at the breech against unwanted escape of propellant gas upon firing;
4. It serves as water proof container for the propellant or powder charge;
5. Act as insulator between the propellant and the hot walls of the chamber in a rapid firing
of firearms.

Parts of a Cartridge Case:

1. Base – the bottom portion of the cartridge case which contains the head stamp marking
containing the caliber, manufacturer sometimes includes the date, trade name and batch
number;
2. Rim – a part of a cartridge case designed to limit the forward movement of the cartridge
to the chamber;
3. Extracting Grooves – the circular groove near the rim of the shell designed for
automatic withdrawal of the case from the chamber;
4. Primer Pocket – the part of the shell which provides the means for the primer to be put
in the central position which has the functions: a. holds the primer in place; b. to prevent
the escape of gas; c. provides solid support for primer anvil.
5. Body – the cylindrical part of the shell which houses the gun powder;
6. Shoulder – part of the cartridge case which supports the neck which is evident in a bottle
neck type.

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 7. Cannelure – a cylindrical groove in the outer surface of the cartridge case designed to
secure the shell to the chamber as well as to prevent the bullet from being push down to
the powder charge.
8. Neck – a part of a shell which is occupied by the bullet. This is for a bottle neck type not
on a straight type.
9. Crimp – a cylindrical groove on the mouth of the shell designed to: a. holds the bullet
and prevent from being pulled out rom the shell; b. to offer resistance to the bullet out of
the neck to ensure the burning gun powder.
10. Vent or Flash Hole – the hole at the bottom of the primer pocket serves as the passage
way for the priming mixture to impart an ignition to the propellant charged.

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Types of Cartridge Case:

1. Straight Type
2. Tapered Type
3. Bottle-Neck Type

PRIMERS.

It is also called cap. It is the ignition system of the cartridge used in a center fire type,
containing a highly sensitive chemical compound that would easily ignite or burst into flame
when struck by the firing pin. The primers have two kinds according to construction namely the
Berdan type and the Boxer type. The primer is also known as the percussion cup.

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 Berdan type is designed by Colonel Hiram S, Berdan, of the US Army Ordnance
Department in 1860, hence the brand name.

The Boxer on the other hand, is developed by Colonel Edward Boxer of Royal
Laboratory at Woolwich Arsenal in 1866.

Parts of a Primer:

1. Priming Cup. It is a brass gilding metal cup which contains the priming mixture, the dics
and the anvil;
2. Priming mixture. It is the highly sensitive compound which ignites by the mechanical
blow of the firing pin. It is also called a percussion powder.
3. Anvil. It is the portion of the primer which provides solid support and absorbs the blow
of the firing pin causing friction that would initiates ignition.
4. Disc. It is a thin paper or foil which is pressed over the priming mixture in order to
protect it from moist.

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GUN POWDER.

It also called propellant or powder charge. It is a mixture of chemicals of various

compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of its expansive force of gas when
burned.

Explosives. It is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden decomposition or
combustion.

Classification of Gun Powder:

1. Black Powder. It consists of Potassium Nitrate 75%, Sulphur 10% and Charcoal 15%.
Its characteristics:
a. Oldest propellant powder;
b. Consist of irregular grains which have dull and shiny surface;
c. Produce grayish smoke and have residue left in the barrel;
d. Burns with great rapidity when ignited.

Qualities:

a. When ignited, it will burn itself without the aid of outside air;
b. When burning, it gives off large amount of gas;
c. A considerable heat is produced.

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 2. Smokeless Powder. It is composed of Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine as the major
ingredients with minor ingredients such as centralite, vaseline esters, inorganic salts and
other. The purpose of these minor ingredients is to ensure stability, reduce flash or flame
temperature and improve ignitability.

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End of Module 5 & 6

MODULE 7

Learning Objectives:

Class and Individual Characteristics of Firearms and Ammunition

Firearms Characteristics.

Gun Barrel. It is the tube, usually a solid piece of metal through which a controlled explosion or
rapid expansion of gases are released I order to propel a projectile out of the end at a high
velocity.

Stages in the making of the Barrel.

A. Drilling. A special deep hole is used and through the center of which lubricating oil is
forced under pressure. The result has a rough hole but uniform in diameter from one end
of the barrel to the other end. It bears numerous scars and scratches resulting from the
irregular cutting of the drill. The hole or bore diameter will determine the caliber of a
firearm.
B. Reaming. It is the process of the scars and scratches left from the drill operation are
removed. It includes finishing and burnishing to have a smooth bore barrel.
C. Rifling. This process is necessary for the making of the helical grooves inside the barrel
thru the following methods:
1. Hook – cutter system (nail filing)
2. Scrape (fixing)
3. Broaching system (raising)
4. Button system (control)

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Rifling in the bore of the firearm is a helical groove consisting of the depressed portion (grove)
and the elevated portion (lands) which is responsible for the rotation motion of the projectile as it
laves the gun muzzle.

D. Lapped. This is the polishing operation in which a lead plug (twist) closely fitting the
inside barrel is drawn back and forth on a rod carrying with it a polishing compound.
This will remove imperfections on the barrel including the rifling. But no matter how
many times of polishing of the barrel, only large imperfections are removed but the
minute one making series of striations will be impressed on every bullet that will pass
through it which is the basis for firearm identification.

The Breech Face. It has of the same importance as the barrel of a gun because it is the portion of
a firearm that a shell/cartridge case and the primer is pressed backward every time that a
cartridge is fired in the chamber. The base of the cartridge will be marked by the breech face of
the gun.

Types of Characteristics in Firearms.

A. Class Characteristics. These are the properties or attributes of a firearm which can be
determined even before the manufacture of the gun. Such as the imperfections during the
making.
1. Bore Diameter. The distance measured between two opposite lands which is
expressed in caliber in inch or millimeters.
2. Number of Lands and Grooves. It is always same or equal mostly five or six.
Lands – are the elevated portion of the bore of the firearm.
Grooves are the depressed portion of the bore between the lands.

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 3. Width of the Lands. It is dependent upon the bore diameter of the gun, grooves,
width and number. The lands are the remainders of the circumference after
subtracting all the grooves width.
4. Width of the Grooves. It is measured as the shortest distance between the two edge
of a groove.

5. Direction of Twist. Rifling inside the barrel of the gun is either twisted to the left or
to the right which causes the bullet to rotate as it passes through the bore, in order to
ensure gyroscopic stability in its fight.
6. Pitch of Rifling. It is the measure of the twisting of the lands and grooves It refers to
the measures of the distance advance by the rifling in order to make one complete
turn inside the barrel.
7. Depth of Grooves. It is measured on a radius of the bore in a thousandths of an inch
deep which is equal to the height of the lands.

B. Individual Characteristics. These are the characteristics that are determined only after
the firearm has already been manufactured and subsequently produced after the firearms
have been used. Marks left on fired shells and bullets are categorized as Accidental or
Repetitive. Accidental are those marks that are not regularly formed in operation of the

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Forensics 6
Jessie Abao-Hernando, MPA, MSCrim, DPA (CAR)
 gun, such as corrosion. While repetitive marks are those marks during the operation of
the gun such as erosion.

End of Module 6

38
Forensics 6
Jessie Abao-Hernando, MPA, MSCrim, DPA (CAR)