Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 47:679–686

DOI 10.1007/s00170-009-2206-5

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Temperature field computation for a rotating cylindrical

workpiece under laser quenching
Hongwei Xu & W. Wayne Chen & Kun Zhou &
Yumei Huang & Q. Jane Wang

Received: 26 March 2009 / Accepted: 9 July 2009 / Published online: 30 July 2009
# Springer-Verlag London Limited 2009

Abstract Laser quenching is usually performed on a t Time of observation or the time after the initiation
localized area of workpiece surfaces through a certain of a continuous heat source (s)
thermal cycle. As a result, the treated area possesses x′y′ Coordinates of a differential segmental element
improved mechanical properties. The quality of the treatment from the plane heat source of various shapes
results depends on the selection of laser process parameters, x, y, z Coordinates of the point where the temperature rise
which relies on the knowledge of the temperature field is concerned
caused by laser heating. This paper reports a model for the m, n Frequency coordinates corresponding to x,y
evaluation of the laser-induced thermal field. This model v Laser spot scanning velocity (mm/s)
assumes a laser beam of uniform intensity and considers the Pe Peclet number
effect of the base temperature on the total temperature. G Green function
Surface temperatures were computed and compared for T Temperature rise at any point at any time (°C)
different scanning velocities and laser spot sizes. The T′ True temperature at any point at any time (°C)
analyses indicate that the temperature in later-heated areas Erfc Complementary error function
is much higher than that in earlier-heated areas. (x)

Keywords Laser quenching . Cylindrical workpiece .

Temperature field . Heat conductivity
1 Introduction
Nomenclature
b Side length of a laser spot (mm) Laser quenching is usually performed by laser heating a
k Thermal diffusivity of the medium (mm2/s) localized area of workpiece surfaces followed by quick
l Length of quenching path (mm) cooling. Compared with traditional means of surface heat
Q Heat liberation rate of a stationary point hear treatments, laser quenching possesses many advantages.
source (W) Due to the short duration of heat application and small area
C The time after the initiation of an instantaneous of heating, workpiece distortion can be avoided, and
heat source (s) thermally induced cracking and residual stresses can be
minimized. The flexibility of laser makes it easy to control
the quenching area and temperature. The use of CO2 laser
H. Xu (*) : Y. Huang
for a combined heat treatment without melting of the
Xi’an University of Technology, surface can remarkably improve the wear resistance of tool
Shaanxi 710048, China steels quenched [1]. Devgun and Moliao [2] conducted
e-mail: stuxuxuxu@sina.com experiments to study the microstructural features, hardness,
H. Xu : W. W. Chen : K. Zhou : Q. J. Wang
case depth, and wear characteristics of laser heat treated
Northwestern University, 52100 bearing steel. They concluded that the laser
Evanston, IL 60208, USA treatment resulted in improved surface hardness and sliding
680 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 47:679–686

wear resistance as compared with conventionally quenched uniformity of the heat intensity distribution. During the
and tempered steels. These prominent merits have drawn laser heating process, a high-pressure laser-assisted gas
extensive research attention to laser quenching technology (nitrogen) was forced onto the quenching area to protect the
development. workpiece surface from being oxidized.
Laser quenching requires a minimum interaction time of The key processing parameters for laser surface quenching
10−2 s, a power density over 103 W/cm2, and a laser spot include the power and diameter of the laser beam, the power
scanning speed of 5–50 mm/s for transformation hardening distribution (or the heat source intensity) across the beam, the
of steels [3]. Melting, which should be avoided, is not absorptivity of the beam energy by the surface of the
involved in laser surface hardening. However, the temper- workpiece, the scanning speed and the traverse (or cross)
atures in the quenching area should be high enough and the feed of the laser beam across the workpiece surface, and the
duration long enough to allow the austenitic transition to take thermal properties of the workpiece material. All these
place. The key is to control the temperature during the parameters influence the temperature field of the workpiece
treatment. For example, if the work material is a medium surface. In order to achieve a desired quenching result, it is
carbon steel, the temperature of the surface layer during critical to have the right temperature in the irradiated region.
quenching can be higher than 780°C, which is the critical In this experiment, the laser beam power was 1.0 kW,
phase-transition temperature of high carbon steel. Therefore, which was determined by simultaneous voltage and power
it would be helpful if one can predict the temperature field measurements. A cylindrical workpiece of AISI 1050 steel
induced by the laser beam on the surface of a quenched and 8 mm diameter was fixed on the worktable, as shown
workpiece. Methods for laser-treatment temperature analysis in Fig. 1, and rotated at 0.5 rps. To ensure good heat
have been explored. Conde et al. [4] used the Green’s absorptivity, the workpiece surface was blackened using
function method to calculate the spatial and temporal quick a drying black paint. When the workpiece rotated, the
temperature distributions in a material for different cases of laser spot passed the workpiece surface and heated the area
laser applications. They described the physical process by in its travel path.
two mathematical methods. Oane [5] extended a thermal The spot of the multimodal laser is generally a square
model of the laser interaction with solids, and in this model, shape. The area of this presented spot is about 4×4 mm2.
he took into account an explicit surface absorption. Yanez et All the process parameters, such as the power of laser
al. [6] developed a numerical simulation of a laser hardening beam, the scanning speed, and the size of laser spot, were
process using both analytical solutions and finite element determined through performing many quenching experi-
code ANSYS to solve the heat transfer equation built for the ments on planer workpieces. The cylindrical workpiece was
treated material. Komanduri and Hou [7] conducted a quenched with these parameters. Figure 2 shows the laser
thermal analysis of the surface phase transition in hardening quenching results of the cylindrical workpiece.
gear tooth by considering the laser beam as a moving plane
heat source and obtained the temperature rise distribution in
the workpiece of a finite width. Most of the studies were
based on the research for the temperature distribution of a
semi-infinite solid material.
Laser quenching of a cylindrical workpiece is commonly
practiced now. Therefore, the study on the temperature field
of cylindrical workpieces subject to laser quenching is of a
practical value. This paper aims to describe the temperature
field of a rotating cylindrical workpiece during a laser
quenching process.

2 Problem description and laser treatment experiments

The laser-quenching facility used for this study consists of a

4-kW CO2 laser, a 5-axis tool, which is numerically
controlled by a PC and Pmac card, a laser supply gas, and
a laser assistance gas. Beam emission from the CO2 laser
goes through the light path and is irradiated on the surface
of the workpiece fixed on the worktable of the tool. In this
experiment, a multimodal laser was used to ensure the Fig. 1 Laser quenching of a cylindrical workpiece
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 47:679–686 681

Fig. 2 Circular quenching

of a cylindrical workpiece.
a Beginning quenching area;
b ending quenching area

(a) Beginning quenching area (b) Ending quenching area

The comparison of the results shown in Fig. 2 reveals 3.1 Thermal field of a semi-infinite space subjected
that the surface was smooth at the beginning of the to a moving heat source
quenching process; it was burned at the end of the process,
most likely due to the increase in the base temperature of Figure 3 shows a square heat source moving along the x
the end quenching area due to the effect of thermal direction in velocity v.
diffusion and accumulation. Therefore, the variation of the The temperature rise caused by a surface heat flux was
basic temperature of the surface of cylindrical workpiece derived by Carslaw and Jaeger [12]. Suppose that heat is
subject to quenching must be taken into account when the emitted from the origin at time t>0 with heat flux q and that
quenching parameters are established. an infinite medium moves uniformly pass the origin with
velocity v parallel to the x axis. The temperature rise at
fixed point (x, y, z) at time t due to the heat emitted at the
3 Modeling of the temperature fields origin from time 0 to t can be obtained from

1
Many methods have been developed to solve the heat T ðx; y; z; t Þ ¼
transfer equation. Liu and Wang [8] solved the problems of 8rcðpk Þ3=2
Z þ1 Z þ1 Z t
a half-space material subjected to arbitrary transient qð x 0 ; y 0 Þ
frictional heating, where the velocity of the half-space 
1 1 0 ðt  t Þ3=2
(magnitude and direction) can be a function of time. Kuo n o
exp ½x  x0  þ ðy  y0 Þ þ z2 dtdx0 dy0
2 2
and Lin [9] gave a general temperature rise solution for a
moving plane heat source problem in surface grinding.
ð1Þ
Desruisenaux and Zerkle [10] gave an analytical solution of
cylindrical bodies subjected to moving heat sources but
Where x′ is the function of t and v. When a two-dimensional
without considering the influence of the base temperature.
Fourier transform (FT) is applied about the x and y
Hou and Komanduri [11] improved the general solutions
directions, the temperature rise of the semi-infinite medium
(both transient and steady-state) for the temperature rise at
any point subjected to stationary or moving plane heat
sources of different shapes (elliptical, circular, rectangular,
and square) and heat intensity distributions (uniform,
parabolic, and normal) using Jaeger’s classical heat source
method. Among all the analytical approaches, the Green’s
function method is attractive because it allows the use of a
fast computing algorithm.
In this paper, the calculations of the temperature fields of
cylindrical workpiece subjected to laser quenching were
accomplished by the following three steps: (1) the calculation
of the temperature rise fields of a semi-infinite space subjected
to a moving laser spot; (2) the use of the result from step 1 to
define the base temperature field of the surface during the laser
quenching processing; and (3) the calculation of the total
temperature field at any time by the temperature rise field plus
the base temperature field. Fig. 3 Semi-infinite space subjected to laser quenching
682 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 47:679–686

in a hybrid domain (frequency, depth, and time) is Where, Q is the power of the laser spot and b length of
expressed by [8], laser spot. The temperature at any location of the semi-

infinite medium subjected to a moving laser spot is [14]:
T ðm; n; z; t Þ Z þ1 Z þ1
Z t   T ðx; y; t Þ ¼ Gðx  x0 ; y  y0 ; t Þqðx; y; t Þdx0 dy0
 1 z 0
¼ q ðm; nÞ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi exp   ðt t Þw 2 dt: 1 1
0 p ðt  t Þ 4ðt  t Þ ð6Þ
ð2Þ
The continuous convolution theorem [15] indicates that
Where, applying the FT to both sides of Eq. 6 should result in an
equation with simple multiplication:
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
w0 ¼ w2 þ a2 with w ¼ m2 þ n2 ;   
T ðm; n; t Þ ¼ Gðm; n; t Þ qðm; n; t Þ ð7Þ
a ¼ i  m  Pe; and Pe ¼ vl=k
When the two-dimensional Fourier transform 
is applied
In Eq. (2), m and n are the frequency coordinates to Eq. 4 with respect to the x and y directions, ðm; n; t Þ can
q
corresponding to the x and y axes, Pe is Peclet numbers, l is be expressed as
the characteristic length, and k is the thermal diffusivity.
Each “~” stands for a Fourier transform operation. The
 2Qevt bm bn
qðm; n; t Þ ¼ sin sin ð8Þ
Frequency response function of transient temperature rise b pmn
2 2 2

due to a time-invariant surface heat flux, qðm; nÞ, is Substitute Eqs. 4 and 8 into Eq. 7 results in
obtained from [8] (  bm   bn   pffi   pffi 
Qevt
 sin sin 2 erfc w0 t erfc w0 t ; w0 6¼ 0
 
T ðm;n;z;t Þ T ðm; n; t Þ¼
w0 b2 pmn 2 p ffi vt     :
4 ffiffiffiffitQe
Gðm; n; z; t Þ¼ q p
p3 b2 mn 2 sin 2 ;
sin bm bn
w0 ¼ 0
ðm;nÞ
8 h  pffi   pffi i
< 1 0 expðw0 zÞerfc p zffi
w0 t expðw0 zÞerfc 2pz ffit þw0 t ; w0 6¼ 0 ð9Þ
¼ 2    
2w t
pffi :
: 2 pffiffipt exp  z4t  zerfc 2pz ffit ;
2
w0 ¼ 0
Since it is difficult to get the analytical solution by
ð3Þ n  o Fourier transform to Eq. 9,
directly applying the inverse
Eq. 9 is discretized into T ij as follows
Where, mn
2 3
Z    
2 1 T 1;1 T 1;2 T 1;3 ::: T 1;N
erfcðxÞ ¼ pffiffiffi et dt:
2
6     7
p 6 ::: T 2;N 7
x 6 T 2;1 T 2;2 T 2;3 7
n o 6     7
6 T 3;1 T 3;2 T 3;3 ::: T 3;N 7
T ij ¼6
6
7 ð10Þ
Here, erfc(x) is the complementary error function.
mn 6      7 7
Since the temperature field of the workpiece surface is 6      7
6 7
mainly the concerned here, one can set z=0 and simplify 4      5
   
Eq. 3 into T M ;1 T M ;2 T M ;3 ::: T M ;N
(  pffi   pffi 

1
erfc w0 t  erfc w0 t ; w0 6¼ 0 When an inverse fast Fourier transform is applied, the
2w0 pffi
Gðm; n; 0; t Þ¼ :
2 pffiffipt ; w0 ¼ 0 temperature at any location of the semi-infinite medium can
be obtained as
ð4Þ
2 3
Mazumder [13] pointed out that for the laser-surface 6T1;1 ðtÞ T1;2 ðtÞ T1;3 ðtÞ ::: T1;N ðtÞ 7
6 7
heat treatment of steel, it is preferable to use a wider 6T2;1 ðtÞ T2;2 ðtÞ T2;3 ðtÞ ::: T2;N ðtÞ 7
6 7
laser beam (larger beam size) with a uniform heat 6 7
6T ðtÞ T ðtÞ T ðtÞ ::: T ðtÞ 7
intensity distribution because it enables more uniform 6 3;1 3;2 3;3 3;N 7
6 7
case depth. The multimodal-shaped laser beam would 6 7
fTij gmn ¼ 6 : : : : : 7
provide a nearly uniform heat intensity distribution 6 7
6 7
6: : : : : 7
(Fig. 3). Then, the heat source at any time on the 6 7
6 7
workpiece surface can be set by 6: : : : : 7
6 7
4 5
TM ;1 ðtÞ TM ;2 ðtÞ TM ;3 ðtÞ ::: TM ;N ðtÞ
qðx; y; t Þ ¼
Q
b2 vt  b2  x  vt þ b2 ; b2  y  b2 : ð5Þ
0 ð11Þ
Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 47:679–686 683

3.2 Surface temperature field of a cylindrical workpiece 4 Example computation

In order to calculate the surface temperature field of a A case of laser power W=1.0 kW, b=4 mm, d=8 mm, v=
cylindrical workpiece subjected to laser quenching using 8×0.5×6.27/2=12.56 mm/s, and k=4.66 mm2/s [16], l=
the method described in Section 3.1, the workpiece surface 2πd=50.24 mm, and T0 =20°C was analyzed As the laser
is unfolded along the circumference, and the length of the power was determined using simultaneous voltage and
surface is extended to 2πd, as shown in Fig. 4. The laser power measurements near the laser generator, one should
spot motion begins from the point at x = πd. Thus, Eq. 9 consider the absorptivity and the decaying during the laser
can be converted into: beam passing the light road to the workpiece surface.
According to the experimental results obtained from the
8
>
> laser quenching of planer workpiece, a decay absorptivity
>
>
>
> coefficient was set at η=0.65. Therefore, Q=Wη=650 W.
>
> Qepdþvt  pffi   pffi 
>
> bm bn
< 0 2 sin sin erfc w0 t  erfc w0 t ; w0 6¼ 0
 w b pmn The temperature results for t=0.5, 1, 1.7 s and for any
T ðm; n; t Þ ¼ >
2 2
ð12Þ
>
> location of the quenching path were obtained as given in
>
>
>
> pffi
>
> 4 t Qepdþvt bm bn Fig. 5.
>
: pffiffiffiffiffi sin sin ; w0 ¼ 0
p3 b2 mn 2 2 Figure 5a presents the temperature field when the laser
spot moved to the point of ωt=0.5×0.5=0.25 r=90°.
Therefore, the highest temperature was at the location of
The temperature at any point xi (i=1,2,3,...,M) at time t 90° at this moment. Figure 5b, c shows, respectively, that
can be obtained from Eq. 11. Because the temperature in the high temperatures were in the location of 180° and 306°
the middle of the quenching path is under investigation, when t=1 s and 1.7 s. These figures also reveal that the
y = b/2 is chosen. The temperatures at a series of points lowest temperatures were different for each of them. As the
{Ti} (i=1, 2, 3,…,M) are expressed as T(x0,t),T(x1,t),...,T time increased, the lowest temperature increases. At
(xM,t). Because the quenching path is circular, temper- t=0.5 s, the lowest temperature is 20.3°C; at t=1 s, it was
atures T(x0,t),T(x1,t),...,T(xM/2−1,t) can be treated as the 163.9°C; and at t=1.7 s, it is 197.5°C. In other words, the
base temperatures for the series of points xj (j = M/2,M/2+ base temperature increases with time. For laser quenching,
1,...,M). Thus, the true temperatures of the quenching path the maximum temperature is very important because it
at time t can be approximated by directly influences the quenching result. It always occurred
    in the area where the laser spot was applied. Thus, the
T 0 xM =2 ; t ; T 0 xM =2þ1 ; t ; :::; T 0 ðxM ; t Þ;
maximum temperature at any time during the quenching
process was investigated and presented in Fig. 6, showing
Where, that the maximum temperature at the initial quenching area
    was much lower than that at the end quenching area. The
T 0 xM =2 ; t ¼  T xM =2 ; t þ T ð x0 ; t Þ maximum temperature of the former was 804°C and that of
T 0 xM =2þ1 ; t  ¼ T xM =2þ1 ; t  þ T ðx1 ; t Þ the latter was near 1,400°C. The temperature deviation was
T 0 xM =2þ2 ; t ¼ T xM =2þ2 ; t þ T ðx2 ; t Þ ð13Þ about 500°C during one laser quenching pass. The
:::   computation results agree with the experimental observa-
T 0 ðxM ; t Þ ¼ T ðxM ; t Þ þ T xM =21 ; t tion. The maximum temperature of the initial quenching
area was lower than the melting point of workpiece material
In Eq. 13, when t=0, T(xi,0=T0) with T0 being the initial (about 1,360°C). However, the maximum temperature of
temperature of the workpiece surface. later quenching area was much higher; some are higher than
the melting point. Thus, the surface of the initial quenching
area was smooth, but the surface of the end quenching area
was molten and resolidified.
The effect of laser spot size was investigated. In this
part of the analysis, the laser power was kept constant,
the diameter of cylindrical workpiece was 50 mm, and the
other parameters are the same as described above. The
computation results show that the highest temperature in
the laser quenching process varies with the spot size, as
presented in Fig. 7. As expected, the maximum tempera-
ture decrease with the laser spot size due to the total
Fig. 4 Unfold the workpiece surface subjected to laser quenching thermal energy reduction.
684 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 47:679–686

1500
1200
1400
1000
1300

Max. Temperature(oC)
Temperature (OC)

800
1200

600
1100

400 1000

200 900

800
0

-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 700

0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8
O
Workpiece Circumferential Position ( )
Time (s)
(a) t = 0.5s.
Fig. 6 Maximum temperature vs. time
1200

Furthermore, the effect of scanning velocity on the

1000
maximum temperature was investigated, and the results are
presented in Fig. 8. The maximum temperature decreases as
Temperature (OC)

800
the laser scanning velocity increases because of the
600
reduction of the total laser energy received in the process.
The large temperature difference between the initial and
400 ending quenching areas is detrimental to the surface quality.
In order to obtain uniform and high-quality laser quench-
200 ing, the process parameters should be adjusted during laser
quenching a cylindrical workpiece. Among the process
0 parameters that influence the temperature of the quenching
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
area, the scanning speed is the ideal process parameter to be
controlled during the quenching process. Although the
Workpiece Circumferential Position (O)
analyses were done for cylindrical surface surfaces, similar
(b) t = 1s.
results are expected for flat surfaces as well, and the
1200
suggested quality control method should also be applicable
to flat surface quenching.
1000
Temperature (OC)

800
1800
600
1600
400
1400
Temperature (oC)

200
1200
0
1000
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Workpiece Circumferential Position (O) 800

(c) t = 1.7s.
600
Fig. 5 Temperature field variation with time
400
2 3 4 5 6
Side Length of Laser Spot (mm)

Fig. 7 Dependence of the maximum temperature on laser spot size

Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 47:679–686 685

1600 Temperature Fields by Current Model

1200 Temperature Fields by ABAQUS
1400

1200
1100
Temperature (oC)

Temperature(oC)
1000

800
1000
600

400
900
200

0
800
-200
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.020 0.022 O
Workpiece Circumferential Position ( )
Scanning Velocity (m/s)
(a) t = 0.5s.
Fig. 8 Max temperature versus scanning velocity of the laser spot 1800

1600 Temperature Fields by Current Model

Temperature Fields by ABAQUS
5 Verification 1400

1200
It should be pointed out that the theoretical method used is
based on the half-space assumption, which assumes that the Temperature(oC) 1000

relative “zero” temperature is sufficiently far away from the 800

surface. It may underestimate the peak temperature;
600
however, the trend observation should be valid. The
400
ABAQUS software was used to verify the temperature
results. Figure 9 plots the mesh for the calculation, and 200
Fig. 10 shows the result comparisons. The maximum 0
difference between the ABAQUS output and the current
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
model results is less than 15%.
Workpiece Circumferential Position (O)
(b) t = 1s.
1800
6 Conclusions Temperature Fields by Current Model
1600 Temperature Fields by ABAQUS
1400
This paper investigates the surface temperature field of
cylindrical workpieces subjected to a moving laser spot. 1200
Temperature(oC)

1000

800

600

400

200

-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Workpiece Circumferential Position (O)

(c) t = 1.7s
Fig. 10 Temperature field comparison

The computation is based on the Green’s function method,

which is used to compute the temperature field of a semi-
infinite medium subjected to a moving heat point. The
Fig. 9 ABAQUS finite element mesh computation results showed that the base temperature
686 Int J Adv Manuf Technol (2010) 47:679–686

influences the total temperature of quenched areas, which 4. Conde JC, Lusquinos F, Gonzalez P, Leon B, Amor MP (2002)
Temperature distribution in a material heated by laser radiation:
well explains the experiment results of laser quenching of a
modeling and application. Surface Engineering, Surface Instru-
cylindrical workpiece, where the initial quenching area was mentation & Vacuum Technology 64:359–366
smooth but the end quenching area was roughened due to 5. Oane M (2003) Three-dimensional temperature distribution in
melting. The analysis of the results indicates that the laser heated solids. Promopto: Seventh Conference on Optics,
Proceedings of Spies 5581:502–508
process parameters should be adjusted during the laser
6. Yanez A, Alvarez JC, Lopez AJ, Nicolas G, Perez JA, Ramil A,
quenching process of cylindrical workpieces in order to Saavedra E (2002) Modeling of temperature evolution on metals
obtain uniform and high-quality laser quenching. Among during laser hardening process. Appl Surf Sci 186:611–616
the process parameters that influence the temperature of the 7. Komanduri R, Hou ZB (2004) Thermal analysis of laser surface
transformation hardening—optimization of process parameters.
quenching area, the scanning speed is the ideal process Machine Tools & Manufacture 44:991–1008
parameter to be controlled during the quenching process. 8. Liu S, Wang Q (2003) Transient thermoelastic stress fields in a
The finite element analysis using ABAQUS was employed half-space. J Tribol 125:33–43
for result verification, and the result comparison show that 9. Kuo WL, Lin JF (2006) General temperature rise solution for a
moving plane heat source problem in surface grinding. Int J Adv
the maximum difference between the results from the two
Manuf Technol 31(268):277
methods is less than 15%. 10. Desruisseaux NR, Zerkle RD (1970) Temperature in semi-infinite
and cylindrical bodies subjected to moving heat sources and
Acknowledgements The authors would like to express their sincere surface cooling. ASME J Heat Transfer 92:456–464
gratitude to the support from the Scholar Exchange Program at Xi’an 11. Hou ZB, Komanduri R (2000) General solutions for stationary/
University of Technology. moving plane heat source problems in manufacturing and
tribology. Int J Heat Mass Transfer 43(1679):1698
12. Carslaw HS, Jaeger JC (1959) Conduction of heat in solids.
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