energies

Article
Impact on Voltage Regulation in Medium Voltage Distribution
Networks Due to the Insertion of Photovoltaic Generators
Gustavo Fernandes de Negreiros 1 , Fábio Xavier Lobo 2 , Igor Cavalcante Torres 3 and Chigueru Tiba 1, *

1 Department of Nuclear Energy, Federal University of Pernambuco (UFPE), Recife 50740-545, Brazil
2 Federal Institute of Pernambuco (IFPE), Pesqueira 55200-000, Brazil
3 Campus of Engineering and Agricultural Sciences (CECA), Federal University of Alagoas (UFAL),
Rio Largo 57100-000, Brazil
* Correspondence: tiba@ufpe.br

Abstract: The objective of this paper was to analyze the impacts caused by the operation of voltage
regulators in electrical distribution networks and to evidence the number of operations in the face of
short-duration voltage variation caused by the high intermittency of the connected PV generators.
A real LV and MV feeder was used, modeled in OpenDSS software, based on normative standards,
adjustments, and technical maneuvers strategically used by the local utility. The analyses considered
the temporal variations for the photovoltaic generators and different load demand profiles connected
to the feeder. The feeder was submitted to the demand curves varying the load percentage, framing
it in high and conventional (nominal) load according to the profiles of consumers and prosumers
connected. The simulations made it possible to observe the exacerbated elevation in the number of
maneuvers performed by the voltage regulators of the network. The single-phase voltage regulators
stood out by the elevation of control operations, causing premature wear of the PV generation
equipment connected to the most loaded phase. It was observed that discrepancies in the power flow
in the lines and the voltage levels at the busbars. The creation of strategies and decisions to correct
these impacts caused to transformers and regulators is possible.

Keywords: LV and MV distribution network; high penetration of PV systems; impact on voltage

Citation: de Negreiros, G.F.; Lobo, regulation; distribution transformers
F.X.; Torres, I.C.; Tiba, C. Impact on
Voltage Regulation in Medium
Voltage Distribution Networks Due
to the Insertion of Photovoltaic 1. Introduction
Generators. Energies 2023, 16, 1307. Each day the technology of renewable energy sources improves and favors the evo-
https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031307
lution of distributed generators, especially photovoltaic ones, facilitating their massive
Academic Editor: Mohamed A. connection to the electrical distribution network. When connected to the grid, they can
Mohamed cause changes in the normal state of operation, causing variations in the voltage levels of
the grid [1]. These variations are intensified by the high intermittency of the local solar
Received: 28 November 2022
radiation and due to the massive connection of the generators to the feeder [2–6].
Revised: 20 January 2023
The problems with the voltage levels and elevation of technical losses of the low
Accepted: 21 January 2023
voltage distribution grid can be intensified when the interaction between the grid and the
Published: 26 January 2023
small PV generators happens, as seen in [7–10]. This occurs when a massive connection to
the grid of PV generators occurs in a distributed and/or concentrated manner in a single
phase. It causes significant impacts on voltage levels, with the appearance of short-duration
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. voltage variations, in addition to excessive voltage unbalance in the power grid.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. It was observed in [11] that the massive connection of centralized or distributed PV
This article is an open access article generators along the low and medium-voltage electrical distribution networks could cause
distributed under the terms and rapid power variations in the feeder, affecting the behavior of voltage regulators, capacitor
conditions of the Creative Commons banks, and the load tap changer—LTC. The equipment is important for grid operation and
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// essential to perform the control and maneuvers to correct the feeder voltage levels during
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ the system operation [12].
4.0/).

Energies 2023, 16, 1307. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16031307 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2023, 16, 1307 2 of 18

The voltage regulator equipment inserted in the distribution system faces difficulties
in maintaining the normative voltage limits of the electrical grid when interacting with
distributed photovoltaic generators. This presents itself as a “power quality” problem
faced by the utilities. The relentless pursuit of consumer units for increased electricity
consumption, coupled with more expensive energy tariffs, increases the demand for the
installation of distributed photovoltaic generators on the electrical grid. This massive
connection makes the grid more complex and, consequently, harder to maintain control of
the normative voltage limits, making it difficult to operate the voltage regulator equipment
inserted in the feeder [13] due to short duration voltage variation (SDVV), which is also a
problem generated by the connection of PV generators to the electrical grids. According to
PRODIST module 3 [14], these problems are expressed as the network responds to critical
sags or rises in the feeder’s effective voltage value.
If the power utility uses technical operation artifices, such as adjusting the transformer
ratio via the transformer’s TAP, it increases the voltage in the secondary to reverse the sags
caused by the line impedance. This type of procedure offers benefits to the consumer units
connected at the end of the feeder. However, it can result in the appearance of overvoltages
on the feeder, especially when the loads connected to it are idle at the moment of the
effective contribution of the connected PV-distributed generators. To correct the problems
of deregulation of voltage levels, devices such as TAP changers are used, allowing a physical
or automatic change in the transformation ratio of transformer equipment, regulating the
voltage levels in the secondary service network to the limits established by the National
Electric Energy Agency [15].

2. Finding Voltage Regulation Problems

2.1. Impacts on Voltage Regulation
The massive connection of PV generators to a distribution feeder can generate prob-
lems with the operation to normative standards, causing problems with quality and electric
power supply to consumer units connected to this feeder [7,9,10,16]. Among these prob-
lems, we highlight the violations of the supply voltage levels of the loads and the increase in
technical losses due to the high flow of power circulating in the feeder [17]. These problems
hinder the correct operation of the equipment that composes the electrical grid, raising
mainly the performance levels of voltage regulator devices, contributing significantly to
their premature wear, reducing their useful life, and raising maintenance costs [7–10,17,18].
After analyzing Figure 1, it is seen that the voltage levels along the feeder naturally
tend to suffer “voltage drops” as it moves away from the electrical substation. This occurs
in distribution and transmission lines due to electrical losses caused by the capacitive
and resistive effects along the feeder. These operational phenomena are considered and
sized in electrical network projects with the objective of maintaining the voltage levels in
the operating range of the normative standards. In addition to the regulating equipment
implemented during the operation of the power grid, technical maneuvers are used, such as
the technical adjustment of the transformer’s TAP, to raise the voltage along the feeder and
correct the phase shift of voltage levels at the end of the lines. These operational strategies
are important for the control and compensation of voltage levels due to voltage drops along
the circuit [10].
However, this maneuver is performed by a team from the local utility, which travels
to the region where the electrical substation presents problems in voltage levels and me-
chanically alters the transformer’s TAP, occasionally raising and/or lowering the voltage
level in the secondary. This procedure can trigger other voltage problems when there is the
presence of distributed photovoltaic generators connected to the feeder [19] since, in this
scenario, not only the substation transformer would supply electrical energy to the loads
connected to the feeder but also the PV generators. Thus, if a rupture in the voltage levels
occurs beyond the normative standards determined in design by the utilities, it is again pro-
jected the need to perform “another” adjustment in the TAP of the voltage regulator of this
section [19–22]. For the most part, voltage regulator equipment does not have automatic
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 3 of 18

TAP adjustment in local Brazilian utilities due to the high costs of structural modification
of the electrical grid. However, voltage regulation is a vital maneuver for today’s grid
operation scenario, where it is extremely important to perform the accommodation of the
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 3 of 19
huge amount of distributed photovoltaic generators connected daily to the MV and LV
distribution grid.

Figure
Figure 1.
1. Representative
Representative voltage
voltage drop
drop in
in aa distribution
distribution feeder
feeder as
as aa function
function of
of the
the distance
distance from
from the
the
substation. Source: [9].
substation. Source: [9].

However,
In order tothis maneuver
perform theseis operations,
performed by thea power
team from the local
utilities adopt utility, which
several travels
specific op-
to the region where the electrical substation presents problems
erational procedures, aiming to minimize costs and solve the problems of unbalanced in voltage levels and me-
chanically
voltage levels alters theThese
[13]. transformer’s
strategies TAP,
are occasionally raising and/or
based on a scenario lowering
of intelligent the voltage
electrical grids
level in the to
well suited secondary.
solve such This procedure
problems. can trigger
However, other voltage
conventional problems
electrical when grids
distribution there do is
the
notpresence of distributed photovoltaic
have a communication infrastructure, generators
which, inconnected
this case, is to extremely
the feederimportant
[19] since, forin
this scenario, notfunctioning
the operational only the substation transformer
of the grid. Thus, more would supply
localized electrical
solutions are energy
adopted, to as
thea
loads connected to the feeder but also the PV generators. Thus, if
resource, using energy storage systems and in the control and variation of the dispatched a rupture in the voltage
levels
poweroccurs beyond the normative standards determined in design by the utilities, it is
[21,23–25].
againThe projected
additionthe ofneed to perform
distributed “another”connected
generators adjustmenttointhe thetraditional
TAP of theelectrical
voltage reg- dis-
ulator
tributionof this sectioncan
network [19–22].
causeFor the most
different part, voltage
problems [26], regulator equipment
and the creation doesgenerated
of the not have
automatic
bidirectional TAP adjustment
power in local Brazilian
flow significantly impacts utilities due to the system
the distribution high costswhen of structural
related to
modification
voltage regulation. of the electrical grid. However, voltage regulation is a vital maneuver for
today’s grid operation scenario, where it is extremely important to perform the accommo-
dation of theVariation
2.2. Voltage huge amountin Steadyof State
distributed photovoltaic generators connected daily to the
MV and LV distribution
By increasing grid. of connections from distributed PV generators to a distri-
the number
butionIn order
feeder,todistortion
perform these operations,
of electrical the power
parameters utilities
related adopt several
to voltage variationspecific oper-
in a steady
ational
state can procedures,
occur. These aiming to minimize
parameters coststoand
are linked solve the problems
the intensification of theofreverse
unbalanced
powervolt-flow,
age levelspower,
reactive [13]. These
and the strategies
variationare in based
the load ondemand
a scenario of intelligent
profile of the feeder,electrical grids well
interfering with
suited to solve
the voltage suchalong
profile problems. However,
the feeder, whichconventional electrical distribution
is a direct consequence gridsofdo
of the injection not
active
have a communication infrastructure, which, in this case, is extremely important for the
power from the connected photovoltaic systems [26,27].
operational functioning
In the Brazilian of thenormative
system, grid. Thus,requirements
more localized aresolutions
imposed are adopted,
on system as aand
users re-
source, using energy
concessionaires for thestorage
connectionsystems
andand in the of
operation control and variation
the conventional of the distribution
electrical dispatched
power
network, [21,23–25].
which can be consulted in PRODIST—Operating Procedures for Distribution
ModuleThe addition
8 [28] when of related
distributedto thegenerators
voltage range connected to the In
of operation. traditional electricalvoltage
Table 1, standard distri-
bution network can cause different problems [26], and the creation of the generated bidi-
rectional power flow significantly impacts the distribution system when related to voltage
regulation.
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 4 of 18

values are presented, which are applied for different levels of operation of the electrical
network. In this case, the reference values for low-voltage operations are illustrated.

Table 1. Connection points at a rated voltage equal to or less than 1kV. Source: [29].

Service Voltage (TA) Read Voltage Variation Range 380/220 (Volts)

Proper (350 ≤ TL ≤ 399)/(202 ≤ TL ≤ 231)
Precarious (331 ≤ TL < 350 or 399 < TL ≤ 403)/(191 ≤ TL <202 or 231 < TL ≤ 233)
Critique (TL< 331 or TL > 403)/TL< 191 or TL > 233)

In Table 2, it is possible to observe nominal voltage values for the medium voltage dis-
tribution network, with operating values within the base of 13,800 V. The traditional work
values are given in per unit (PU). They must meet [29] through adequate, precarious, and
critical voltage ranges at the point of delivery with read and reference voltage. These proce-
dures are assigned to operate within power quality standards for the electrical network.

Table 2. Standardized nominal voltage in the medium voltage network. Source: [29].

Service Voltage (SV) Variation of the Read Voltage (TL) in Relation to the Reference Voltage (TR)
Proper 0.93 TR ≤ TL ≤ 1.05 TR
Precarious 0.90 TR ≤ TL < 1.05 TR
Critique TL < 0.90 TR or TL > 1.05 TR

It can be observed in Table 2 that there are voltage variation ranges that are accepted
during the operation of the electrical system without causing inconvenience or damage to
the installations. It is worth pointing out that in the Brazilian electricity industry, there is the
regulatory agency ANEEL, which arbitrates operating limits for the power utilities. When
these reference limits are exceeded, the distributors, depending on the level of disruption
and the recorded time of the problem, are subject to financial penalties in accordance with
the compensation system regulated by law.
The planning of the electrical system must be carried out dynamically because, cur-
rently, there is a growing increase in the number of connections to the grid from intermittent
energy sources, such as solar and wind. This changes the entire power grid operation,
which was not designed to accommodate this massive connection of distributed generators,
creating problems at any time of the year distribution systems. The normative standards
for grid operation used by the utilities assume an accommodation profile for distributed
generators with deficient levels of interconnection, recognizing that the “niche” that the
problems facing this interaction are increasingly present in everyday life.
The distributed photovoltaic generation, intrinsically intermittent by-passing clouds,
can raise the voltage at the generator connection point beyond the acceptable limits in
standard. This variability in generation produces many important and challenging inter-
actions between the distribution system and the connected PV generators. For example,
the difficulty in managing voltage levels results in increased wear and tear on regulating
equipment and protection systems [9,30].
Thus, it is paramount to perform simulation studies to evaluate the behavior of voltage
regulators involving the mutual operation between the electrical power system, its controls,
and communications enhanced with distributed photovoltaic generators. Since problems
in the voltage levels of the feeder caused by this interaction are already a reality and
intensified when faced with a massive connection of PV generators, it directly interferes
with voltage regulation problems, increasing the effective number of operations.
 equipment and protection systems [9,30].
Thus, it is paramount to perform simulation studies to evaluate the behavior of volt-
age regulators involving the mutual operation between the electrical power system, its
controls, and communications enhanced with distributed photovoltaic generators. Since
problems in the voltage levels of the feeder caused by this interaction are already a reality
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 and intensified when faced with a massive connection of PV generators, it directly inter-
5 of 18
feres with voltage regulation problems, increasing the effective number of operations.

3.
3. Modeling
Modeling the
the Electric
Electric Grid
Grid
3.1.
3.1. Photovoltaic
Photovoltaic System
System Model
Model
Figure
Figure 22 shows
shows the
the schematic
schematic diagram
diagram used
used to model the
to model the photovoltaic
photovoltaic system
system in
in
OpenDSS electric power distribution system simulation software. It shows the variables
that
that define the model
define the model and
and the
the respective
respective components
components involved
involved in
in the
the modeling
modeling process.
process.

Figure 2. Schematic
Figure 2. Schematic diagram
diagram of
of the
the photovoltaic system simulation
photovoltaic system simulation model.
model. Source: [31,32].
Source: [31,32].

At the point
At the point of
of interconnection
interconnection with
with the
thegrid,
grid,active
activepower
powerisisdefined
definedP(Pt( )which
whichisisa
0)
afunction
function of the irradiation (reference), temperature, converter efficiency,
of the irradiation (reference), temperature, converter efficiency, grid voltage, grid voltage,
and
and the power
the power atmaximum
at the the maximum power power point
point (Pmp)(Pmp) of PV
of the the panel
PV panel output.
output. TheThe
powerpower at
at the
the maximum
maximum powerpower
pointpoint
PmpPmp is corrected
is corrected withwith temperature,
temperature, just
just as theasinverter
the inverter effi-
efficiency
ciency curvebe
curve must must be parameterized
parameterized as a function
as a function of the ofoperating
the operating temperature.
temperature. TheThe value
value of
of 𝐼𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖a𝑛𝑐𝑒
Irradiance is determined
is determined bylocation
by the the location
of theofphotovoltaic
the photovoltaic
array,array,
and theand the maximum
maximum value
value
of the of the analyzed
analyzed periodperiod
shouldshould be considered
be considered [32]. [32].

3.2.
3.2. Transformer Model
Transformer Model
The transformer model
The transformer model forfor the
the OpenDSS
OpenDSS simulation
simulation system
system presents
presents itself
itself as
as aa sup-
sup-
plying element of electrical energy, called single-phase and/or multiphase equipment.
plying element of electrical energy, called single-phase and/or multiphase equipment. To To
model the transformer in a simulation of the electrical distribution system, it is necessary
model the transformer in a simulation of the electrical distribution system, it is necessary
to adopt at least its basic parameters, which are listed in Table 3, in addition to representing
them with the nomenclature adopted in the OpenDSS software. Furthermore, OpenDSS
makes it possible to model several varieties of connections, for example, a transforma-
tion system with two or more coils; then, you can use the connection (Star-Delta) as a
standard model or also allow the use of connection (Star-Star), allowing the use of one or
more phases.
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 6 of 18

Table 3. Basic parameters for modeling the transformer element. Source: [32,33].

Parameter Description
phases Number of phases (default is 3)
windings Number of windings (default is 2)
XLH Series reactance per unit (pu)
% Loadloss Percentage of total loss based on rated load
% noLoadloss No-load loss percentage based on rated load
Wdg Winding will receive the following parameters
bus Name of the bar to which the element terminal is connected
conn Winding connection (star or Delta)
kV Terminal (winding) nominal line voltage in kV
kVA Terminal-rated power in kVA
TAP Voltage per unit (pu) of the TAP used

3.3. Voltage Regulator Model

The voltage regulator is an element whose characteristic function is to control and
monitor the voltage in the winding of the transformer to which it is connected. In electrical
power systems, it is possible to parameterize the regulators for three-phase voltage opera-
tion or three regulators for each phase when using single-phase regulators. This voltage
control is possible when the transformer’s characteristics are parameterized through TAP
adjustment [32].
The voltage regulator has the operational purpose of maintaining voltage control and
compensating for voltage drops in the power grid transmission line. It is defined as a
control element by the RegControl element described in Table 4, which presents the basic
parameters of the element.

Table 4. Basic characteristics for modeling the RegControl element. Source: [31,32,34].

Parameter Description
transformer Controlled transformer name
winding controlled winding
vreg reference voltage
square Potential transformer transformation ratio
band Voltage value that defines the band around the reference value
Indicates whether the regulator can be switched to make
Reversible
regulation in the reverse direction
Revethreshold Reverse power in kW for regulator direction reversal
revband Bandwidth for operation in reverse mode

In [31,34,35], it is shown the OpenDSS operating parameters configure the voltage

regulator in reverse mode. This configuration, widely used in line regulators, is enabled on
the Reversible command, operates when the power flow is inverted and is more significant
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 7 of 19
than a threshold defined by the reveThreshold command.
Control of the voltage regulator can be accomplished by adjusting the preset param-
eters through the fixed TAP, as seen in Figure 3. In addition, it is necessary to set the
by default,
voltage thenominal
levels, amount transformer
of TAP of theratio,
transformer to berange
and voltage controlled
width.is In
equal to 32, that
OpenDSS is, 16
software,
TAPs
by abovethe
default, and 16 below
amount the neutral
of TAP of the position.
transformer to be controlled is equal to 32, that is,
16 TAPs above and 16 below the neutral position.

Figure3.3.Controlled
Figure Controlledwinding
windingtaps
taps in
in the
the default
default configuration.
configuration. Source:
Source: [32].
[32].

The voltage regulator can be dimensioned to operate in the electrical distribution net-
work from four basic configuration modes [36]. The first mode is presented in Figure 4,
which shows the connection model that performs control of the voltage level in the sec-
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 7 of 18
Figure 3. Controlled winding taps in the default configuration. Source: [32].

The voltage regulator can be dimensioned to operate in the electrical distribution

workregulator
The voltage from four basic
can configuration to
be dimensioned modes [36].inThe
operate the first modedistribution
electrical is presented in Figu
network fromwhich shows the connection model that performs control of the in
four basic configuration modes [36]. The first mode is presented voltage
Figurelevel
4, in the
which showsondary winding of the transformer to which it is connected. In this case, the voltage
the connection model that performs control of the voltage level in the sec-
ondary windingulatorof isthe
parameterized
transformer toto perform
which itoperations
is connected. as anInLTC thisorcase,
line regulator
the voltagewhen the m
regulator is parameterized
itored transformer is an autotransformer. It is worth pointing out when
to perform operations as an LTC or line regulator thewinding
that the
monitored transformer
monitored is an autotransformer.
should It isthe
not necessarily be worth
samepointing
as the one out that the
where the winding
TAPs are. The se
to be monitored
mode has a similar operation, and the difference is in the use of theare.
should not necessarily be the same as the one where the TAPs PT The
(Potential Tr
second modeformer)
has a similar operation, and the difference is in the use of the PT (Potential
that can be connected to any bar, allowing the simulation with smart grid de
Transformer)[32]
thatand
can[37].
be connected to any bar, allowing the simulation with smart grid
devices [32,37].

Figure
Figure 4. Voltage 4. Voltage
regulator regulatordiagram
connection connection
anddiagram and the parameters
the parameters assigned
assigned by by the OpenDSS
the OpenDSS
ware.
software. Source: Source: [31,32].
[31,32].

The third mode Theperforms

third mode Lineperforms Line Drop Compensation
Drop Compensation (LDC) voltage(LDC) level voltage
control, level
with control,
line voltage drop compensation. This mode is typically used for monitoring voltage le
line voltage drop compensation. This mode is typically used for monitoring voltage levels
at a load
at a load or load or load
center. Thecenter. The line resistance
line resistance (R) and reactance
(R) and reactance (X) parameters
(X) parameters must be must be
pliedasinwell
supplied in volts, volts,
as as
thewell as the
nominal nominal
current current
of the current of transformer
the current transformer
(CT) primary, (CT) prim
which is usedwhich is used to calculate the line voltage drop. The objective is to ensure that the TA
to calculate the line voltage drop. The objective is to ensure that the TAP of the
regulating transformer undergoes
the regulating regulation
transformer changes regulation
undergoes when taking the voltage
changes when drop reading
taking the voltage
along the line.reading
The analog
along the line. The analog circuit connection model is shownvoltage
circuit connection model is shown in Figure 5, with the in Figure 5, wit
drop, ∆Vcommp, expressed
voltage to emulate expressed
drop, Δ𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑝, the voltagetodrop in the
emulate theline drop in∆Vlinha,
impedance,
voltage the line impeda
reflected the Δ𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛h𝑎,
regulatorreflected
circuit. theTheregulator
line voltage drop is expressed as
circuit. The line voltage drop is the sum between
expressed as the sum
the line resistance and the line reactance multiplied by the line current. In contrast,
tween the line resistance and the line reactance multiplied by the line current. In con the
voltage drop in
thethe compensator
voltage drop inanalog circuit is expressed
the compensator as the compensation
analog circuit is expressed as impedance
the compensation
multiplied by the compensation current. To ∆Vcomp emulate the line voltage drop in the
pedance multiplied by the compensation current. To Δ𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 emulate the line vo
secondary of the TP, ∆Vcomp × ptratio must equal ∆Vlinha. That is, it equals ∆Vcommp to
drop in the secondary of the TP, Δ𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝 × ptratio must equal Δ𝑉𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛h𝑎. That is, it eq
∆Vlinha by reducing the value of ptratio, which is the TP transformation ratio that converts
the voltage in the controlled winding to the regulator’s control voltage level.
The voltage regulator can also operate in reverse mode, applied to line regulators, and
is enabled in OpenDSS from the reversible command. Its operation is activated when the
power flow is inverted and exceeds the limits defined by the revThreshold parameter. In
this mode, you can define parameters similar to those defined in the previous modes, but
with the rev prefix, for example, revband, revreg, revR, and revX. There are two important
parameters to specify in this mode. One is revDelay, which corresponds to the time needed
for the control initiation action in reverse mode to start once power flow in the reverse
direction above the threshold is detected. The other parameter corresponds to revNeutral.
When set to “Yes,” whenever the regulator enters reverse mode, the TAP position is fixed
at the neutral position.
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 8 of 19

Energies 2023, 16, 1307 8 of 18

Δ𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑝 to Δ𝑉𝑙𝑖𝑛h𝑎 by reducing the value of ptratio, which is the TP transformation ratio
that converts the voltage in the controlled winding to the regulator's control voltage level.

Figure5.
Figure 5. Voltage
VoltageRegulator
Regulatorwith
withLine
LineVoltage
VoltageDrop
DropCompensation.
Compensation.Source:
Source:[32].
[32].

The voltage
3.4. Feeder regulator can also operate in reverse mode, applied to line regulators,
Description
and isA enabled
real feederin OpenDSS
from the from
localthe reversiblesystem
distribution command. wasIts operation
used, whichissupplies
activatedpower
when
the power
through flow is inverted
a primary electricaland exceeds
network the limitsvoltage
in medium defined by the
(MV) andrevThreshold parameter.
the secondary circuits
Inlow
in thisvoltage
mode, you (LV),can define parameters
as shown in Figure 6. similar to those
The primary defined
network in the previous
originates modes,
in an electrical
but with the
substation (ES)rev prefix,
with for example,
a transformer withrevband,
nominalrevreg,
power revR,
of 5MVA,and arevX. There are two
transformation ratioim-
of
portant parameters
69.0/13.8 to specify
kV, and supplies in this
power onmode. One is revDelay,
a “permanent basis” towhich corresponds
five secondary to the time
distribution
needed for theAmong
transformers. control them,
initiation
one action
belongs in to
reverse mode
a private to start once
consumer power75kVA
unit with flow in the
nom-
reverse
inal direction
power, and fourabovewiththe112.5
threshold is detected.
kVA nominal power Thebelong
other to parameter correspondsAll
the concessionaire; to
revNeutral. When set to “Yes,” whenever the regulator enters reverse mode, the TAP po-
transformers have a 13.8 kV/380 V transformation ratio and a “Delta-star” type connection.
sition is fixed
The at the
LV radial neutral
electric position.start from distribution transformers with an operating
networks
voltage level of 380 V phase-phase (three-phase line voltage) and 220 V phase-neutral
3.4. Feeder Description
single-phase voltage and present in their structure three-phase overhead lines that operate
in unbalanced
A real feederconditions,
from thetransmitting electric power
local distribution system in was
the 4-wire
used, model
whichtosupplies
the connected
power
consumer units.
through a primary electrical network in medium voltage (MV) and the secondary circuits
For this purpose, a total of 107 buses (busbars and/or nodes) are allocated in their
in low voltage (LV), as shown in Figure 6. The primary network originates in an electrical
actual positions, arranged in order to perform the branches and the support of the electrical
substation (ES) with a transformer with nominal power of 5MVA, a transformation ratio
distribution network. The rules were adopted for the average distance between the utility
of 69.0/13.8 kV, and supplies power on a “permanent basis” to five secondary distribution
bars, which is 35 m, while the distance for the connection branches, “utility-bar” and
transformers. Among them, one belongs to a private consumer unit with 75kVA nominal
“consumer-bar,” varies between 5 and 20 m. The value of 20 m applies when the consumer
power, and four with 112.5 kVA nominal power belong to the concessionaire; All trans-
unit is on the opposite side of the unilateral bus, characterized as a bilateral bus.
formers have a 13.8 kV/380 V transformation ratio and a “Delta-star” type connection.
The number of consumer units connected to a single pole/busbar is six loads, accord-
ing to the actual distribution. To make these connections, some factors were considered:
such as the layout of the cables, the distance from the consumer units, and obstacles (trees,
houses, roofs, among others). When the network cable layout was unilateral on the street,
it was considered the connection of three consumer units on the same side of the pole and
three consumer units on the opposite side of the pole. For the bilateral arrangement on
the same street, the busbar connection, only three consumer units per pole (busbar) were
considered. The electrical network presented in Figure 6 has in its totality 601 consumer
units connected to different types of consumption profiles. From this total, 548 are loads
with a residential profile and 53 with a commercial profile.
Energies 2023,16,
Energies2023, 16,1307
1307 99 of
of 18
19

Figure 6. Low and Medium Voltage electrical distribution network.

Figure 6. Low and Medium Voltage electrical distribution network.

The
In LV 5,
Table radial electric networks
the electrical start from
characteristics of thedistribution
loads connectedtransformers
to the gridwith
arean operat-
specified,
ing voltage
such levelofofconnection,
as the type 380 V phase-phase
the number(three-phase
of consumer lineunits
voltage) and 220
per phase of V phase-neutral
their respective
single-phase voltage and present in their structure three-phase overhead
transformer, and the nomenclature of each transformer used. In addition to this, the lines that operate
total
in unbalanced conditions, transmitting electric power in the 4-wire
number of consumer units per phase is observed. It is important to emphasize that these model to the con-
nected consumer units.
are real data and the modeling in the software followed the same criteria established in the
For data.
collected this purpose, a total of 107 buses (busbars and/or nodes) are allocated in their
actual positions, arranged in order to perform the branches and the support of the electri-
cal distribution
Table 5. Number ofnetwork.
consumerThe unitsrules were per
connected adopted
phase inforeach
thetransformer.
average distance between the
utility bars, which is 35 m, while the distance for the connection branches, “utility-bar”
Identification of andSingle-Phase
“consumer-bar,”Loads varies between 5 and
Biphasic 20 m. The
Loads Threevalue
PhaseofLoads
20 m appliesTotal when the
Transformers Phase A Phase B Phase C AB Phase ABC Phase Consumers
consumer unit is on the opposite side of the unilateral bus, characterized as a bilateral bus.
TRAFO-A 122 The number
- of consumer
5 units connected
- to a single pole/busbar
1 is six loads,
128 accord-
TRAFO-B 144ing to the actual
3 2 1 15
distribution. To make these connections, some factors were considered: 165
TRAFO-C 120 6 6 - 10 142
such as the layout of the cables, the distance from the consumer units, and obstacles (trees,
TRAFO-D 100 20 20 5 20 165
TRAFO-E - houses, roofs, - among others). - When the network
- cable layout- was unilateral on the 1 street,
it was considered the connection of three consumer units on the same side of the pole and
Total 486 29 33 6 46 601
three consumer units on the opposite side of the pole. For the bilateral arrangement on
the same street, the busbar connection, only three consumer units per pole (busbar) were
considered.
The loads The electricaltonetwork
connected presented
the secondary in Figure
network 6 has inpower
are constant its totality
(PQ) 601
and consumer
present a
units connected
power factor equal to different
to 0.92. Thetypes of consumption
reactive profiles. was
power production From this total, in
considered 548minimum
are loads
with a residential
conditions profile andnetwork,
for the secondary 53 with knowing
a commercialthat, profile.
in reality, this factor is disregarded by
In Table
the utilities for5,the
thesecondary
electrical characteristics of the loads connected to the grid are specified,
distribution system.
such as the type of connection,ofthe
The electrical parameters thenumber
voltageof consumerconnected
regulators units per tophase of their
the grid respective
are presented
transformer,
in Table 6. Alland thethe nomenclature
regulators of each transformer
are three-phase configuredused. In addition
as voltage to this,
regulators the Line
with total
number
Drop of consumer(LDC)
Compensation units per
andphase
have aisVTobserved. It is important to
with a transformation emphasize
ratio that these
of 20:1, according
arethe
to real data and standards
regulatory the modeling in utility
of the the software
[28]. Thefollowed the same
regulators criteria
allocated established
in the lines were in
the collected data.
configured in reverse mode to verify the behavior of the voltage levels downstream and
upstream of the bus to which it is connected.
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 10 of 18

Table 6. Voltage regulators.

Number of Ref. Secondary Primary Monitored

Regulators Band Delay R Line X Line
Phases Voltage CT Phase
REGTRA_AB 3 120 1 2 0.4 0.6 20 ABC
REGTRA_C 3 120 2 2 0.4 0.6 20 C
REGTRA_D 3 120 2 2 0.4 0.6 20 A
REGFASE_A 1 120 2 2 0.4 0.6 20 A
REGFASE_B 1 120 2 2 0.4 0.6 20 B
REGFASE_C 1 120 2 2 0.4 0.6 20 C

4. Methodology
For the simulations, the software OpenDSS (Open Distribution System Simulator) was
used, developed by Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), to carry out the analysis of
the electric power system in a steady state in a Permanent sinusoidal regime—RMS.
The program performs most of the analyses in a Permanent sinusoidal regime (RMS),
which is widely used to carry out the planning studies of electric energy distribution
systems [32,34]. OpenDSS performs studies related to the electrical system, for load flow, a
connection of distributed generators, and in the study of smart grid solutions and practices
(Smart Grid).
The real MV and LV distribution network was modeled in the OpenDSS software
through the normative technical parameters, characteristics of the real demand curves
of the feeder in question, the loads (consumer units) allocated and configured for each
connected transformer, in addition to the connection of photovoltaic systems. Figure 7
represents the modeled curve for the connected photovoltaic systems, obeying a solar
irradiation profile with high variability and, for the loads, a load curve (demand) with
average load was inserted, of the actual feeder in question, with the objective of configuring
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 11 of 19
the software with technical and operational data and thus conducting the analyses as close
to normality as possible.

Figure
Figure 7.
7. Solar
Solar irradiation
irradiation curve
curve with
with high
high variability
variability [18].
[18].

The prosumersand
The prosumers andtraditional
traditionalconsumer
consumer units
units were
were allocated
allocated to their
to their buses,buses, and
and their
their load consumptions were assigned considering the regulations of the local utility
load consumptions were assigned considering the regulations of the local utility in case in
of
installation of distributed photovoltaic—PV microgenerators and minigenerators.
case of installation of distributed photovoltaic—PV microgenerators and minigenerators. Thus, it
was possible
Thus, to analyze
it was possible to the behavior
analyze of voltageoflevels
the behavior through
voltage levels responses from monitors
through responses from
implemented at strategic points of the lines, transformers, and voltage regulators
monitors implemented at strategic points of the lines, transformers, and voltage regula- installed
when
tors large medium
installed and low-scale
when large medium and voltage PV systems
low-scale are
voltage PVconnected
systems are to the feeder. to the
connected
feeder.

4.1. Description of Scenarios

4.1.1. Scenario 1 (Base)—Distribution System without PV Distributed Generation
In this scenario, a simulation of the electrical distribution network was performed in
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 11 of 18

4.1. Description of Scenarios

4.1.1. Scenario 1 (Base)—Distribution System without PV Distributed Generation
In this scenario, a simulation of the electrical distribution network was performed
in the absence of power from the photovoltaic generators. Energy analyzers (Monitors)
were modeled and allocated in strategic positions to record the behavior of the power flow
in the lines, voltage unbalance levels, and variation of the voltage regulator TAP position
levels, in addition to other technical parameters that support the system analysis. It is
worth noting that the demand curves were submitted to the feeder, varying the carrying
percentage and framing it in conventional (nominal) loading and high loading according to
the profile of the consumers connected to the feeder.

4.1.2. Scenario 2—Insertion of Single-Phase and Three-Phase PV Systems with Power

Demands Varying with the Daily Profile
In this scenario, the PV generators were introduced at the system busbars, separating
them between three-phase and single-phase cases. For both cases, the simulations per-
formed were divided into the variation of load demand and photovoltaic power with daily
profile curves. The separation between the cases of three-phase and single-phase connec-
tions aimed to separate the effects of both since unbalanced connections tend to increase
voltage unbalance rates. Subsequently, both situations will be considered simultaneously.
The active power supplied by the photovoltaic systems massively connected to the feeder
was parameterized at 20% (single-phase), 35% (three-phase), and 55% (three-phase and
single-phase) with the feeder demand curve at average load.
In Table 7, it is possible to identify the PV generators that were introduced to the
feeders and other characteristics such as phase, connected transformer, operating voltage
level, and installed power. It is worth noting that the power of the generators followed
a variation profile according to the percentages mentioned in the previous paragraph,
making it possible to extract the maximum from the feeders to which these PV generators
were connected.

Table 7. Description of the distributed generators connected to the feeder.

Voltage Power Voltage Power

PVSystem Phases BusBAR PVSystem Phases BusBAR
(V) (kW) (V) (kW)
PV1TRA 1 01BT_TRA.1 220 8
PV2TRA 1 02BT_TRA.1 220 6 PV20TRA 1 20BT_TRA.1 220 10
PV3TRA 1 03BT_TRA.1 220 7 PV21TRA 3 17BT_TRA 380 25
PV4TRA 1 04BT_TRA.1 220 10 PV1TRB 3 01BT_TRB 380 40
PV5TRA 1 05BT_TRA.1 220 9 PV2TRB 3 03BT_TRB 380 35
PV6TRA 1 06BT_TRA.1 220 7 PV3TRB 3 06BT_TRB 380 50
PV7TRA 1 07BT_TRA.1 220 10 PV1TRD 3 Busbar_CLIENTEBT_TRD 380 120
PV8TRA 1 08BT_TRA.1 220 8 PV2TRD 3 Busbar_CLIENTEBT_TRD 380 120
PV9TRA 1 09BT_TRA.1 220 10 PV1TRC 3 21BT_TRC 380 28
PV10TRA 1 10BT_TRA.1 220 11 PV2TRC 3 19BT_TRC 380 18
PV11TRA 1 11BT_TRA.1 220 2 PV3TRC 1 18BT_TRC 220 12
PV12TRA 1 12BT_TRA.1 220 6 PV4TRC 1 14BT_TRC 220 10
PV13TRA 1 13BT_TRA.1 220 10 PV5TRC 1 15BT_TRC 220 12
PV14TRA 1 14BT_TRA.1 220 8 PV6TRC 1 16BT_TRC 220 12
PV15TRA 1 15BT_TRA.1 220 9 PV7TRC 1 17BT_TRC 220 10
PV16TRA 1 16BT_TRA.1 220 10 PV1TRE 3 CLIENTEBT_TRE 380 50
PV17TRA 1 17BT_TRA.1 220 7 PV2TRE 3 CLIENTEBT_TRE 380 35
PV18TRA 1 18BT_TRA.1 220 6 PV3TRE 3 CLIENTEBT_TRE 380 35
PV19TRA 1 19BT_TRA.1 220 9 PV4TRE 3 CLIENTEBT_TRE 380 55

5. Results
When analyzing the results, it was possible to observe electrical parameters close to
the real operating characteristics, in voltage levels, active and reactive power, as can be
seen in Figure 8a–c. As it is an unbalanced circuit, as seen in Table 6, where most of the
loads connected to low voltage radiating circuits are concentrated in phases A and B, it
was expected that the simulated results projected this high imbalance between the phases.
 PV19TRA 1 19BT_TRA.1 220 9 PV4TRE 3 CLIENTEBT_TRE 380 55

5. Results
When analyzing the results, it was possible to observe electrical parameters close to
the real operating characteristics, in voltage levels, active and reactive power, as can be
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 12 of 18
seen in Figure 8a–c. As it is an unbalanced circuit, as seen in Table 6, where most of the
loads connected to low voltage radiating circuits are concentrated in phases A and B, it
was expected that the simulated results projected this high imbalance between the phases.
Figure
Figure 8b,c
8b,chighlight
highlightthethevalues
valuesof of
active andand
active reactive demand
reactive “requested”
demand by the
“requested” byconsumer
the con-
units
sumer units to the electrical substation, respectively. Figure 8c shows the values ofpower
to the electrical substation, respectively. Figure 8c shows the values of reactive reac-
contained
tive powerincontained
the system since,
in the at low
system voltage,
since, thevoltage,
at low consumers are connected
the consumers are to the feeder
connected to
through a power factor of 0.92, justifying the unbalance contained in the circuit and the
the feeder through a power factor of 0.92, justifying the unbalance contained in the circuit
prevalence of reactive power in Phase A of the electrical network.
and the prevalence of reactive power in Phase A of the electrical network.

Energies 2023, 16, 1307 13 of 19

(a) Voltage level (b) Power supplied by the substation

(c) Reactive power seen by the substation

Figure 8. Simulation results for the base case.
Figure 8. Simulation results for the base case.

Figure9a–c
Figure 9a–cgraphically
graphicallypresent
presentthetheactive
activepowers
powersof ofthe
thefeeder
feederobserved
observedbybyaamonitor
monitor
allocated at
allocated at the
theoutput
outputof ofthe
theelectrical
electricalsubstation
substationwhenwhensingle-phase,
single-phase, three-phase,
three-phase, and
and
two-phase distributed
two-phase distributed PV PV generators
generators were
were connected
connected to to the
thecircuit
circuitsimultaneously.
simultaneously.The
The
installation of PV generators in consumer units followed an asymmetrical
installation of PV generators in consumer units followed an asymmetrical distribution distribution
profile,focusing
profile, focusingon oneach
eachprosumer’s
prosumer’spowerpoweravailability
availabilityand
andcompatibility.
compatibility.Even
Evenwith
withthe
the
realunbalance
real unbalanceof ofthe
thefeeder,
feeder,ititwas
waspossible
possibleto toconnect
connectthethePV PVgenerators
generatorswithout
withoutaltering
altering
thetechnical
the technicalparameters
parametersofofthethenetwork,
network,i.e.,
i.e.,
thethe voltage
voltage limits
limits and and
thethe power
power quality
quality pro-
profile
file established
established bynormative
by the the normative characteristics.
characteristics. Thus,Thus, the limits
the limits were notwere not exceeded
exceeded duringdur-
the
ing the network
network operation,operation, demonstrating
demonstrating that theregulators
that the voltage voltage regulators were to
were sufficient sufficient
maintain to
maintain
the voltagethe voltage
within thewithin theenergy
adequate adequate energy
supply supply levels.
levels.
 installation of PV generators in consumer units followed an asymmetrical distribution
profile, focusing on each prosumer’s power availability and compatibility. Even with the
real unbalance of the feeder, it was possible to connect the PV generators without altering
the technical parameters of the network, i.e., the voltage limits and the power quality pro-
file established by the normative characteristics. Thus, the limits were not exceeded dur-
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 13 of 18
ing the network operation, demonstrating that the voltage regulators were sufficient to
maintain the voltage within the adequate energy supply levels.

Energies 2023, 16, 1307 14 of 19

(a) Single-phase PV generators connected (b) Three-phase PV generators connected

(c) Single-phase and three-phase PV generators connected

Figure 9. Results of simulations with penetration of photovoltaic systems to the electrical grid.
Figure 9. Results of simulations with penetration of photovoltaic systems to the electrical grid.

In Figure 9a–c,
In Figure 9a–c,ititwas
wasobserved
observedthat thatduring
during the
the contribution
contribution period
period of the
of the PV-distrib-
PV-distributed
uted generators
generators connected
connected to thetofeeder
the feeder between
between 5 am 5andam5andpm,5therepm, there was power
was power compensa-com-
pensation
tion from the from the substation
substation compared compared
to thetobase
the case.
base case. An unbalance
An unbalance betweenbetween
phases phases
was
was observed,
observed, causedcaused
by thebymassive
the massive connection
connection of PVofgenerators
PV generatorsto Phaseto Phase
A of theA of the feeder
feeder since
since
it has itmany
has many consumer
consumer units units connected.
connected. In Phase
In Phase C, however,
C, however, relatively
relatively few changes
few changes were
were observed throughout the day, remaining practically
observed throughout the day, remaining practically unchanged from the base caseunchanged from the base
seencase
in
seen
Figure in 8b.
Figure 8b.
Figure
Figure 9b,
9b, with
with only
only the
the installation
installation ofof three-phase
three-phase PV PV generators,
generators, the the expected
expected nat- nat-
urally
urally occurred;
occurred; all phases received
all phases balanced, active
received balanced, active power, which caused
power, which caused an an imbalance
imbalance
between
between phase
phase C C in
in relation
relation to phases A
to phases A and
and B,B, an
an unexpected
unexpected situation
situation whenwhen it occurs
it occurs
the connection of three-phase systems to the electrical grid. In this particular case, this
the connection of three-phase systems to the electrical grid. In this particular case, this
discrepancy
discrepancy occurred
occurred due due toto the
the load
load distribution
distribution characteristics
characteristics alongalong the
the feeder;
feeder; as as seen
seen
in
in Table 5, phase
Table 5, phase C C has
has the
the fewest
fewest connected
connected consumer
consumer units,
units, making
making it it idler
idler compared
compared to to
the other phases.
the other phases. Justifying
Justifying thethereverse
reversepower
powerflow flowininthe
theline
linethat
that occurs
occurs between
between 7 am
7 am to
to
2 pm2 pmandand at varying
at varying peaks
peaks at 3atpm
3 pm
andand 4 pm,
4 pm, portraying
portraying thatthat during
during the the operation
operation of PVof
PV generators,
generators, therethere
waswas excess
excess active
active powerpower in this
in this phase.
phase.
In Figure 9c, it can be observed through the results of the behavior of the power flow
in the feeder when single-phase and three-phase PV generators are connected to it simul-
taneously. In the period of the contribution of the generators, between 5:00 am to 5:30 pm,
it is seen that there was excess power flow in the three phases of the circuit, highlighted
in Figure 9c, with the presence of reverse power flow in phases A (−50 kW), B (−40 kW)
and C (−15 kW) approximately. Furthermore, during the grid operation, unbalance be-
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 14 of 18

In Figure 9c, it can be observed through the results of the behavior of the power
flow in the feeder when single-phase and three-phase PV generators are connected to it
simultaneously. In the period of the contribution of the generators, between 5:00 am to 5:30
pm, it is seen that there was excess power flow in the three phases of the circuit, highlighted
in Figure 9c, with the presence of reverse power flow in phases A (−50 kW), B (−40 kW) and
C (−15 kW) approximately. Furthermore, during the grid operation, unbalance between
phases was observed between the period of the PV generator’s contributions, and the
amplitude of the reverse power flow between phases decreased. System response signals
the power contribution from the PV generators in this period.
The significant presence of reverse power flow reflects the excess power in the feeder’s
distribution lines, linked to the demand profile with average load, influencing the grid’s
electric power quality parameters. The unbalance in the voltage levels, which directly
affected the functioning of the voltage regulators installed in the feeder, had to increase
during the operation, and the adjustments in the transformer TAP to keep these variations
in the voltage profile regularized. Coupled with this unbalance, the presence of short-
duration voltage variations was concluded by the numerous attempts of regulators to
regularize the voltage levels. When PV generators are included in a distribution network,
the taps of voltage regulating devices automatically adjust to accommodate the voltage
increase caused by these generators. However, suppose the PV systems are disconnected
from the grid. The new tap positions may cause voltage drops, impairing the quality of
power supplied to the loads since the voltage regulator actuation is slow, taking tens of
seconds to recover the voltage to the desired value.
In Figure 10a–d, the behavior of the voltage regulators can be observed through the
transformer TAP’s maneuvers for the base case without the connection of PV generators,
only with single-phase generators connected, only three-phase and both simultaneously,
respectively. For the base case, the TAP adjustment maneuvers that occurred during the
daily period were justified by the natural voltage imbalance present in the feeder and
remained at levels with more stable levels without characteristic changes. The greatest
requests for adjustments occurred in the period of greatest load demand request to the
feeder, observed at night.
When comparing Figure 10b to the base case, it is seen that the insertion of only
single-phase PV generators caused high impacts when related to changes in transformer
tap positions, since the tap adjustment maneuvers during the solar contribution period
reached levels with high levels of regulation. When connecting three-phase PV distributed
generators, Figure 10c, there were changes in TAPs, however, with less demand for ad-
justment requests, varying their positions between +3 and +4. Peaks were observed at
7 am, 10 am, and 3 pm, and regression to their positions was verified in the base case,
demonstrating that there was a short-term voltage imbalance.
Figure 10d, on the other hand, shows the results when there was a massive connec-
tion of single and three-phase PV distributed generators simultaneously, highlighting
the high rate of requests to voltage regulators to perform the adjustment maneuvers in
the transformer’s TAP in order to regularize the changes in the grid voltage levels. This
problem was caused by the excess of circulating power coming from the injection of power
by the connected PV generators, contributing to the voltage unbalance in the lines and
consequently increasing the number of operations of the voltage regulators.
However, it was possible to conclude that the impact generated by the photovoltaic
systems connected to voltage regulation was small. This is due to the high three-phase
short-circuit power of the electrical substation, in accordance with the fact that the auto-
matic voltage regulator portrayed in the results of this article is located in the electrical
substation identified in Table 6 as REGFASE_A, REGFASE_B, and REGAFASE_C. Thus,
more intense PV generation variations would be necessary to change the tap position of the
automatic voltage regulator until inferring a significant change in the patterns of threshold
voltage levels.
 transformer TAP’s maneuvers for the base case without the connection of PV generators,
only with single-phase generators connected, only three-phase and both simultaneously,
respectively. For the base case, the TAP adjustment maneuvers that occurred during the
daily period were justified by the natural voltage imbalance present in the feeder and re-
Energies 2023, 16, 1307
mained at levels with more stable levels without characteristic changes. The greatest re-
15 of 18
quests for adjustments occurred in the period of greatest load demand request to the
feeder, observed at night.

(a) Base case (b) Single-phase PV generators connected

(c) Three-phase PV generators connected (d) Single-phase and three-phase PV generators connected
Figure 10. Variation of the voltage regulator TAP positions of the substation of the real distribution
Figure 10. Variation of the voltage regulator TAP positions of the substation of the real distribution
system in the period of one day.
system in the period of one day.
When comparing Figure 10b to the base case, it is seen that the insertion of only sin-
Therefore, with the objective of portraying the high changes of operations in the
gle-phase PV generators caused high impacts when related to changes in transformer tap
positions of the TAPs of the other voltage regulator equipment of this feeder, it was
positions, since the tap adjustment maneuvers during the solar contribution period
necessary to carry out the simulations not only considering the insertion of distributed PV
reached levels with high levels of regulation. When connecting three-phase PV distributed
generators but also for different variations in the demand curve of the feeder. In addition
to the scenarios assigned in Section 4.1, load demand curves were used, varying between
low and medium loading, projecting a consumption of 20% and 40%, respectively, for
each system evaluation period. In this way, the possibilities of simulations were increased,
meeting the objectives of the study, seeking to verify the “stress” in the regulation of the
voltage level in the distribution network caused by the massive insertion of PV generators
distributed along the feeder.
Table 8 depicts the number of operations performed by each voltage regulator con-
nected to the distribution network in question. Through it, it is possible to verify the
different behavior of the voltage regulators in view of the responses of the electrical system
through the operations carried out to accommodate the profiles of PV generators con-
nected to the network. In addition to the behavior, it is seen the importance of regulatory
equipment for an electrical distribution network.
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 16 of 18

Table 8. Number of voltage regulator operations.

Single-Phase and
Regulators Base Case Single-Phase GDFV Three-Phase GDFV
Three-Phase GDFV
PHASES A B C A B C A B C A B C
REGTRA_AB 7 3 2 6 4 3 8 5 4 9 4 2
REGTRA_C 7 3 2 8 3 2 12 8 3 12 4 3
REGTRA_D 6 6 6 10 5 1 6 5 2 10 2 4
REGFASE_A 5 3 3 6 3 4 8 6 4 8 3 2
REGFASE_B 6 4 2 7 2 2 4 4 6 9 6 6
REGFASE_C 6 4 2 7 2 2 4 4 6 9 6 6
TOTAL 37 23 17 44 19 14 42 32 25 57 25 23

Based on the results of Figure 10, it was concluded that the largest number of op-
erations carried out for voltage regulation by the regulating equipment occurred more
effectively in the daytime, with the largest insertion of distributed PV generators with great
oscillation in the generation. By merging the established scenarios with the variation of the
load curves of each prosumer connected to the powered one, it was possible to obtain the
results of the voltage regulators contained in Table 8.
However, it is worth mentioning that during the simulations, operations performed
by some voltage regulator equipment were observed that are not related to the increase in
the penetration of distributed PV generators to the grid—verified when the load demand
curve of the feeder was 20% more than its installed power, being equivalent to the base case
in question, during some periods of the day. In turn, the long-term voltage variation cannot
be observed through the responses of the voltage regulators in question because it was
attenuated by the injection of active power from the connected photovoltaic distributed
generators and presents similar numbers of regulation operations.
However, as there was a progressive increase in the connection of distributed gen-
erators and the change in the behavior of the demand curve (average), the short-term
voltage variation became quite significant. This fact occurred due to the great intermittence
contained in the local solar irradiation curve, which provided the superposition of long-
term voltage variations, directly contributing to the increase in the number of adjustment
operations by the regulatory equipment. It is observed in Table 8 that mainly there was an
increasing rate of installations of distributed generators with different single-phase and
three-phase power levels simultaneously to PHASE A.

6. Conclusions
The injection of active power by photovoltaic generators causes an increase in nodal
voltages in all phases if it is performed in a balanced way between the phases of the
electrical system. These findings can be justified by the facts portrayed in this article, firstly
by the special characteristic of this feeder under study, as it is an unbalanced network, with
phase A being significantly more loaded than the others. For this reason, voltage regulators
connected to Phase A are the most affected by voltage variations on the feeder.
For the case of connecting single-phase generators, it was possible to conclude that the
voltages of the three phases of the system are affected, and not only the voltage of the phase
in which they are installed. This happens due to the displacement of the neutral position,
caused by the variation in the level of unbalance and the existence of mutual coupling
between the phases. An aspect of great relevance is that the increase in the distributed
generation in one of the phases can provoke the reduction in the voltage in another phase.
Distributed generators influence the actuation of automatic voltage regulators, causing
additional device tap changes. The relevant positive point is that the action of the voltage
regulator avoided the violation of the steady-state voltage limits as the active power
injected by the generators increased. Therefore, in general, voltage regulators can allow an
Energies 2023, 16, 1307 17 of 18

increase in the penetration level of distributed generation without violating the steady-state
voltage limits.
The power increase in the photovoltaic generation reduced the voltage unbalance
index when the three-phase generators and maximum load were considered. For single-
phase generators, the voltage unbalance index increased significantly, reaching values very
close to the normative limits. However, when multiple generators distributed on different
buses and phases were considered, the increase in the level of unbalance was more modest
when compared to the value calculated when the generators were concentrated in a single-
phase bus. This shows, once again, the benefit of providing a balance between the phases
when connecting the photovoltaic generators. In the period when the PV system provides
maximum active power, there is an average load demand on the distribution system. In
this way, reverse power flow situations are possible when the degree of penetration of
photovoltaic generators is high.

Author Contributions: The author G.F.d.N. developed the entire theoretical study, contemplating
the modeling and computational simulation, as well as the entire writing of this article. The other
authors F.X.L.; I.C.T.; C.T. contributed with supervision, comments, written revisions and translations.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: We thank the Fundação Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível
Superior (CAPES) and Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, for supporting research projects in
solar energy and providing the material means and the scientific environment for the execution of
this research.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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