CHAPT

ER 1
EXPONENTIAL AND ROOTS
NUMBER

1.1 Exponents

1.1.1 Powers
The number 5² is read “five squared” or “five to the second power”. The 5
is called a base number. The 2 is called an exponent.

E.g.
3
5 is “five cubed” or “five to the third”
4
5 is “five to the fourth”
5
5 is “five to the fifth”
6
5 is “five to the sixth”
The exponent tells you to multiply the base number times itself the
number the exponent indicates. 5² means 5 times itself or 5 × 5 = 25

1.1.2 Exponents
Exponential notation is a short way of writing the same number multiplied
by itself many times. This is very useful in everyday life. You may have
heard someone describe the size of an area in square metres or square
kilometres. For example, the largest radio telescope in the world is being built
in South Africa. The telescope is called the square kilometre array, or SKA.
This is because the telescope will occupy an area of 1 kilometre by 1
kilometre or 1 kilometre squared.

1
 Exponents are also very useful to describe very large and very small
numbers. For example, the SKA will be detecting incredibly weak signals from
objects which are so far away that to write out the strength of the signal or the
number of kilometres away in full would be impractical. Outside of astronomy,
exponents are used by many other professions such as computer programmers,
engineers, economists, financial analysts, biologists and demographers.
You have already been introduced to exponents and exponent laws in
previous grades. Remember that exponents can also be called indices or powers.
Exponential notation is as follows:

Look at the following examples to see these identities in action:

1. 3 ×3=32=9
2. 5 ×5 ×5 ×5=54
3. p × p × p= p 3
4. (3 x )0=1
−4 1 1
5. 2 = =
2 16
4

1 x
6. −x
=5
5

Example 1 :
1. Simplify:
a. 54 c. −6 5
b. (−13)2

2
(−9 a )3

Solution :
4
a. 5 =5 ×5 ×5 ×5=625
b. (−13 )2= (−13 ) × (−13 )=169
5
c. −6 =−( 6 ×6 × 6 ×6 × 6 )=−7.776
d. (−9 a )3=(−9 a ) × (−9 a ) × (−9 a )=−729 a3
2. Determine the value of x and y that represent the following equation:
a. x 3=−125
b. x 2=256
5 19
c. y =−7
32

Solution :
a. 3
x =−125 5 19
c. y =−7
3
x =(−5)
3
32
x=−5 5 −243
y=
So, the value of x=−5 32
5
5 −3
y =( )
b. x 2=256 2
2 2 2
x =¿ 16 or x =¿ ¿ −3
y=
x=16 x=16 2
So, the value of −3
So, the value of y=
x=−16 or x=16 2

1.1.3 Scientific Notation

Scientific notation is way of writing very large or very small numbers.
A number is written is Scientific notation when a number b

Scientific notation of biggest number that a × 10n with 1 ≤ a<10, n is positive

integers.
Scientific notation of biggest number that a × 10n with 1 ≤ a<10, n is positive
integers.

Example 2 :
Express the following number using scientific notation:

3
 a. 345.000 .000 c. 0,000068
b. 10.000 .000 .000.000 d. 0,00000078 9

Solution :
a. 345.000 .000=3 , 45× 100.000 .000
8
¿ 3 , 45 ×10 a=3 , 45∧n=8
8

b. 10.000 .000 .000.000=1 , 0× 10.000 .000.000 .000

13
¿ 1 ×10 a=1∧n=13
13
c. 0,000068¿ 6 , 8 :100.000
1
5 ¿6,8×
100.000
−5
¿ 6 , 8 ×10 a=6 , 8∧n=−5
d. 0,000000789¿ 7 , 89 :10.000 .000
1
5 ¿ 7 , 89 ×
10.000 .000
−7
¿ 7 , 89 ×10 a=7 , 89∧n=−7

Example 3 :
What is 65 , 84 × 103 represent scientific nitation from65.840

Solution :
In scientific notation a × 10n, a must less than 10, therefore65 , 84 isn’t
less than 10, then 65 , 84 × 103 isn’t scientific nitation from65.840 ,
although 65 , 84 × 103=65.840

Exercise 1 :
1. Determine the result of the following exponent!
a. −172
b. 2(−11)3
c. (3 a)5
d. 4 (−5 x ) 4
2. Determine the value of x in the following equation:
a. x 2=324
b. x 3=−512
c. 3 x 2=−507
3. Write in scientific notation:
a. 47.690
b. 4.600.000
c. 0,38
d. 0,000546

4
 e. 384.000.000
f. 18.000.000.000

1.1.4 Exponential Fraction

a
For any fraction with b ≠ 0 , exponential difined by:
b

()
2
a a a
 = ×
b b b

( ab ) = ab × ab × ab × ab
4


( ab ) = ab × ba × ab × ab × ab × ab
6


Therefore,

()
n
a a a a a a a
= × × × × × ; with b ≠ 0 and n is an Integer
b b b b b b b
n factors

Example 4 :
Determine the result of each exponential!

() ( )
4 −2
3 −4
a. c.
5 7

(−1 13 ) ( −45 a )
3 −3
b. d.

Solution:

()
4
3 3 3 3 3 81
a. = × × × =
5 5 5 5 5 625

(−1 13 ) =(−43 )× ( −43 ) × ( −43 )=( −64 ) =(−2 )

3
10
b.
27 27

5
 ( )
−2
−4 1

( ) ( ) ( )( )
= −7
2
−7 −7 49 1
c. 7 −4
2
¿ = × = =3
4 4 4 16 16
7

( −45 a ) = −41a =( −5 ) =( ) ×( ) ×( )
−3 3
−5 −5 −5 125
=
( 5 ) 4 a 4 a 4 a 4 a 64 a
3 3
d.

Exercise 2 :
1. Determine the result of the following exponent:

() ( )
3 −5
3 1
a. d. −1
4 2

( ) ( )
4 3
−2 −5 x
b. e.
3 6y

( ) ( )
−4 −5
−2 −3 m
c. f.
5 5n

1.2 Rational Exponents

Roots
The mathematical symbol for square root is √ ❑
How to read:
 √ a = The square root of a
 √3 a= The cube root of a
 √ a2 = The square root of a squre
 √3 a3= The cube root of a cube
1.2.1 Multiplying of roots
Looks at the commentary!
1. √ 9 × √ 16=3× 4=12
or
√ 9 × √ 16=√ 9× 16= √144=12
So, √ 9 × √ 16=√ 9× 16

√3 8 × √3 27=√23 × √33 =2× 3=6

3 3
2.
or
√3 8 × √3 27=√3 8× 27= √3 216=6

6
 So, √3 8 × √3 27=√3 8× 27

Based on the description above, can be shown:

1. √ a × √b=√ a ×b with a , b ≥ 0
2. √ a × √n b=√n a ×b
n

1.2.2 Relation of Rational Exponent with Roots of Number

For any number a with a ≠ 0, obtain:

m m
a =√ a ∨a =( √n a )
n n m n m

Example 5 :
Express each number as a rational exponent:
3 1 5
a. 4 5 c. 3 3 a 6
−2 −3
b. (−5 ) 3 d. −8 x 4

Solution:
3
a. 4 5 =√5 4 3= √5 64
−2
3 1 1 1
b. ( −5 ) = =3 =3
(−5 )3 √ (−5 )
2 2
√25
1 5 2 5
c. 3 3 a 6 =3 6 a 6 =√6 32 a5= √6 9 a 5
−3
4 −8 −8
d. −8 x = 3 =4 3
x4 √
x

1.3 Operation of Negative Exponent

To find the formula of multiplying and dividing negative exponent, we will
−n 1
use the formula a = n
a

7
 1.3.1 Multiplying of Negative Power.

m −n m 1 ¿a
−m+ n
 a × a =a × n
a
m
a
¿ n
a
−m −n 1 1
m−n  a ×a = × n
¿a a
m
a
−m n 1 n
 a ×a = m
×a 1
a ¿ m +n
n
a
a
¿ m
a ¿a
−(m +n)

n−m
¿a
−m−n
¿a

Based on the description above, can be shown:

−n m −n
 m
a × a =a
 a
−m n
×a ¿ a
−m+ n

−m −n −m−n
 a ×a =a

Example 6 :
Determine the result of each exponent:

1. 8 4 × 8−3
2. 9−5 × 96 ×9−4
3. ( a+ b )6 × ( a+ b )−8

Solution:
1. 8 4 × 8−3 =84 −3 =81=8
−5 6 −4 −5+ 6−4 −3 1 1
2. 9 × 9 ×9 =9 =9 = =
9 729
3

3. ( a+ b )6 × ( a+ b )−8=( a+ b )6−8 ¿ ( a+ b )−2

8
 1
¿ 2 2
a +2 ab+b

1.3.2 Dividing of Negative Power.

m −n m 1
 a : a =a : n
a
n
m a 1 1
¿a ×  a
−m −n
:a = : n
1 m
a a
m+n
¿a
n
m−(−n ) 1 a
¿a ¿ m
×
a 1

n
−m n 1 n a
 a :a = m
:a ¿ m
a a
1 1
¿ m
× n ¿a
(n−m)
a a
1 −m− ( −n)
¿ m +n
¿a
a
−(m +n)
¿a ¿a
−m+ n

−m−n
¿a

Based on the description above, can be shown:

−n
 m
a : a =a
m−(−n)
=a
m+ n

−m −m−n
 a :a ¿ a
n

−m −n −m−(−n) −m +n
 a ×a =a =a

Example 7 :
Determine the result of each exponent:

1. 4 3 :4−1 3. a 3 b 2 :a−3 b5
2. 5−2 :53
4. 35 a−6 ×32− 4 a

Solution:
1. 4 3 :4−1=43−(−1) ¿ 43 +1=4 4 =256

9
 −2 3 −2−3 −5 1 1
2. 5 :5 =5 =5 = =
5 3.125
2

6
3 2 −3 5 3−(−3 ) 2−5 6 −3 a
3. a b :a b =a b =a b = 3
b
a
5 a−6 2− 4 a ( 5 a−6) +(2−4 a) a−4 3 3a
4. 3 ×3 =3 =3 = ¿
3 81
4

1.3.3 Dividing Exponent with negative Power.

−n
( a m ) =am ×(−n )

Example 8 :
Determine the result of the following number!

−3 −4
a. ( 32 ) c. ( 2 a3 b2 )

( )
−2 3 −4
b. [ (−2 ) 4 ] 2a
d. 2
3b

Solution:
2 −3 1 1
a. ( 3 ) =3
2 × ( −3 ) −6
¿3 = =
3 729
6

4 −2 1 1
b. [ (−2 ) ] 4 ×(−2) −8
=(−2) =(−2 ) = =
(−2 ) 256
8

2 −4 1 1 1
c. ( 2 a b ) =
3
2 4
= 4 12 8
= 12 8
(2 a b ) 3
2 a b 16 a b

( ) ( )
3 −4 2 4 8
2a 1 3b 81 b
= = =

( )
2 3 4 3 12
d. 3b 2a 2a 16 a
3 b2

Exercise 3 :
1. Express the following number in root expression:

10
 4 5
a. 3 5 c. 4 a 9
3 1
b. −4 7 d. (−3 p )−1 3

2. Determine the result of exponential!

1 −1
a. 16 4 c. 625 4

2 −2
b. 25 3 d. (−8 ) 3

3. Determine the result of operation Exponential!

a 8 : ( a−7 × a4 )
7 −5 4
a. 6 × 6 :6 c.
−6 9 −2
b. 4 ×4 :4 d. 24 : ( 2−9 × 25 )

4. Determine the result of the following exponent!

−4 −6
a. ( 32 ) d. ( 2 a2 b3 )
−2 −5
b. (−22 ) e. ( 3 a 3 b−4 )
−3
c. ( 4 a−3 )

1.4 Rational Exponents

1.4.1 Multiplying of Exponential Fraction
We have a m × an =am +n
To find the formula of exponential fraction!

Based on the description above, can be shown:

11
 m p m p
+
n q n q
a × a =a

1.4.2 Dividing of Exponential Fraction

m p mq pn
a n : a q =a nq : a nq
mq
1
¿ a nq × pn
nq
a
mq − pn
¿ a nq × a nq

¿ √ amq × √ a−pn
nq nq

¿ √ amq ×a− pn
nq

¿ √ amq− pn
nq

mq pn
¿ a nq −a nq
m p
−
¿a n q

Based on the result, we get the following formula.

m p m p
−
a n : aq ¿ a n q

Example 9 :
Determine the result of the following number!
1 1 3 1
1. 8 2 ×8 6 3. 91 4 :9 4
3 7 4 2
2. 3 a 4 × 2 a 8 4. 12 x 9 : 4 x 3

Solution:
1 1 3 1 6 7
1. 8 2 ×8 6 =8 6 + 6 ¿6a8
+
8

4 13
6 8
¿8 ¿6a
2 5
1
3
¿8 ¿6a 8
¿ √ 82 ¿ 6 a √ a5
3 8

¿4
3 7 6 7 3 1 7 1
2. 3 a 4 × 2 a 8 =3 a 8 × 2a 8 3. 91 4 :9 4 =9 4 − 4

12
 6 4 6
−
4 9 9
¿9 ¿3 x
3 −2
2 9
¿9 ¿3 x
¿ √ 92 3
¿9 2
¿ √ 729 √x
¿ 27
4 2 4 6
4. 12 x 9 : 4 x 3 =12 x 9 : 4 x 9

1.4.3 Exponent of Rational Exponential

The multiplication law of fractional indices:
m p m p
+
a n × a q =a n q

Based on the law, then:

m
n
m
n
m
n
m m m
+ +
n n n
3 ( mn )
a × a ×a =a =a

Check out this power.

( a ) =a
m p m m m m
n n n n n
×a × a ×… × a
p factors
m m m m
+ + +…+
n n n n
¿a
p term
m
×p
n
¿a

( ) ( )
m p m m p m
So, a n =a n × p or a n =a p n

In general we get the formula:

( a ) =a ( )
m p m m p m
×p
n n or a n =a p n

¿
p

( a ) =a
m m p
q ×
n n q
where n , q ≠ 0

Example 10 :
Simplify of the following number!

13
 (4 )
( )
3 2 −2 −4
1. 4 3
x
3.
(a )
5 −4 2
1
2. 7
y 2

(8 )
3
4. 4
9

Solution:

( 4 ) =4
3 2 3 1
×2 1
1. 4 4
=4 2 =4 √ 4=4 × 2=8

( a ) =a
5 −4 5 −20 6
× (−4) −2
2. 7 7
=a 7
=a 7

( ) (x )
−2 −4 −2 −4 8 8
3 3 4 4 2 2
x x x 2 2
3. = = = =x 3 × y 10=x 3 y 10
(y )
1 −4 −10
2
2 2
1
y 1
y 2
y 10
8

( 8 ) =8
3 3 8 24 2
4. 4
9 ×
4 9
=8 36 =8 3 =√ 8 = √ 64=4
3 2 3

1.5 Operation of Root numbers

1.5.1 Simplifying Irrational Root numbers
Student’s Activity
Simplify irrational root number:
1. √ 63= √… × 7= √… × √7=… √ 7
2. √ 80= √ …× 5=√ … × √ 5=… √ 5
3. √3 72=√3 … × 9=√3 … × √3 9=… √3 9
4. √3 108= √3 … × 4=√3 … × √3 …=… √3 …

1.5.2 Multiplication and Dividing of Root Numbers

If a and b for any integers, then :
1. √ a × √b=√ a ×b
2. √3 a × √3 b=√3 a ×b
3. √ a : √ b=√ a :b
4. √3 a : √3 b=√3 a :b

Example 11 : Simplify:

1. √ 3 × √ 12 2. √ 240 : √5

14
 3. 2 √ 3 × √ 15 4. 6 √3 4 : √3 16

Solution:
1. √ 3 × √ 12 = √ 3 ×12= √36=6
2. √ 240 : √ 5=√ 240 :5=√ 48=√ 16 ×3=4 √ 3
3. 2 √ 3 × √ 15=2 × √ 3 ×15=2× √ 45=2 × √ 9 ×5=2 ×3 √ 5=6 √ 5
4. 6 √3 4 : √3 16=( 3 ×2 ) √3 4 : √3 16=3 √ 23 × 4 : √3 16=3 √3 8 × 4 : √3 16
3

¿ 3 √ 32: √ 16=3 √ 2
3 3 3

Exercise 4 :
1. Simplify to the expression a √n b :

a. √ 75 d. √3 135
b. √ 162 e. √3 192
c. √3 88
2. Simplify:

a. √ 48 : √ 3 d. √3 81 : √3 3
b. √ 7 : √ 28
c. 8 √ 24 :2 √ 3

√3 160 : √3 4

1.5.3 Addition and subtraction of Root Numbers

Example 12 :
Evaluate each of the following:
1. 9 √ 3+ √ 3 3. 3 √4 2+ 21 2
1

2. 6√3 5− √3 40
4. √ 48−2 √27

Solution:
1
1. 9 √ 3+ √ 3=( 9+1 ) √ 3=10 √ 3 or 10 ×3 2
1
2. 6√3 5− √3 40=¿6√3 5− √3 8 ×5=6 √3 5−2 √3 5=4 √3 5 or 4 ×5 3
1 1
3. 3 √4 2+ 21 2 =3 4√ 2+2 √4 2=5 √4 2 or 5 ×2 4

15
 4. √ 48−2 √27=√ 16 ×3−2 √9 ×3=4 √3−2 ×3 √ 3=4 √ 3−6 √3
1
¿−2 √ 3 or −2 ×3 2

Exercise 5 :
1. Evaluate each of the following:

2. Evaluate each of the following:

1.6 Multiplication Roots of Binomial

Example 13 :
Determine the result of the following roots number:
a. √ 3 ( √ 24−4 √ 6 )
b. ( 4 √ 2−√ 3 ) ( √4 2+ √ 8 )

16
 Solution:

1.7 Exponential of Root Number

2
1. ( m√ a ) =m√ a × m√ a
2 2
2. ( a+ √ b ) =a2+ 2 ( a ) ( √ b ) + ( √ b )
2 2 2
3. ( √ a−√ b ) =( √ a ) +2 ( √ a ) ( √ b ) + ( √ b )

Example 14 :
Determine the result of the following roots number:
3 2
1. ( √ 7 ) 3. ( 5+ √2 )
3 2
2. (−2 √3 5 ) 4. ( 2 √ 3−4 )

Solution:

1. ( √ 7 ) =√ 7 × √ 7 × √ 7= √ 73 =√ 7 2 × 7=7 √ 7
3

3
2. (−2 √3 5 ) = (−2 √3 5 ) × (−2 √3 5 ) × (−2 √3 5 )

¿ (−2 ) × (−2 ) × (−2 ) × √ 5 × √ 5 × √ 5

3 3 3

¿ (−8 ) ×5
¿−40

17
Exercise 6 :

1. Determine the result of the following roots number:

2. Determine the result of the following roots number:

3. Determine the result of the following roots number:

18
1.8 Rationalization of Square Roots
a
1.8.1 Rationalization of
√b
Square root of positive numbers such as √ 2 , √ 3 , √ 5 , √ 7 , √ 8 ,etc are
a
irrational numbers. In the fraction , the denominator is also an irrational
√b
number.
6
For example, √ 3is 1,7321(correct to 4 sig. fig.). calculating or
√3
6
, correct to sig. fig., will be more easily if we use a calculator.
1,7321
Without a calculator, the calculation takes a longer time.
There’s another way to find the result quickly without a calculator. To
solve it, you need to convert the denominator into a rational number, like
this.
= ×√ √3 =1, 6 multiplied by 1, the result is the number
6 6 3
√3 √ 3 √ 3 √3 √3
itself
6 √3
¿ √ 3 × √ 3=3
√3
¿ 2 √3
¿ 2 ×1,7321
¿ 3,4642
¿ 3,464

From the explanation above, a fraction whose denominator is an

irrational number can be easily express in the decimal form by converting
the fraction into an equivalent fraction whose denominator is a rational
number.
6 6 √3
Converting into is called rationalize the denominator.
√3 √3
a
To rationalize , use the formula;
√b

= ×√
a a b
√b √b √ b

19
Example 15 :
Rationalize the denominator.

√ 5 1
1. 2.
6 √2

3
Solution :
√7

1.
√
5 √5
=
6 √6
= × √ =√
1 1 2 2 1
2. or √2
√2 √ 2 √ 2 2 2

= ×√ = √
3 3 7 3 7 3
3. or √7
√7 √ 7 √7 7 7

a a
1.8.2 Rationalization of and
a+ √ b a− √ b
a+ √b and −√ b , where a s a rational number and √ b is an irrational
number or radical, are conjugated. Using the multiplication law
( a+ b ) ( a−b )=a2−b 2 , ( a+ √ b ) ( a−√ b )=a2−( √b )2=a2 −b , and a 2−b s a
rational number.

Conjugated radicals are very useful n rationalizing the denominator of the

a a
fractions or
a+ √ b a− √b

a a
To rationalize the fractions and do these steps:
a+ √ b a− √b
a a a−√ b
 = ×
a+ √ b a+ √ b a−√ b

× √
a a a+ b
 =
a− √ b a− √ b a+ √ b

20
Example 16:
Rationalize the denominator of each fraction.
3
1.
3+ √ 2
3
Solution:
√5−√ 2

Exercise 6 :

1. Rationalize the denominator of each fraction.

2. Rationalize the denominator of each fraction.

21
CHAPT
ER 2

22
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

2.1 Understanding Quadratic Equations

A quadratic equation is one which can be written in the form a x 2 +bx +c=0
where a , b and c are numbers, a ≠ 0 , and x is the unknown whose values we wish
to find.in this section we describe several ways in which quadratic equations can
be solved.

A quadratic equation is one which can be written in the form:

2
a x +bx +c=0 a ≠ 0
where a , b and c are given numbers and x is the unknown whose value(s) must be found.

For example:
2 2 2
2 x +7 x−3=0 , x + x +1=0 , 0 ,5 x + 3 x +9=0
are all quadratic equations. To ensure the presence of the x 2 term, the number
a , in the general expression a x 2 +bx +c cannot be zero. However b or c may be
zero, so that:
2 2 2
4 x +3 x=0 , 2 x −3=0∧6 x =0
are also quadratic equations. Frequently, quadratic equations occur in non-
standard form but where necessary they can be
2 2
3 x + x =8 , can be re-written as 3 x + x −8=0
2 2
2 x =8 x−9 , can be re-written as 2 x +8 x +9=0
1
1+ x= , can be re-written as x 2+ x−1=0
x
To solve a quadratic equation we must find values of the unknown x which
make the left-hand and right-hand sides equal. Such values are known as
solution or roots of the quadratic equation.

Note the difference between solving quadratic equations in comparison to

solving linear equations. A quadratic equation will generally have two values
of x (solutions) which satisfy it whereas a linear equation only has one
solution.
We shall now describe three techniques for solving quadratic equations:
 Factorization
 Completing the square
 Using the quadratic formula

23
Exercise 1 :

1. Among the following equations, which one is the quadratic equation?

a. x 2−4 x−60=0
b. 3 x 2−8 x−16 xy=0
c. 15+2 y= y 2
d. 2 x ( x +2 )=30
e. 3 x 2−4 x −3 x 2 +16=0
8
f. x− +2=0
x
x y
g. + =2 x
2 3
2. Express the following equation to the standard form!
a. 6 x 2+ 4 x−5=4 x 2+ 9 x
b. 14 y 2−7 y+14=5 y 2−7 y−11
c. 2 p ( p+ 6 )−8= p2−3 p+6

2.2 Solving Quadratic Equation by Factorization

2.2.1 Open Sentences pq=0
Before discussing how to solve quadratic equation by factorizing in it, first
examine the following!
a. If q ≠ 0 , how many are replacements p so as pq=0 be the true sentence?
Answer: p=0
b. If p ≠ 0, how many are replacements q so as pq=0 be the true sentence?
Answer: q=0
c. If p=0, andq=0 is pq=0can be the true sentence?
Answer: yes

Based on the result, we get the following conclusion:

For any real numbers p and q , be valid:

If p , q ∈ R and pq=0 , then p=0∨q=0

24
Example 1:

Determine the solve from the following equations!

a. 2 ( x+5 )=0
b. 4 x ( 2 x−3 )=0
c. ( 2−3 y ) ( 5+2 y )=0

Solution :

2 ( x+5 )=0 2 (⏟
x+ 5 )=0
a.
↔ x +5=0
↔ x=−5
p q
So the solution is x=−5
4 x ( 2 x−3 )=0 ⏟
4x⏟
( 2 x−3 )=0
b.
↔ 4 x=0 or 2 x−3=0
↔ x=0 2 x=3
1 p q
x=¿ 1
2
1
So the solution are x 1=0 and x 2=1
2
( 2−3 y ) ( 5+2 y )=0 (⏟
2−3 y ) (⏟
5+ 2 y ) =0
d.

↔ 2−3 y =0 or 5+2 y=0

↔ −3 y=0 2 y=−5
−5 p q
↔ −3 y=−2 y=¿
2
−2 1
↔ y= y=−2
−3 2
2
↔ y=
3
2 1
So the solution are y 1= and y 2=−2
3 2

Exercise 2 :

1. Determine the solution of the following equation:

a. x ( x + 4 ) =0 b. y ( 2 y−6 ) =0

25
 c. 2 x ( x +7 ) =0 g. ( x +4 ) ( 2 x−5 )=0

d. 5 y ( 2 y −5 )=0 h. ( x−7 )2=0

e. ( x +2 ) ( x +5 )=0 i. (3 y +8)2=0

f. ( y−4 )( y −9 )=0 j. ( 4 + y ) ( 7−3 y )=0

2.2.2 Solving Quadratic Equation by Factorization

In this section we will assume that you already know how to factorize a
quadratic expression. If this is not the case you can study other material in this
series where factorization is explained.
In equation a x 2 +bx +c=0 , if the expression a x 2 +bx +c can be factorize, then
equation a x 2 +bx +c=0 can be solved by factorization a x 2 +bx +c .
To solve the quadratic equation by factorization use the following properties:

If p , q ∈ R∧pq=0 , then p=0∨q=0

1. Factorization with distributive law.

 ax 2 +abx=ax ( x +b ) , the same factors are a and x .
 px 2−pqx =px ( x−q ) , the same factors are p and x .
2. Factorizing the difference of two squares.
2 2
x − y =(x+ y)( x− y)
3. Factorizing by expression x 2+ bx+ c .
x 2+ bx+ c=( x + p ) ( x +q )
With the condition: c= p × q
b= p+q
4. Factorizing by expression a x 2 +bx +c with a ≠ 1
2 2
a x +bx +c=a x + px+ qx+ c
With the condition: p ×q=a × c and p+q=b

Example 2:

1. suppose we wish to solve x 2−5 x+ 6=0

Solution:

26
2. suppose we wish to solve the equation 2 x 2+3 x−2=0
Solution:

3. Suppose we wish to solve 2 x 2+ 9=12 x

Solution:

27
Exercise 3 :

1. Determine the solution of the following equations:

a. x 2+ 8 x=0
b. 7 x 2−21 x=0
c. y 2−64=0
d. y 2−144=0
e. x 2−5 x−24=0
f. x 2−x−72=0
g. 4 x 2+12 x+ 5=0
h. 9 x 2−30 x+ 25=0
2. In the following questions, rearranged into standard form the solve the
equations!
a. ( x +6 ) ( x−9 )=34
b. ( x +6 )2 +3 x=0
c. ( x +6 ) ( x−2 )=3 ( x +10 )

2.3 Solving Quadratic Equation by Completing the Square.

2.3.1 The Perfect Square

28
 In the previous lesson, you solved quadratic equations by isolating x 2 and
then using square roots. This method works if the quadratic equation, when
written in standard form, is a perfect square.
When a trinomial is a perfect square, there is a relationship between the
coefficient of the x -term and the constant term.

An expression in the form x 2+ bx is not a perfect square. However, you can use
the relationship shown above to add a term to x 2+ bx to form a trinomial that is a
perfect square. This called completing the square.

The following table shows examples of perfect square trinomials in

different forms. When a perfect square trinomial is in polynomial form, and the
leading coefficient is 1, the constant term 𝑐 is ALWAYS equal to half the
coefficient of 𝑥 squared.

Example 2:
Complete the square to form a perfect square trinomial.

29
Example 4:

1. Solve by completing square.

30
2. Solve by completing square.

31
Exercise 4 :

32
2.4 Solving Quadratic Equation Using Formula.
2.4.1 The Quadratic Formula.
In the previous lesson, you completed the square to solve quadratic equatons.
If you complete the square of ax 2 +bx +c=0, you can derive the Quadratic
Formula. The Quadratic Formula is the only method that can be used to solve any
quadratic equation.

33
Example 5:

Solve using the Quadratic Formula!

Example 6 :

Using the Quadratic Formula to estimate solutions.

Solve x 2−2 x−4=0 .

34
 2.4.2 Discriminant.
If the quadratic equation is in standard form, the discriminant of a
quadratic equation is b 2−4 ac , the part of the equation under the radical sign.
Recall that quadratic equations can have two, one, or no real solutions. You can
determine the number of solutions of a quadratic equation by evaluating its
discriminant.

Example 7:

Find the number of solutions of each equations using the discriminant.

35
Exercise 5 :

36
37
2.5 Arranged the Quadratic Equation.
2.5.1 The Roots Properties of Quadratic Equation.
−b ± √ b2−4 ac
To solve quadratic equation ax 2 +bx +c=0 is x=
2a
From the formula can be represent:
−b+ √ b2 −4 ac
 x 1=
2a

−b−√b 2−4 ac
 x 2=
2a

When the quadratic equation ax 2 +bx +c=0 has roots x 1and x 2:

1. The sum of the roots x 1+ x2

−b + √ b2−4 ac −b−√ b2 −4 ac p q p +q
+ =
x 1+ x2 = +
2a 2a 2a 2a 2a

(−b+ √b 2−4 ac ) + (−b− √b 2−4 ac )

¿
2a
−b+ √ b −4 ac+ (−b )− √ b 2−4 ac
2
¿
2a
−2 b
¿
2a
b
¿−
a
2. The product of roots x 1 × x2

−b + √ b2−4 ac −b−√ b2−4 ac

x 1 × x2= × ( p+q ) ( p−q )= p2−q 2
2a 2a
(−b+ √b 2−4 ac ) × (−b−√ b 2−4 ac )
¿
2 a ×2 a
2
(−b) −( √ b −4 ac )
2 2
¿
4 a2
2 2
b −(b −4 ac)
¿
4 a2
2 2
b −b + 4 ac
¿
4 a× a
c
¿
a

38
Based on the result, we get the relations between the roots properties of quadratic
equation (x ¿ ¿ 1+ x 2)¿ and ( x 1 × x 2) with the standard form quadratic equation, so
that:
−b
 The sum of the roots x 1+ x2 =
a
c
 The product of roots x 1 × x2=
a
Example 8:

1. In equation 2 x 2−11 x+12=0, determine the following roots number!

a. x 1+ x2
b. 2 x1 ×2 x 2

Solution:
2
2 x −11 x+12=0, then a=2 , b=−11 ,∧c=12

−b
a. x 1+ x2 = b. 2 x1 ×2 x 2=4 (x 1 × x 2)
a
−11 c
¿− ¿4 ×
2 a
11 12
¿ ¿4 ×
2 2
1
¿5 ¿ 24
2

2.5.2 Arranged Quadratic Equations.

If the roots number of quadratic equation are x 1∧x 2 then to arranged the
quadratic equation using the formula:
(x−x ¿¿ 1) ( x−x 2 ) =0 ¿

or using standard form:

2
a x +bx +c=0 standard form

2 b c
x + x + =0 divided by a
a a

b c
Then, to find the value of and , so that:
a a

39
 −b
 x 1+ x2 =
a
c
 x 1 × x2=
a

The relation between roots properties with standard form of equation can be
shown:
2 b c
x + x + =0
a a

− ( x 1 + x 2) ( x 1 × x 2)

Example 9:

1. Arranged quadratic equation which the roots number are 7 and −4 !

Solution:
i) Using the formula(x−x ¿¿ 1) ( x−x 2 ) =0 ¿
x 1=7and x 2=−4
(x−x ¿¿ 1) ( x−x 2 ) =0 ¿
(x−7) ( x+ 4 )=0
2
x + 4 x−7 x−28=0
2
x −3 x−28=0
Thus, the quadratic equation which the roots number 7 and −4 is
2
x −3 x−28=0
ii) Using standard form.
 x 1+ x2 =7+(−4)
−b
=3
a
b
=−3
a
 x 1 × x2=7 ×(−4)

c
=−28
a

Thus, the quadratic equation which the roots number 7 and −4 is

40
 2 b c
x + x + =0,
a a
2
x −3 x−28=0

Exercise 6 :

1. In equation x 2+ 2 x−15=0 ,determine the roots of numbers:

a. x 1+ x2
b. x 1 × x2
c. 4 x1 +5 x 2
d. 3 x 1 × 4 x 2
2. In equation 2 x 2−4 x−6=0 ,determine the roots of numbers:
2 2
a. x 1 × x2
1 1
b. ×
x1 x 2
2 2
c. ( 2 x 1) + ( 2 x 2 )
3. Arranged quadratic equation in x which the following roots:
a. 7 and 9
b. 5 and −9
c. −10and 5
d. −6 and 14
e. 12 and −12
f. −9 and −20

41
 CHAPT
ER 3
QUADRATIC FUNCTIONS

3.1 Identifying Quadratic Functions

In our study of linear functions, we may recall that a linear function has
the general form 𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, where x and y are variables and m and c are
constants. A graph of a linear function is always a straight line with gradient m
and whose intercept on the y-axis is c.
Another property of the linear function is that the power of the unknown
is one. If we were to draw the graph of y versus x for the linear function, 𝑦 =
𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, the straight line will cut the x- axis at one point only. This is a
characteristic feature of a linear function.

Some examples of linear equations are shown in the table below.

Linear Functions
𝑦 = 4𝑥

3𝑥
𝑦=
5
42
3.2 The Quadratic Function
We will now study a function in which the power of the unknown is no
more than two. This function is called a quadratic function. Its special features
and characteristics will be explored fully in this section. We must first learn to
recognize quadratic expressions.
A quadratic expression is one in which the highest power of the unknown
is two. A quadratic expression in x, has a general form, f ( x )=¿𝑎 x 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐,
where a, b and c are real numbers, a ≠ 0.
Domain coefficience x 2
f⏟
( x ) =¿
𝑎 x 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 constant

Coefficience x
Range from x

Quadratic expressions in x, for example, may take the following forms.

f ( x )=¿3 x 2 + 2𝑥 + 5where 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 2 and 𝑐 = 5

f ( x )=¿5 x 2− 2𝑥 where 𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = −2 and 𝑐 = 0
f ( x )=¿− x + 4
2
where 𝑎 = −1, 𝑏 = 0 and 𝑐 = 4
f ( x )=¿− x 2
where 𝑎 = −2, 𝑏 = 0 and 𝑐 = 0

In the function f ( x )=ax 2+ bx+ c for example to find the ranged:

2
f ( x )=2 x + x−7
2
f ( 4 )=2(4 ) + 4−7
f ( 4 )=29
Thus, 29 is a ranged of function f ( x )=2 x 2 + x−7

3.3 The graph of a quadratic function

In Section 3.2, we defined a quadratic function as a function of the form
2
f ( x )=ax + bx+ c (a ≠ 0) We also learned that the graph of a quadratic function
is a parabola. In this section we will learn how to graph parabolas.
A parabola opens upward a> 0 if Figure (i) and opens downward a< 0if (ii).
If a parabola opens upward, the vertex is the lowest point on the graph. If a
parabola opens downward, the vertex is the highest point on the graph. The
axis of symmetry is the vertical line that passes through the vertex.

43
3.3.1 Quadratic Functions of the Form f ( x )=x 2 +k
One technique for graphing a function is to plot a sufficient number of
points on the function until the general shape and defining characteristics can
be determined. Then sketch a curve through the points.

Example 1:
Graph functions f , g ,and h on the same coordinate system.
2 2 2
f ( x )=x g ( x ) =x +1 h ( x )=x −2

Solution:

Notice that the graphs of g ( x )=x 2+1 and h ( x )=x 2−2take on the same
shape as f ( x )=x 2 . However, the y-values of g are 1 greater than the y-values of
f. Hence the graph of g ( x )=x 2+1 is the same as the graph of f ( x )=x 2 shifted up
1 unit. Likewise the y-values of h are 2 less than those of f. The graph of
2 2
h ( x )=x −2 is the same as the graph of f ( x )=x shifted down 2 units.
The functions in Example 1 illustrate the following properties of
quadratic functions of the form f ( x )=x 2 +k .

44
Example 2:
1. Sketch the functions defined by.

a. m ( x ) =x 2−4
2 7
b. n ( x )=x +
4

Solution:

3.3.2 Quadratic Functions of the Form f ( x )=(x−h)2

The graph of f ( x )=x 2 +k represents a vertical shift (up or down) of the
function Example 3 shows that functions of the form f ( x )=x 2 +k represent a
horizontal shift (left or right) of the function y=x 2.

45
Example 3:
Graph the function f , g ,and h on the same coordinate system.

Solution:
Several function values for f , g ,and h are shown in table for selected values of x
. The corresponding graphs are pictured in figure below.

Example 3 illustrates the following of quadratic functions of the form

2
f ( x )= ( x −h )

46
 Example 4:

Solution:

3.3.3 Quadratic Functions of the Form f ( x )=ax 2

Example 5 and 6 investigate functions of the form f ( x )=ax 2

47
Example 5:
Graph the function f , g ,and h on the same coordinate system.

Solution:
Several function values for f , g ,and h are shown in table for selected values of x
. The corresponding graphs are pictured in figure below.

In Example 5, the function values defined by g ( x )=2 x2 are twice those of

2 2 2
f ( x )=x . The graph of g ( x )=2 x is the same as the graph of f ( x )=x stretched
vertically by a factor of 2 (the graph appears narrower than f ( x )=x 2).
1 2
In Example 5, the function values defined by h ( x )= x are one-half those of
2
1 2
f ( x )=x . The graph of h ( x )= x is the same as the graph of f ( x )=x shrunk
2 2
2
1
vertically by a factor of (the graph appears wider than f ( x )=x 2).
2

Example 6:
Graph the function f , g ,and h on the same coordinate system.

48
Solution:
Several function values for f , g ,and h are shown in table for selected values of x
. The corresponding graphs are pictured in figure below.

Example 6 illustrates that if the coefficient of the square term is negative,

the parabola opens down. The graph of g ( x )=−3 x 2is the same as the graph of
f ( x )=−x with a vertical stretch by a factor of |−3|. The graph of
2

−1 2
h ( x )= x is the same as the graph of f ( x )=−x2 with a vertical shrink by a
3
factor of of| | −1
3
.

49
3.3.4 Quadratic Functions of the Form f ( x )=a( x−h)2 +k
We can summarize our finding from Examples 1−6 by graphing function of
the form f ( x )=a( x−h)2 +k ( a≠ 0 ) .
The graph of y=x 2 has its vertex at the origin ( 0 , 0 ) . The graph of
f ( x )=a( x−h) +k is the same as the graph of y=x 2 shifted from ( 0 , 0 ) to ( h , k ) .
2

The axis of symmetry is the vertical line through the vertex, that is, the line
x=h .

Example 7:

50
Solution:

Example 8:

51
 Solution:

Exercise 1:

52
53
54
55
3.4 Characteristics of Quadratic Functions
Recall that an x-intercept of a function is a value of x when y=0.
A zero of a function is an x-value that makes the function equal to 0.
So a zero of a function is the same as an
x-intercept of a function. Since a graph
intersects the x-axis at the point or
points containing an x-intercept these
intersections are also at the zeros of the
function. A quadratic function may have
one, two, or no zeros.

56
 A vertical line that divides a parabola into two symmetrical halves is
the axis of symmetry . The axis of symmetry always passes through the
vertex of the parabola. You can use the zeros to find the axis of
symmetry

57
58
59
60
Exercise 2:

61
3.5 Finding Characteristics of Quadratic Functions

62
3.6 Determining the Minimum and Maximum

63
64
Exercise 2:

65
66
 CHAPT
ER 4
TRANSFORMATIONS

4.1 Identifying Transformations.

In a plane, you can slide, flip, turn, enlarge, or reduce figures to create new
figures. These correspondng figures are frequently designed into wallpaper
borders, mosaics, and artwork. Each figure that you see will correspond to another
figure. These corresponding figures are formed using transformations.
A transformation maps an initial image, called a preimage, onto a final
image. Below are some of the types of transformations. The red lines show some
corresponding points.

4.2 Translations.
When you translate a tile, you slide it from one place to another. When tiles
cover a floor with no empty spaces, the collection of tiles is called a tessellation.

A translation is a transformation in which a figure slides but does not turn. Every
point of the figure moves the same distance and
in the same direction.

4.2.1 Translation in the Coordinate Plane.

67
Example 1: Translating a figure in the coordinate plane.

A translation is a translation that moves all points of a figure the same

distance in the same direction. Translations on the coordinate plane can be drawn
if you know the direction and how far the figure is moving horizontally and
vertically. For the fixed values of a and b , a translation moves every point
P(x , y) of a plane figure to an image P' ( x +a , y +b ) . One away to symbolize a
transformation is write:

(ba)
(x , y )→(x+ a , y+ b) or ( x , y ) (x + a , y + b).

In the figure, quadrlateral DEFG has been trnaslated 5 unit wants to the
left and three units down. This can be written as ( x , y ) → ( x−5 , y −3 ) .

Example 2:

68
Rectangle PQRS has vertices P(−3 , 5),Q(−4 , 2), R(3 ,0), and S ( 4 ,3 ) . Graph

PQRS and its image for the translation

8
−5
. ( )
Solution:

Example 3: Repeated Translations

Example 4:
A ( 8 , 3 ) , B ( 5 ,−3 ) , and C (10 ,−2) is a angle point in ∆ ABC . In the translation

( )
−8
1
, ∆ ABC translated to the ∆ A ' B' C ' .

a. Draw ∆ ABC and the image.

b. Determine coordinate in vertices A' , B' ,∧C ' !

69
Solution:

a.

b. Translation (−81)
Image vertices A ( 8 , 3 ) → ( 8+ (−8 ) , 3+1 ) , then A ' ( 0 , 4 ) .
Image vertices B (5 ,−3 ) → ( 5+ (−8 ) ,−3+1 ) , then B' (−3 ,−2 ) .
Image vertices C ( 10 ,−2 ) → ( 10+ (−8 ) ,−2+ 1 ) , then C ' ( 2 ,−1 ) .

Example 5:
5
Determine the image from the equation line 2 x+ y=4 by translation −4 ! ( )
Solution:

Suppose we take any point in the line 2 x+ y=4 , that is A ( x , y )

(−25 )
 Point A ( x , y ) A ' ( x +5 , y−2 ), so that :
' '
x =x+ 5∨x=x −5 ⋯ (1)
' '
y = y −2∨ y= y +5 ⋯ (2)
 Substitution the equation (1) and (2) to the line 2 x+ y=4 , obtained :
2 x+ y=4
2 ( x −5 ) + ( y +5 ) =4
' '

' '
2 x −10+ y +5=4
' '
2 x + y −8=4
' '
2 x + y =4+8
' '
2 x + y =12
5
( )
Thus, the image line 2 x+ y=4 by translation −4 is 2 x+ y=12

70
 Example 6:
2
Determine the image curve with the equation y=x +2 x−8 by translation
( )
−4 !
3

Solution:

Suppose we take any point in the curve y=x 2 +2 x−8 , that is B ( x , y )

(−43)
 Point B ( x , y ) B' ( x−4 , y +3 ), so that :
' '
x =x−4∨x =x +4 ⋯ (1)
' '
y = y +3∨ y= y −3 ⋯ (2)
Substitution the equation (1) and (2) to the curve y=x 2 +2 x−8 ,
obtained :
2
y=x +2 x−8
2
y −3 ¿ ( x + 4 ) + 2 ( x +4 )−8
' ' '

' 2
y −3=( x ) +2 ( x ) ( 4 )+ ( 4 ) +2 x + 8−8
' ' 2 '

' 2
y −3=( x ) + 8 x '+16+ 2 x
' '

' 2
y −3=( x ) +10 x ' +16
'

' 2
y =( x ) +10 x ' +19
'

Thus, the image curve y=x 2 +2 x−8 by translation (−43) is

2
y=x +10 x+ 19
Exercise 1 :

1. Vertices angle ∆ ABC is A (−1 , 4 ) , B (−3 ,−2 ) ,and C (3 ,1).

a. Draw ∆ ABC and the image in translation

4 !
−2 ( )
b. Determine the coordinate vertices angle and its image.
2. Find the image point/vertices when:
a. A ( 2 ,−1 ) is translated through
3
4 ()
b. B(2 ,−1) is translated through
−1
4 ( )
71
3. If (3 ,−2) is translated to ( 3 , 1 ) , what is the translation vector?

4. What point has image (−3 , 2) under the translation ( ) −3 ?

1
5. Find the equation of the image line when:
a. y=2 x +3 is translated ( ) −1
2

b. y=− x+2 is translated () 2

3
6. Determine the image from the line 3 x+ 2 y =6. With the following translated
!
a. ( )
−3
4

b. (−5
−2 )

4.2.2 Consecutive of two Translation

() ()
a c
For consecutive of two translation b and d obtained:

(ba)+(dc )=(b+a+cd)
Example 7:
1. Determine the value of a , b , p and m in the following translations:

( )( )( )
a −5 3
a. −8 + 2 b = −2

b. (3 m )+ (12 )=( m )
2p p −6

Solution:

a
( )( )( )
−5 3
a. −8 + 2 b = −2
b=3
Thus, the value of a=8 , and b=3
 a+ (−5 )=3
a=3+5
a=8
2p
( )( ) ( )
p −6
b. 3 m + 12 = m

 2 p + p=−6
 −8+2 b=−2
3 p=−6
2 b=−2+8 −6
2 b=6 p=
3
6 p=−2
2 b=
2

72
  3 m+12=m −12
m=
3 m−m=−12 2
2 m=−12 m=−6
Thus, the value of a=8 , and b=3

2. Determine the image curve y=x 2−2 x +4 in translation (23) continued with
(−6
−2)
.

Solution:
Suppose we take any point in the curve y=x 2−2 x +4 , that is B ( x , y )
Two consecutive translation
2 + −6
3 −2 ()( )
is :

3 −2 ()( ) ( )
2 + −6 = −4
1

(−41)
 Point B ( x , y ) B' ( x−4 , y +1 ) , so that :
' '
x =x−4∨x =x +4 ⋯ (1)
' '
y = y +1∨ y= y −1 ⋯ (2)
 Substitution the equation (1) and (2) to the curve y=x 2−2 x +4 ,
obtained :
2
y=x −2 x +4
2
y −1 ¿ ( x ' + 4 ) −2 ( x ' + 4 ) + 4
'

' 2
y −1= ( x ) +2 ( x ) ( 4 ) + ( 4 ) −2 x −8+ 4
' ' 2 '

2
y −1= ( x ) +8 x + 16−2 x −4
' ' ' '

' 2
y −1= ( x ) +6 x '+12
'

' 2
y =( x ) +6 x '+ 12
'

Thus, the image curve y=x 2 +2 x−8 in translation

2
2
3 ()
continued with
−6
−2 ( )
is y=x +6 x +12.

Exercise 2 :
1. Determine the value of a , b , x and y in the following translations:

( )( ) ( )
a −8 10
a. 12 + 4 b = −6

b. ( 4 y )+ (−6 )=( 3 y )
3x x −8

2. Determine the coordinate image by the following vertices:

73
 a. Image in point S(−2 , 4 ) by translations (−32) continued with ( 41).
Image in point T (−2 , 4) by translations ( ) continued with ( ) .
2 −6
b.
−5 −2
3. Determine the image object in the following translations:

a. Image line y=8−x by translation (−75 ) continued with (−9

12 )

Image curve y=x −6 x +7 by translation ( ) continued with ( )

2 2 −6
b.
5 −1

4.3 Reflections

A reflection, or flip, is a transformation in which a figure is

reflected in a line called the line of reflection. A reflection creates a
mirror image of the original figure.

74
 4.3.1 Draw Reflections
A reflection is a transformation representing a flip of a figure. Figures may
be reflected in a point, a line, or a plane.
The figure shown a reflection of ABCDE in line m . Note that the segment
connecting a point and its image is perpendicular to line m and is bisect by line
m . Line m is called the line of reflection
for ABCDE and its image A' B' C' D' E' .
Because E lies on the line of reflection,
its preimage and image are the same
point.

Example 9:
Draw the reflected image of quadrilateral DEFG in line m .

75
 4.3.2 Reflections in the Coordinate Plane.
a. Reflection in axis coordinate.

Example 10:
1. The vertices of a triangle are A (−1 ,1 ) , B(−1 , 3) and C ( 6 ,3 ) . Draw the
figure and its reflection in the x−axis . What are the coordinate.
Solution:

2. The vertices of a quadrilateral are P (−2 ,5 ) , Q (−4 ,2 ) , R (−4 ,2 ) , and

S (−4 , 4 ) . Draw the figure and its reflection n the y−axis .

76
 Solution:

3. Determine the curve y=x 2−6 x +5 in the reflection x−axis .

Solution:
Suppose we take any point in the curve y=x 2−6 x +5 , that is P ( x , y )
x−axis
 Point P ( x , y ) P ' ( x ,− y )
Obtained the relations between the value of x and y to x ' and ' , so that:
' '
x =x ↔ x=x and y ' = y ↔ y= y '
Substitution the value of x and y to the curve y=x 2−6 x +5 ,
obtained :
2
y=x −6 x +5
2
− y ¿ ( x ' ) −6 x ' +5
'

' 2
y =−( x ) +6 x −5
' '

Thus, the image curve y=x 2−6 x +5 in the reflection x−axis is

2
y=− x +6 x−5
b. Reflection in a parallel line with coordinate axis.
Reflection P ( a , b ) in a line x=h , then:
P ( a , b ) ↔ P ' (2 h−a ,b)
Reflection P ( a , b ) in a line y=h, then:
P ( a , b ) ↔ P ' (a , 2 h−b)

Example 11:
1. Determine the coordinate image in point P(−5 ,−2) if reflected in a line
with equation x=−1 !

Solution:
Reflected in a line x=h , then:
P ( a , b ) ↔ P ' (2 h−a ,b)
P (−5 ,−2 ) ↔ P ' (2 (−1 )−(−5),−2)
P (−5 ,−2 ) ↔ P ' (−2+5 ,−2)

77
 P (−5 ,−2 ) ↔ P ' (3 ,−2)
Thus, the coordinate image point P(−5 ,−2) is P '(3 ,−2)
2. Line y=− x+3 reflected to the line x=h get the image line y=x −1.
Determine the value of h !
Solution:
Suppose we take any point in the line y=− x+3 , that is Q ( x , y )
x=h
 Point Q ( x , y ) Q ' ( 2 h−x , y )
Therefore, obtained the value of x ' =2 h−x∨x=2h−x ' and y= y '
Substitution the value of x and y to the line y=− x+3 ,
obtained :
y=− x+3
y ¿−( 2 h−x ) +3
' '

' '
y =x −2 h+3
From the result we find the new equation image y=x −1, so that:
x−2 h+3=x−1
−2 h+3=x−1−x
−2 h=−1−3
−2 h=−4
−4
h=
−2
h=2

Thus, the value of h is 2

c. Reflection in a Line.
Reflection in a line y=x , then:
P ( a , b ) ↔ P ' (b , a)
Reflection P ( a , b ) in a line y=h, then:
P ( a , b ) ↔ P ' (−b ,−a)

Example 12:
1. Determine the coordinate image in point S(12 ,−7) if reflected in the
following lines!

a. y=x
b. y=− x

Solution:
y=x
a. P ( a , b ) P ' ( b , a)

78
 y=x
S ( 12 ,−7 ) S ' (−7 , 12 )
So, the image point S(12 ,−7) is S ' (−7 , 12 )

y=− x
a. P ( a , b ) P ' (−b ,−a )

y=− x
S ( 12 ,−7 ) S ' ( 7 ,−12 )
So, the image point S(12 ,−7) is S ' ( 7 ,−12 )

Exercise 3 :
1. Known ∆ ABC with A (−4 , 7 ) , B(−6 ,2) and C (−2 ,2).
a. Draw ∆ ABC and its image in y−axis!
b. Determine the coordinate ∆ ABC .
2.

3. Determine the image line 3 x−8 y=24 if reflected:

a. In the x−axis c. x=−4
b. In the y−axis d. y=5
4. P ( 3 ,−1 ) , Q(6 ,−1) and R(3 , 3) is angle from ∆ PQR . Draw ∆ PQR and
the image by reflected:
a. In line y=x
b. In line y=− x
5. Determine the image from the lne y=2 x−3 if reflected:
a. y=x
b. y=− x

4.4 Rotations

79
 A rotation is a transformation that turns every point of a preimage
through a specified angle and direction about a fixed point. The fixed point is
called the center of rotation.
In the figure, R is the center of rotation for the preimage ABCD . The
measures of angles AR A ' , BR B' ,CRC ' and DRD ' are equal. Any point P on the
preimage of ABC D has image P ' on A' B' C' D' such that the measure of
∠ PRP ' is a constant measure. This s called the angle of rotation.

80
A rotation exhibits all of the properties of isometries, including
preservation distance and angle measure. Therefore, it is an isometry.

13

81
 14

Exercise 4 :
1.

2. The vertices of a figure are given. Rotate the figure as described. Find the
coordinates of the image.

4.5 Dilations.
All of transformations you have studied so far in this chapter
produce images that are congruent to the original figure. A dilation is
another type of transformation. However, the image of a dilation may be a
different size than the original figure. A dilation is a transformation that
changes the size of a figure. A dilation requires a center point and a scale

82
factor. The figures below show how dilations can result in a large figure
and smaller figure than the original.

83
 15

16

4.5.1 Identify the Scale Factor

84
 16

4.5.2 Dilations in Coordinate Plane

In dilations with the center O ( 0 , 0 ) and scale factor k with k

positive or negative, obtained the following formula:
[O ,k]
P ( a , b ) P' (a × k , b ×k )

Example 17:
1. Determine the image point P(8 ,−5) by dilation [ O , 4 ] !

85
Solution:
Dilation [ O , 4 ] it mean dilation with center O(0 , 0) and scale factor 4.
P ( a , b ) P' (a × k , b ×k )
P ( 8 ,−5 ) P '(8× 4 ,(−5)× 4)
P ( 8 ,−5 ) P '(32 ,−20)

2. Point P' (−4 ,−1 ) is the result of dilation from P ( 8 , 2 ) with the center
O ( 0 , 0 ) and scale factor k . Determine scale factor k !
Solution:
[O ,k]
P ( a , b ) P' (a × k , b ×k )
P ( 8 , 2 ) P '( 8× k , 2× k )
'
P (−4 ,−1 ) ,then:
k × 8=−4 or k × 2=−1
−4 −1
k= k=
8 2
−1 −1
k= k=
2 2
−1
Thus, the scale factor k is
2

3. Determne the mage line x + y=4 by dilation [ O ,−2 ] !

Solution:
Dilation [ O ,−2 ] it mean dilation with center O ( 0 , 0 ) and scale factor−2.
Suppose we take any point in the line x + y=4, that is A ( x , y )
obtained :
[O ,k]
P ( a , b ) P' (a × k , b ×k )
[ O ,−2 ]
Point A ( x , y ) A ' (−2 x ,−2 y )
A '(−2 x ,−2 y ), then:
' −1
x =−2 x∨x= x' ⋯ (1)
2
' −1
y =−2 y∨ y = y ' ⋯ (2)
2

86
  Substitution the equation (1) and (2) to the line x + y=4
x + y=4
−1 +−1
x' y '=4
2 2
' '
x + y =−8
Thus, the image line x + y=4 by dilatation [ O ,−2 ] is x + y=−8
4.5.3 Dilations with Center S(x , y)
In dilations with the center S ( x , y ) and scale factor k with k positive or
negative, obtained the following formula:
[ S(x, y),k]
P ( a , b ) P' (k ( a−x ) + x ,k ( b− y ) + y )

Example 18:
1. Determine the image point P(8 , 5) by dilation [ S ( 6 , 9 ) , 2 ]!

Solution:
Dilation [ O , 4 ] it mean dilation with center O(0 , 0) and scale factor 4.
[ S(x, y),k]
P ( a , b ) P' (k ( a−x ) + x ,k ( b− y ) + y )
[ S ( 6 , 9) , 2]
P ( 8 , 5 ) P '( 2 ( 8−6 )+ 6 ,2 ( 5−9 ) +9)
[ S ( 6 , 9) , 2]
P ( 8 , 5 ) P '( 4+ 6 ,−8+ 9)
[ S ( 6 , 9) , 2]
P ( 8 , 5 ) P '( 10 ,1)
Thus, the image point P(8 , 5) by dilation [ S ( 6 , 9 ) , 2 ] is P '(10 , 1).

Exercise 4 :

87
1. Known ∆ PQR with P ( 0 , 4 ) , Q(6 ,0), and R ( 4 ,6 ) . Draw ∆ PQR and its
image in rotation which center O with the following rotation angle!
a. −90 °
b. 180 °
2. Determine the curve y=f (x ) in rotation and its image !
a. Rotation [ O ,180 ° ] with the image line y=3 x−11.
1
b. Rotation [ O , 90° ] with the image line y= x−3.
4
c. Rotation [ O , 90° ] with the image curve x=2 y 2−6 y .
3. Draw:
a. Draw ∆ PQR with P ( 4 ,0 ) , Q(0 ,5), and R (−2 ,−2 ) .
b. Draw the image ∆ PQR in dilation which the center O with scale factor
−1.
4. The line with the equation 2 x+5 y =10 the image from line 2 x+5 y =2 in
dilation [ O , k ] . Determine the value of k .
5. Determine image point P(a ,b) in dilation [ S ( x , y ) , k ] if known:
a. P(2 , 0) and S(5 , 7) with k =2
b. P(8 ,−2) and S(10 ,−5) with k =−1
6. Determine the image curve y=f (x ) with dilation [ S ( x , y ) , k ] , if known:
a. Curve y=5 x , S (5 , 0) and k =3
−1
b. Curve y=x −5 , S(−3 ,1) and k =
3

88
CHAPTER 5
Congruence

A three dimensional scale model of a building, an office or a house are

frequently displayed in a public library or a city hall so that people can
get a clear idea of the planned building development. The scale model
of a building and the building itself is an example of two congruent objects. We
can find the actual size of the building by multiplying its size in the scale model
by the scale used in the model.

5.1 Conditions for Similarity of Two Plane Figures

5.1.1 Conditions for Congruence of Two Figures

Two plane figures which are perfectly coincident are called two
congruent figures.

89
 Construct the plane figures shows in figure (i), (ii), (iii), and (iv).

Since ΔABC perfectly coincides with ΔPQR, then:

AB occupies PQ (AB = PQ),

BC occupies QR (BC = QR),

AC occupies PR (AC = PR),

∠A occupies ∠P (∠A = ∠P),

∠B occupies ∠Q (∠B = ∠Q),

∠C occupies ∠R (∠C = ∠R).

Exercise 1 :
Find the congruent figures in each set

90
 1.

2.

3.

5.1.2 Scaled Picture and Models

A scale picture or model has the same shape as the real object. The
size of a scale picture or model is enlarge or reduced from the original by
the same ratio.

To the batter understand this, look at figure 1.3.

91
 Figure 1.3 (ii) is a model of figure
1.3 (i) in which corresponding parts of the
car are in proportion. The corresponding parts sizes are the length of the
original and the length of the model, the width of the original and the
width of the model, the height of the original and the height of the model ,
etc. since corresponding parts are in proportion, we have the following
proportion.

Length of the model Width of the model Height of the model

= =
Length of the original Width of the original Height of the original

Using the above proportion, you can find the actual length of the
car as follows.

With of the model Length of the model

=
With of the original Length of the original ¿
¿
12 36
= cross multiply
150 x

⟺ 12 x=150 ×36

⟺ 12 x=5,400

5,400
⟺ x= =450
12

Thus, the length of the original is 450 cm=4.5 m .

To the better understand the above description, look at the following

example.

Example 1 :

92
 1. The height of a door in a scale model is 6 cm , and the height of the house
is 24 cm. The actual height of the door is 2 m. Find the actual height of the
house.
Solution :
Height of the door (model) = 6 cm .
Height of the house (model) = 24 cm.
Actual height of the door = 2 m=200 m.
Actual height of the house = x cm.

To find x , you can use the following proportion:

Height of the door (model )
Height of the door ¿ ¿

6 24
⟺ = cross multiply
200 x

⟺ 6 x=200 × 24
4
200 ×24
⟺ x=
61
⟺ x=800

Thus, the actual height of the house is 800 cm=8 m.

Exercise 2 :
1.

The width and the height

of a house are 8 m and 4.6 m. The width of the house in a scale model is
10 cm. Find the height of the house in the model.

93
 2.

On the TV, the height and width of a tower are 24 cm and 10 cm. Find the
actual width of the tower if its actual height is 18 m?

3. The length and width of a photograph are 8 cm and 6 cm . The photograph’s

size is enlarged so that its width is no 21 cm . Find
a. The area of the photograph after enlargement
b. The ratio of its area before enlargement to its area after
enlargement
4. A warship is 120 m long and 30 m wide.
a. Find the length of a scale model of the ship which has width of
10 cm.
b. What is the actual height of the ship if the height og its scale model
is 5 cm?

5.1.3 Condition for Similarity of Two Figures

We have discussed that the two figures, a scale model and the
original, have the same shape but are different in size and measurements.
Such figures are called similar figures.

Figure (i) and (ii) show two rectangles with the same shape but
different size.

Thus, the ratios of the corresponding sides are equal:

EF : AB = EH : AD = 3 :1.

94
 The corresponding angles have the same measure, i.e.:

∠A = ∠E = 90 °

∠B = ∠F = 90 °
∠C = ∠G = 90 °
∠D = ∠H = 90 °
Thus, the rectangles ABCD and EFGH are similar and have the
following properties:
1. all the corresponding sides are proportional, and
2. all the corresponding angles equal in measure.
To batter understand what is meant by the term a pair of corresponding
angles in two or more figures, see the following description.

Figure shows that the three figures have the same pairs of angles but some of the
pairs do not correspond to each other. A pair of corresponding angles and the pair
of corresponding sides have to be in the same position.

Look at figure (i) and (ii). The equal angles of the two figures
are
in
the

same position so both of the figures have equal corresponding angles.

Figure (iii) also has the same pairs of angles as figure (i) but
their ordering does not correspond to each other.

95
Look at figure follow the arrow symbols. Begin with arrow (1).

 Both of the angles (1) are equal.

 Both of the angles (2) are equal.
 Angles (3) and (4) are not equal.

This shows that the corresponding angles are not equal and that the two figures
are not similar.
Example
2:
1. A

16 cm ×10 cm rectangle and a 8 cm ×5 cm rectangle are given. Are the

rectangles similar.
Solution :
Measure Rectangle I Rectangle II
Length 16 cm 8 cm
Width 10 cm 5 cm

The two rectangle have equal corresponding angles each of which is a right
angles.

Ratio of the lengths = 16 cm :8 cm=2 :1

Ratio of the widths = 10 cm :5 cm=2: 1
Since the corresponding angles are equal and the corresponding sides are
proportional, the two rectangles are similar.

Exercise 3 :
1. Show which pair of figure is similar.

96
 a.

b.

2. Are these two rectangles similar?

Explain you answer.
3

3. Which of the following pairs

of figures are always similar?
a. Two parallelograms
b. Two squares
c. Two rhombi
d. Two equilateral triangles
e. Two kites

5.1.4 Finding the Length of

Sides
a. Finding the Length of Sides in Two Congruent Figure

97
 To find the length of some sides in two congruent figures, use the
conditions which were discussed in section 1.1.1:

The conditions for the congruence of two figures are:

1. all the corresponding sides are equal in length, and

2. all the corresponding angles are equal in measure.
Example 3 :
1. Look at the figures below. ΔABC and ΔDEF are congruent. If AB =
8 cm , AC = 6 cm and CF = 7 cm ,find the length of DE, EF and BC.

Solution :
Since ΔABC and ΔDEF are congruent:

AB = DE, thus DE = 8 cm .

AC = EF, thus EF = 6 cm .

BC = DF, thus BC = 7 cm .

b. Finding the Length of Sides in Two Similar Figures

To find the length of sides in two similar figures use the conditions
which were discussed in section 1.1.3:

The conditions for similarity of two figures are:

98
 1. all the corresponding sides are proportional, and
2. all the corresponding angles are equal in measure.

Example 4 :
Look at the figure below. The two trapezoids are similar. Find the length of:

a. AB b. QR

Solution :
Since the trapezoids ABCD and PQRS are similar, then the corresponding
sides are proportional.

AB DC
a. PQ = SR
AB 6
=
12 9
9 AB=12 ×6

9 AB=72
72
AB =
9
AB = 8
Thus, AB = 8 cm

AD DC
b. QR = SR
4 6
=
QR 9
6 QR=4 × 9
6 QR=36
36
QR=
6
QR=6

99
 Thus, QR = 6 cm

Exercise 4 :
1. ΔRST and ΔMKL are congruent. RS =6 cm , RT = 8 cm , and KL= 12 cm.

2. The rectangles ABCD and PQRS are similar. AB= 21 cm , AD=12 cm , and
PQ = 4 cm .

5.2 Congruent Triangles

5.2.1 Conditions for

Congruence of Two
Triangles
the image formed by an object placed in front of a flat mirror is congruent
to the object, as in the case of a triangle and its image.

Look at figure

Since ΔABC and ΔDEF are congruent:

∠A =∠E AB = ED

∠B = ∠D BC = DF

∠C = ∠F AC = EF

from the above description we can draw the following conclusion.

Two triangles are congruent if:

100
 1. all the corresponding sides are equal in length, and
2. all the corresponding angles are equal in measure.

Look at figure to get a clearer description.

Since ΔABC and ΔDEF Since ΔABC and ΔDEF

Are congruent: Are congruent:

∠A = ∠D AB = DE

∠B = ∠E AC = DF

∠C = ∠F BC = EF

Exercise 5 :
The figures below show pairs of congruent triangles. Name the pairs of
equal angles and the pairs of equal sides.
1.

101
 2.

5.2.2 The Properties of Two Congruent Triangles

To determine the congruence of two triangles, we can use the parts in a
triangle, i.e., the length of its sides and the measure of its internal angles.

a. SSS Property (side, side, side)

The Three Corresponding Sides are Equal

If we make ΔABC and coincide ΔPQR we have:

AB ⟷ PQ, since AB = PQ

AC⟷ PR, since AC = PR

BC ⟷ QR, since BC = QR

Thus, ΔABC and ΔPQR are perfectly coincident, and ΔABC and ΔPQR
are congruent.

From the above description we can draw the following conclusion.

If the three sides of one triangle are equal to the three sides of the other
triangle, then the two triangles are congruent.

102
Example 4 :
1. Look at the figure below.

a. Prove that ΔABC and ΔLKM are congruent.

b. Name the pairs of equal angles.

Solution :
a. Look at the figure.
AB = LK (given)
AC = LM (given)
BC = KM (given)
Since the three sides of both triangles are equal, ΔABC and ΔLKM
b.

The pairs of equal angles are:

∠A =∠L,

∠B = ∠K,
∠C = ∠M
The pairs of equal angles can also be determined in the following way.

BC = KM AB = LK AC = LM

∠A opposite to BC ∠C opposite to AB ∠B opposite to AC

∠L opposite to KM ∠M opposite to LK ∠K opposite to LM

Thus, ∠A =∠L. Thus, ∠C = ∠M. Thus, ∠b = ∠K.

Note: Angles opposite to equal sides are equal.

103
 b. AAA Property(angle, angle, angle)
The Three Corresponding Angles are Equal

Look figure. ∠K = ∠R such that the angle-making rays of ∠K and ∠R

are coincident, but not necessarily perfectly coincident since it is not yet
known whether KL = RS and KM = RT or not.

The same is true for ∠L = ∠S and ∠M = ∠T, where LM = ST is not

necessarily true. Since ΔKLM and ΔRST are not necessarily congruent.

If the three angles of one triangle are equal to the three angles of the
other triangle, then the two triangles are not necessarily congruent.

c. SAS Property (side, angle, side)

The Two Sides and the Included Angles are Equal

Example 5 :
Look at figure on the right. BC = BF and AB = EB.
a. Prove that ΔABC and ΔEBF are congruent.
b. Name the pairs of equal angles.
Solution :
a. Consider ΔABC and ΔEBF.
AB = EB (given)
∠ABC = ∠EBF =90 °
BC = BF (given)

Thus, ABC and ΔEBF are

congruent

(SAS Property)
b. Pairs of equal angles:
∠ABC = ∠EBF =90 °
∠CAB = ∠FEB
∠ACB = ∠EFB

104
 d. One side, two angles property (angle, angle, side), (angle, side, angle) or
(side, angle, angle)
Example 6 :
1.

Look at the figure above

a. Prove that ΔPQR and ΔTSU are congruent.

b. Name the pairs of equal sides.
Solution :
a. Consider ΔPQR and ΔTSU.
PQ = TS =5 cm
∠Q =∠S = 40 °
∠R = ∠U =80 °
Thus, ΔPQR and ΔTSU are congruent (side, angle, angle)
b. Pairs of equal sides:
PQ = TS PR = TU QR = SU

Exercise 6 :
1. Look at the figure below.

a. Show that ΔABC and ΔEDF are congruent.

b. Name the pairs of equal angles.
2. Look at the figure below.

105
 a. Show that ΔPQS and ΔQPR are congruent.
b. Name the pairs of equal angles.
4.

Look at the figure above. ΔABC is an isosceles triangles,

and BP = QC. Prove that . ΔABP and ΔACQ are congruent.

5.2.3 Finding the Sides and Angles in

Congruent Triangles
To find the sides and angles in congruent triangles, first, identify those
angles which are equal in measure and those sides which are equal in length.

Example 7 :
1. Look at the figure on the right. AB // DC and AD // BC. Show that
AD = BC by proving the congruence of ΔABC and ΔCDB.
Solution :
Look at ΔABC and ΔCDB.
∠ABD = ∠CDB ( alternate interior angles)
BD = DB (coincident)
∠ABD = ∠CDB ( alternate interior angles)

Thus, ΔABC and ΔCDB are congruent (angle, side, angle).

Since the two triangles are congruent, AD = BC.

Exercise 7 :
1. In the figure, ∠PQR and ∠GIH are congruent

106
 Find the values of:
a. p
b. m

2. The following two triangles are congruent.

Find the value of x and y.

3.

Look at the figure

above. AD ⊥ BC
and BD = DC. Show that AB = AC by proving that ΔABD and ΔACD
are congruent.

4.

Look at the figure

above.

a. Show that ΔABD and ΔPQR are congruent.

b. Find the measure of ΔABC.

5.

In the above figure, KLMN is a

parallelogram. LQ ⊥ KM. prove
that NP = LQ.

5.3 Similar Triangles

107
5.3.1 Conditions for Similarity of Two Triangles
a. Similarity of Triangles Based on Corresponding Angles.
The triangles in figure are constructed from groups of parallel lines.

Consider ΔABC and ΔDEF shown in figure

∠A = ∠D (corresponding angles)

∠B = ∠E (corresponding angles)

∠C = ∠F (since the other two angles are equal)

Thus, ΔABC and ΔDEF have equal corresponding angles.

Let us examine the proportions corresponding sides.

AB : DE = 3 :4

AC : DF = 3 :4

BC : EF = 3 :4

Thus, the corresponding sides of ΔABC and ΔDEF are proportional.

Now, consider ΔABC and ΔPQR.

∠A = ∠D (corresponding angles)

∠B = ∠E (corresponding angles)

∠C = ∠F (since the other two angles are equal)

Thus, ΔABC and ΔPQR have equal corresponding angles.

Let us examine the proportions corresponding sides.

AB : PQ = 3 :6=1:2

AC : PR = 3 :6=1:2

BC : QR =
3 :6=1:2

108
 Thus, the corresponding sides of ΔABC and ΔPQR are proportional.

From the above results, we can draw the following conclusion.

If the corresponding angles of two triangles are equal, then the

corresponding sides are proportional.

If the corresponding angles of two triangles are equal, then the

triangles must be similar.

To better understand this matter, look at ΔABC and ΔPQR shown in figure.

In figure:

∠A = ∠P ∠B = ∠Q ∠C = ∠R

Since the corresponding angles are equal then ΔABC and ΔPQR are similar,
and the corresponding sides are proportional:

AB AC BC
= = .
PQ PR QR

Note: 1. If two triangles have two pairs of equal angles,

then the other pair of angles are equal.
2. Equal angles are opposite to the corresponding
Sides.

Example 8 :

109
 1. In ΔABC and ΔPQR = 60 ° , ∠ABC = 40 ° , ∠QPR =60 ° , ∠PRQ =80 ° .
Explain why the two triangles are considered similar, and then name the
pairs of corresponding sides.
Solution :
In ΔABC :
∠ABC = 180 °−(60 °+ 40 °)
= 180 °−100 °
= 80 °

In
ΔP
Q R:
∠P
QR = 180 °−(60 °+ 80° )
=180 °−140 °
=40 °

∠BAC = ∠QPR = 6 O °

∠ABC = ∠PQR = 40 °

∠ACB = ∠PRQ = 80 °

Thus, ΔABC and ΔPQR are similar since the corresponding angles are
equal.

The proportions of the corresponding sides are:

AB AC BC
= =
PQ PR QR

Use the following method to identify the

corresponding sides.

b. Similarity of Triangles Based on

Corresponding Sides

Look at figure:

110
 In figure ∠ABC and ∠DEF have equal corresponding angles, namely
∠A = ∠D, ∠B = ∠E, ∠C = ∠F. The sides of ∠DEF are 2 times longer than the
corresponding sides of ∠ABC, hence the corresponding sides are proportional.
Thus ∠ABC and ∠DEF are similar.

Now, draw ∠PQR with sides 2 times longer than the corresponding sides of
∠ABC such that:

AB : PQ = 1 :2

AC : PR = 1 :2

BC : QR =1 :2

That is, ΔABC and ΔPQR have corresponding sides in proportion.

The sides of ΔDEF are 2 times longer than the corresponding sides of ΔABC.
This means that ΔDEF and ΔPQR are congruent since the corresponding sides are
equal.

From the above description we can draw the following conclusion.

If all the corresponding sides of two triangles are proportional, then all
the corresponding angles are equal.

Thus, if all the corresponding sides of two triangles are proportional,

then the two triangles must be similar.

Example 9 :
1. In ΔDEF and ΔKLM, DE = 6 cm , EF = 4 cm , DF = 8 cm , KL = 12 cm,
LM = 22 cm , and KM = 18 cm. Is ΔDEF similar to ΔKLM?

Solution :

In ΔDEF: In ΔKLM

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 DE = 6 cm KL = 12 cm

EF = 4 cm LM =
22 cm

DF = 8 cm KM =
18 cm

Pair up the corresponding sides based on

their lengths. The proportions of the corresponding sides are.

DE : KM = 6 cm :18 cm medium length side

= 1 :3

EF : KL = 4 cm:12 cm shortest side

= 1 :3

DF : LM = 8 cm :22 c m longest side

= 4 :11

Since the corresponding sides are not proportional then ΔDEF and ΔKLM are
not similar.

c. Similarity of Triangles Based on Two Sides and the Included Angles

Example 10 :
1. look at the figures on the right. AC =8 c m, BC = 6 cm , ∠C = 110 ° , PR =
12 cm , QR = 9 cm , and ∠R = 110 ° . Are the two triangles similar? Explain
your answer.

Solution :
In ΔABC: In ΔABC:

AC = 8 cm PR = 12 cm

BC = 6 cm QR = 9 cm

∠C = 110 ° ∠R = 110 °

AC : PR = 8 cm :12 cm=2: 3 BC : QR = 6 cm :9 cm=2 :3

112
 Thus, ΔABC and ΔABC are similar since ∠C = ∠R and the corresponding
sides which include the equal angles are proportional.

Exercise 10 :
1. From the figure below,
identify:

a. Which pairs of
triangles are
similar and explain your answer,
b. The pairs of proportional corresponding sides, or equal
corresponding angles.

2. In the figure below ∠D = 70 ° , DE = 5 cm , DF = 5 cm , ∠M = 70 ° , KM =

18 cm , and ML = 15 cm. Show that ∠DEF and ∠KLM are similar.

113
 3.

In the figure above, CE ⊥ AF

and FB ⊥ AC. Show that
ΔBCD and ΔEFD are similar.

5.3.2 Finding the Lengths of

the Sides in Similar
Triangles

Example 11 :
1. In the following figure, AB = 8 cm , BC = 6 cm , XY = 12 cm , and XZ =
10 cm.

a.

Explain whether ΔABC and ΔXYZ are similar or not.

b. Identify the pairs of corresponding sides which are in proportion.
c. Find the length of AC and YZ.

114
Solution :

a. ∠A = ∠X
∠B = ∠Y
∠C = ∠Z
Thus , ΔABC and ΔEYZ are similar since the corresponding angles are equal
AB BC AC
b.
XY
= YZ = XZ the corresponding sider are opposite to

equal angle.

AB AC AB BC
c. XY = XZ XY
= YZ
8 AC 8 6
12
= 10
=
12 YZ
12 AC = 8 × 10 8YZ = 12×6
12 AC = 80 8YZ = 72
80 72
AC = YZ =
12 8
=6.67 =9
Thus. AC = 6.67 cm. Thus, YZ = 9 cm.

Exercise 11 :
1. Look at the following figure.

a. Prove that ΔABE and ΔDCE are similar

b. Name the pair of corresponding sider
c. Find the length of AB

2. Look at the following figure.

115
 a. Why are ΔEFG and ΔKLM considered similar?
b. Find the length of KL .
3.

Look at the figure above

a. show that ΔADC and BEC are similar.
b. Name all the pairs of sides which are in proportion.
C. Find the lengths of AC and AD.
4. In the following figure, PT = 5 cm, TS = 4 cm, PR = 15 cm, and PR//QS.

a. Prove that ΔPTR and ΔSTQ are similar.

b. Find the length of QS
5.

In the figure above, ED = 16 cm, EC = 6 cm, EB = 4 cm, and ∠BAD + ∠BCD

= 180∘

a. Show that ΔEAD and ΔEBC are similar

b. Name all the pairs of corresponding sides which ae in proportion
c. Find the length of AB.

5.3.3 Telling the difference between similar triangles and

congruent triangles

Between two triangles there must be one of the following possible

relationships.
1. They are congruent
2. They are similar
3. They are neither congruent nor similar.

116
 We will only discuss the differences between two congruent triangles and two
similar triangles. Look at the following table.
The differences:

Two Congruent Triangles Two Similar Triangles

1. The corresponding sides are equal 1. The corresponding sides are in
in length proportion
2. The triangles are of the same size 2. The triangles are different in size

Two congruent triangles have corresponding angles equal in measure and

corresponding sides equal in length.
Two similar triangles have corresponding angles equal in measure but
corresponding sides unequal in length (only proportion).

5.4 Similar Triangles in a Right and Triangles Containing a

Parallel Line

5.4.1 Similar Triangles in a Right and Triangle With Altitude on the

Hypotenuse

Look at Figure below.

The triangle ΔABC shown in figure (i) has a right angle at A and AD is
the altitude on the hypotenuse BC. By examining the interior angles of Δ
ABC , you’ll get three similar triangles, namely, ΔABD , ΔADC ,∧ΔABC .
Based on each pair of similar triangles, for Δ ABC in Figure above we
can derive the following formulas.

1. Look at Figure (ii) and (iii).

Since ΔABC and ΔADC are similar:
AD BD
=
CD AD
AD × AD=BD ×CD
2
AD =BD ×CD

117
 2. Look at Figure (ii) and (iii).
Since ΔA BC and ΔADC are similar:
AB BD
=
BC AB
AB× AB=BD × BC
2
AB =BD × BC

3. Look at Figure (ii) and (iii).

Since ΔABC and ΔADC are similar:
AC CD
=
CB AC
AC × AC=CD ×CB
2
AC =CD ×CB

Example 12 :
1. In the figure, PS=4 cm and RS=6 cm.
Find the length of:
a. PQ
b. QS

Solution:
a. PR=( 4+6 ) cm=10 cm
2
PQ =PS × PR
¿ 4 ×10
¿ 40
PQ=√ 40 or PQ=√ (4 ×10)=2 √ 10
Thus, the length of PQ=√ 40 cm or 2 √ 10 cm
b. QS2=PS × SR
¿ 4 ×6
¿ 24
QS= √ 24 or QS= √ (4 × 6)=2 √ 6
Thus, the length of PQ=√ 24 cm or 2 √ 6 cm
2. In the figure, DG=8 cm and EG=5 cm .
Find:
a. The length of FG
b. The area of ΔDEF

Solution:

118
 a. EG=5 cm , DG=8 cm
2
DG =EG × FG
2
8 =5× FG
¿ 5 FG
FG=12 , 8
Thus, the length of FG=12 , 8 cm
1
b. The area of ΔDEF = × EF × DG
2
1
¿ ×17 , 8 × 8
2
¿ 17 , 8 × 4=71, 2

Thus, the area of ΔDEF=71 , 2cm2

Exercise 12 :
1. In the figure, BD=6 cm and BC=14 cm.
Find :
a. the length of AD
b. the length of AB
c. the area of ΔABC
2.

In the figure above, PR=12 cm and PS=6 cm. Find the lengths of:
a. PQ
b. RS
3.

Look at the figure above. Find the length of PS .

119
5.4.1 Similar Triangles in a Triangle Containing a Line Parallel to One of Its
Side

In ΔABC , DE ‖ AB
Consider ΔCDE and ΔCAB
∠ CDE=∠ CAB (corresponding angles)
∠ CED=∠ CBA (corresponding angles)
∠ DCE=∠ ACB (coincident)
Since the corresponding angles are equal, then ΔCDE and ΔCAB are similar,
and we can derive the following formulas:
To Figure beside the following proportion
Applies:
CD CE DE
= =
CA CB AB
or
a c e
= =
a+b c +d f

Now, look at Figure below, analyzed :

a c
=
a+b c +d
a (c +d )=c (a+ b)
ac +a d=ac +bc
ac +ad −ac=bc
a c
=
b d
a c
=
b d
Based on the above explanation, we can draw the following conclusion.
a c a c
= or =
b d b d

120
Example 13 :
1. In

ΔABC , DE ‖ AB , DE =8 cm , AB=12 cm , AD=4 cm ,∧CE=10 cm.

Find the lengths of:
a. CD
b. BE

Solution: CE DE
b. =
CD DE CB AB
a. =
CA AB 10 8
=
CD 8 CB 12
=
CD+ 4 12 8 CB=10 ×12
12 CD=8(CD +4 ) 8 CB=120
12 CD=8 CD+32 120
CB= =15
8
12 CD−8 CD=32
Thus, the length of
4 CD=32
BE=CB−CE
32
CD= =8 BE=( 15−10 ) cm
4
Thus, the length of CD=8 cm BE=5 cm

Exercise 12 :

1.

In ΔABC above, DE ‖ AB. AB=18 cm , DE =12cm , CD=8 cm and BE=6 cm .

Find the lengths of:
a. CA c. CE
b. AD
2. Look at the picture beside.
Find the values of:

121
 a. x
b. y

CHAPT
ER 6
CURVED SURFACE SOLIDS

6.1 Part of a Cylinder and a Cone

6.1.1 Part of a Cylinder

122
 Figure 6.1 shows a cylinder. A cylinder consists of a face at the bottom,
known as the base, a face at the top,
known as the top, and a curved face,
known as the lateral surface.
The top and the bottom of a cylinder
are two congruent circle.

Figure 6.1

6.1.2 Part of a Cone

Figure 6.2 shows a cone. A cone consists of a circular side on the bottom
and a curved side known as the lateral surface.

Figure 6.2

6.2 The Nets a Cylinder and Cone

6.2.1 The Net of a Cylinder

Figure above is a cylinder

with as the radius of its base and t
r
as its height. The cylinder is cut off
at the top, at the bottom and
alongside. Then we find the
cylinder in the form of the two-
dimensional form in figure above.
You would be looking at a
rectangle that is as tall as the
cylinder and as long as the
circumference of its top (or bottom).
The net of a cylinder consists of two congruent circle and a rectangle.
The length of the rectangle = the circumference of the base.

123
The width of the rectangle = the height of the cylinder.
Remember that the area of a circle is π r 2 and its circumference is 2 πr .

6.2.2 The Net of a Cone

Figure 6.3
Figure 6.3(i) shows a cone where r is the radius of the base and t is the height
of the cone. TQ is the slant height.
Using the Pythagorean theorem, TQ 2=t 2+ r 2∨TQ= √ t 2+ r 2.
The cone Figure 6.3 (i) is cut along the slant height TQ and then uncurled and
flattened such that the figure as shown in Figure 6.3 (ii) is obtained. It is the net
of the cone.
The net of a cone consists of a circle and a circular sector constructed from the
lateral surface of the cone.
The length of the arc = the circumference of the cone’s base.
Example 1:
1. Look at the figure on the right.
a. What is the diameter of the base?
b. What is the height of the cylinder?
c. Find the dimensions of the lateral surface?
Solution :

124
 a. Diameter of cone’s base ¿ 2 ×7=14 cm
b. Height of the cylinder ¿ 18 cm
c. Dimensions of the lateral surface :
Length ¿ 2 πr
22
¿2× ×7
7
Width ¿ height of the cylinder
¿ 18 cm

2. The height of the cone is 8 cm and the radius of the base is 6 cm .

a. Find the length of the slant height.
b. Find the length of the arc of the lateral surface.

Solution :

a. s is the slant height.

By using the Pythagorean theorem:
2 2 2
s =r +t
2 2
¿ 6 +8
¿ 36+64
¿ 100
s=10
Thus, the slant height ¿ 10 cm
b. The length of the arc of the lateral surface
¿ the circumference of cone’s base
¿ 2 πr
¿ 2 ×3 , 14 ×6
¿ 37 , 68 cm
Thus, the slant height ¿ 37 , 68 cm

125
Exercise 1:
1. Look at the figure of the cylinder below.

Name the line which is:

a. The radius of the base.
b. The diameter of the base.
c. The height of the cylinder.
22
2. A cylinder has height of 10 cm and a base with radius of 14 cm . Taking π ≈
7
, find:
a. The length of the lateral surface.
b. The width of the lateral surface.
3. Look at the figure of the cone below.

Name the line which is:

a. The radius of the base.
b. The diameter of the base.
c. The height of the cone.
d. The slant height of the cone.
4. A cone has a base with a radius of 2 cm . Its slant height is 10 cm . Draw the
net of the cone.

126
6.3 Surface Area: Cylinder, Cone, Sphere
6.3.1 Surface Area of Cylinder

127
128
Finding surface area:

129
Exercise 2:

130
131
6.3.2 Surface Area of Cone

132
a. The base of the cone should be a circle. Explain why the
circumference of the base is 5 π .
b. Find the radius of the base.
c. What is the area of the original circle?
d. What is the area of the circle with one part missing?
e. Describe the surface area of the cone. Use your description to find the
surface area, including the base.

133
 The distance from the vertex of a cone to any point on the edge of its base
is called the slant height of the cone.

134
135
Exercise 3:

136
6.3.2 Surface Area of a Sphere

EXPLORATION 1

You will end up with two “fi gure 8” pieces of material, as shown above.
From the amount of material it takes to cover the ball, what would you estimate
the surface area S of the ball to be? Express your answer in terms of the radius r of
the ball.

Use the Internet or some other resource to confi rm that the formula you
wrote for the surface area of a sphere is correct.
Finding surface area of Sphere:

137
 sphere is the set of all points in space equidistant from a given point. This
point is called the center of the sphere. A radius of a sphere is a segment from the
center to a point on the sphere. A chord of a sphere is a segment whose
endpoints are on the sphere. A diameter of a sphere is a chord that contains the
center.

As with circles, the terms radius and diameter also represent distances, and the
diameter is twice the radius.
If a plane intersects a sphere, then the intersection is either a single point or a
circle. If the plane contains the center of the
sphere, then the intersection is a great circle
of the sphere. The circumference of a great
circle is the circumference of the sphere.
Every great circle of a sphere separates the
sphere into two congruent halves called
hemispheres.

To understand the formula for the surface area of a sphere, think of a baseball.
The surface area of a baseball is sewn from two congruent shapes, each of which
resembles two joined circles.So, the entire
covering of the baseball consists of four
circles, each with radius r. The area A of a
circle with radius r is A = πr2. So the area of
the covering can be approximated by 4πr2.
This is the formula for the surface area of a
sphere.

138
Exercise 4:
1. Find the total surface area of a sphere with a radius of:
a. 14 cm
b. 5 cm
2. Find the total surface area of these balls, taking π ≈ 3 ,14 !
a.

22 cm

b.

139
24 cm

22
3. Taking π ≈ , find the radius of a sphere that has a total surface area of
7
2
616 m .
4. Find the total surface area of hemisphere having a diameter of 20 cm ,taking
π ≈ 3 ,14 !
5. The earth is almost spherical with a radius of 6.400 km . If 30 % of the Earth’s
land, rounded to the nearest km2 .

6.4 Volume of a Cylinder, a Cone, and a Sphere

6.4.1 Volume of a Cylinder

140
141
142
Exercise 4:

143
144
6.4.2 Volume of a Cone

145
146
147
Exercise 5:

148
149
6.4.2 Volume of a Sphere
 Finding Volumes of Spheres
The fi gure shows a hemisphere and a cylinder with a cone removed. A plane
parallel to their bases intersects the solids z units above their bases.

Using the AA Similarity Theorem, you can show that the radius of the cross
section of the cone at height z is z. The area of the cross section formed by the
plane is π (r 2− z2 ) for both solids. Because the solids have the same height and the
same cross-sectional area at every level, they have the same volume by Cavalieri’s
Principle.

150
151
152
Exercise 6:

153
154
155
156