Topics to be Covered

❖ Quadratic Analysis
❖ Range of Function
❖ Standard Functions
❖ Graph Transformations
❖ Trigonometry
❖ Limits
❖ Coordinate Geometry (Circles, Conics)
❖ Permutations and Combinations
Quadratic
Analysis
Wavy curve Method
 Steps of Wavy curve Method
Make sure RHS is zero & coefficient of x in all the factors is +ve.

Step 1: Put all factors equal to zero & mark corresponding values of x on
real line.

Step 2: Put + on extreme right & change the sign alternatively moving
toward left.
 Solve for x:
Q
(a) (3x − 2) (x − 4) ≤ 0 (b) (2 − 3x) (x − 4) ≥ 0
 Solve for x:
Q
(a) (3x − 2) (x − 4) ≤ 0 (b) (2 − 3x) (x − 4) ≥ 0
Solution:

(a) (3x - 2) (x - 4) ≤ 0 (b) (2 - 3x) (x - 4) ≥ 0

(3x - 2) (x - 4) ≤ 0

+ - +
-∞ 2/3 4 +∞ + - +
-∞ 2/3 4 +∞
Q Solve for x: x2 < 9
Q Solve for x: x2 < 9

Solution:

+ - +
-∞ -3 3 +∞
Q Solve for x:

Solution:
Q Solve for x: (x − 4) (3x − 2) (x + 1) ≤ 0
Q Solve for x: (x − 4) (3x − 2) (x + 1) ≤ 0

Solution:

(x - 4) (3x - 2) (x + 1) ≤ 0

x=4, ⅔ , -1
- + - +
-∞ 4 +∞
-1 ⅔
Q Solve for x:
Q Solve for x:

Solution:
Analysis of Graphs
 Analysis of Graphs

Parabola Opens Upwards Parabola Opens downwards

 Analysis of Graphs

Significance of D
For D > 0

D > 0 and a < 0

X X

D > 0 and a > 0

 Analysis of Graphs

Significance of D
For D = 0

D = 0 and a < 0
X
D = 0 and a > 0
 Analysis of Graphs

Significance of D
For D < 0

D < 0 and a < 0

X X
D < 0 and a > 0
 Analysis of Graphs

OBSERVATIONS

1. Range of y = ax2 + bx + c is →

2. (i) ax2 + bx + c > 0 ∀ x if →

(ii) ax2 + bx + c < 0 ∀ x if →

 Analysis of Graphs

OBSERVATIONS

1. Range of y = ax2 + bx + c is →

x
2. (i) ax2 + bx + c > 0 ∀ x if → a > 0 and D < 0
x
(ii) ax2 + bx + c < 0 ∀ x if → a < 0 and D < 0
 Find the range of :
Q
(a) y = x2 + x + 1
(b) y = -x2 - 2x + 3
(c) y = x2 + 2x + 4 ; 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
(d) y = x2 + 2x + 4 ; -3 ≤ x ≤ -2
(e) y = 2x2 + x + 1 ; -1 ≤ x ≤ 1
 Find the range of :
Q
(a) y = x2 + x + 1
 Find the range of :
Q
(a) y = x2 + x + 1

Solution:
 Find the range of :
Q
(b) y = -x2 - 2x + 3
 Find the range of :
Q
(b) y = -x2 - 2x + 3

Solution:
 Find the range of :
Q
(c) y = x2 + 2x + 4 ; 1 ≤ x ≤ 3
 Find the range of :
Q
(c) y = x2 + 2x + 4 ; 1 ≤ x ≤ 3

Solution:
 Find the range of :
Q
(d) y = x2 + 2x + 4 ; -3 ≤ x ≤ -2
 Find the range of :
Q
(d) y = x2 + 2x + 4 ; -3 ≤ x ≤ -2

Solution:
 Find the range of :
Q
(e) y = 2x2 + x + 1 ; -1 ≤ x ≤ 1
 Find the range of :
Q
(e) y = 2x2 + x + 1 ; -1 ≤ x ≤ 1

Solution:
Q Find the range of y = 2 sin2θ + sinθ + 1
Q Find the range of y = 2 sin2θ + sinθ + 1

Solution:

Put sinθ = x
then its same as last part of previous question
 Analysis of Graphs

Recall

1. Range of y = ax2 + bx + c is →

x
2. (i) ax2 + bx + c > 0 ∀ x if → a > 0 and D < 0
x
(ii) ax2 + bx + c < 0 ∀ x if → a < 0 and D < 0
Q (a) Find the value of k for which (k - 4)x2 + (k - 1)x - 1 < 0, ∀ x ∈ R

(b) Find the value(s) of k for which x2 + 2kx + 10 - 3k ≥ 0, ∀ x ∈ R

Q (a) Find the value of k for which (k - 4)x2 + (k - 1)x - 1 < 0, ∀ x ∈ R
Q (a) Find the value of k for which (k - 4)x2 + (k - 1)x - 1 < 0, ∀ x ∈ R

Solution:
Q (b) Find the value(s) of k for which x2 + 2kx + 10 - 3k ≥ 0, ∀ x ∈ R
Q (b) Find the value(s) of k for which x2 + 2kx + 10 - 3k ≥ 0, ∀ x ∈ R

Solution:
Range of a
Function
 Range of a Function
Collection of all the images is called range of function.
It’s primarily, values of y for which x is defined.

-1 -2
1 2
2 4
7

A B
 Find the range of the following:
Q
 Find the range of the following:
Q

Solution:
 Find the range of the following:
Q (a) y = 2 sinx + 1

(b) , {.} is fractional part function

(c)

(d)
Solution:
Solution:
Q Find the range of the following:
 Find the range of the following:
Q
 Find the range of the following:
Q

Solution:
 Find the range of the following:
Q
 Find the range of the following:
Q

Solution:
 Find the range of the following:
Q
 Find the range of the following:
Q

Solution:
RECALL

y = ax ; a > 0, a ≠ 1
Y Y

a>1 0<a<1

X X
O O
 Q Find the range of the following:
(a) y = 3sinx (b)

(c)

Solution:
Standard
Functions
 Standard Functions
➢ Modulus Function
➢ Greatest Integer Function
➢ Fractional Part Function
➢ Exponential Function
➢ Logarithmic Function
➢ Signum Function
 Standard Functions

Modulus Function
The general representation of the Modulus Function is f(x) = |x|

it is equal to x if x ≥ 0

|x|

it is equal to −x if x < 0

Ex: Consider the following examples.

(a) |−2| = (b) |2| = (c) |x2| =

 Standard Functions

The following shows the graph of the Modulus function.

y=|x|
Y
y=−x y=x

X
O
 Standard Functions

Modulus Function
For all a, b > 0, we have

1) | f(x) | = a ⇒ f(x) = ±a

2) | f(x) | ≤ a ⇒ −a ≤ f(x) ≤ a

3) | f(x) | ≥ a ⇒ f(x) ≥ a or f(x) ≤ −a

4) a ≤ | f(x) | ≤ b ⇒ f(x) ∈ [−b, −a] ∪ [a, b]

 Find the range of the following:
Q
(a) | 2x − 5 | = 3 (b) | x − 1 | ≤ 4

(c) | 2x − 3 | > 2 (d) 3 ≤ | x − 2 | < 8

Solution:
 Standard Functions

Properties of Modulus functions

(1) | a | ≥ a
(2) | ab | = | a | × | b |

(3)

Triangle inequality:

(4) (i) |a + b| ≤ | a | + | b |
(ii) |a − b| ≥ || a | − | b ||
Q Solve for x:

Solution:
 Standard Functions

Now, let’s do the examples where we need to

make cases to handle modulus.
Q Solve for x: | 2x + 1 | + | x − 3 | ≤ 5
Q Solve for x: | 2x + 1 | + | x − 3 | ≤ 5

Solution:

Case - 1: Case-2: Case-3: x ∈ [3, ∞)

In this case eqn becomes In this case eqn becomes In this case eqn becomes
−(2x + 1) − (x − 3) ≤ 5 (2x + 1) − (x − 3) ≤ 5 (2x + 1) + ( x − 3) ≤ 5

−3x + 2 ≤ 5 x+4≤5 3x − 2 ≤ 5

-3x ≤ 3 x≤1 3x ≤ 7

−x ≤ 1 or
x ≥ -1
or
Q Solve for x: | x − 1 | + | x − 2 | ≤ 4
Q Solve for x: | x − 1 | + | x − 2 | ≤ 4

Solution:
(1) (2) (3)
-∞ 1 2 +∞

Case - 1 : x ∈ (−∞, 1) Case-2: x ∈ [1. 2)

In this case equation becomes In this case equation becomes
−(x − 1) − (x − 2) ≤ 4 (x − 1) − (x − 2) ≤ 4
−2x + 3 ≤ 4 1≤4
−2x ≤ 1 Since it is true
Thus, x ∈ [1, 2) ….(2)
Q Solve for x: | x − 1 | + | x − 2 | ≤ 4

Solution:
Alternate Approach:
Case-3: x ∈ [2, ∞)
In this case equation becomes Make graph of :
(x − 1) + ( x − 2) ≤ 4 y = | x - a| + | x - b|
2x − 3 ≤ 4
2x ≤ 7

…(3)

Thus, (1) ∪ (2) ∪ (3)

OBSERVATIONS

Range of :

(a) |x| for x ∈ [-1 , 2] is _________

(b) |x2| for x ∈ [-1 , 2] is _________

(c) | 3 sinx | is __________

 Standard Functions

Greatest Integer Function

The representation of the Greatest Integer Function (GIF) is f(x) = [x]
For any real number x :
[x] → is the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
 Standard Functions

Greatest Integer Function

Consider the following examples.

(a) [1. 5] = (b) [5.999] =

(c) [6] = (d) [0.99] =

(e) [𝜋] = (f) [−2.8] =

 Standard Functions

Graph of Greatest Integer Function

RESULTS
RESULTS
For example

1) [x] = 2 ⇒ x ∈

2) [x] ≥ 2 ⇒ x ∈

3) [x] > 2 ⇒ x ∈

4) [x] ≤ 2 ⇒ x ∈

5) [x] < 2 ⇒ x ∈
 NOTE

1) [x + k] = [x] + k, for k ∈ Z
2) [-x] = -1 - [x] for x ∉ Z
 Q Solve for x:
(a) [ 3x − 1 ] = 5 (b)

(c) [x] = x

Solution:
 Standard Functions

Fractional Part Function

y = {x} = x − [x]

NOTE

(1) fractional part of ( )=( ) − greatest integer of ( )

(2) {x} always lies in [0,1)
 Standard Functions

Graph of Fractional Part Function

OBSERVATIONS

(a) If , then {x} is ________

(b) If , then { sin x } is ________

(c) If , then {x} is ________

 Standard Functions

Exponential Function
y = ax, a > 0, a ≠ 1
 Standard Functions

Graph of Exponential Function

y = ax, a > 0, a ≠ 1
Y Y

a>1 0<a<1

X
O X O
RESULTS
Q Solve for x:
Q Solve for x:

Solution:
Q Solve for x:

Solution:
 Standard Functions

Logarithmic Function
y = loga x, a > 0, a ≠ 1, x > 0
 Standard Functions

Graph of Logarithmic Function

y = logax, a > 0, a ≠ 1, x > 0

Y Y
a>1 0<a<1

X X
O O
 RESULTS

(a) loga x2 = loga x1 ⇒

(b) loga x2 > loga x1

(c) loga x > p

 REMARK

While solving equations and inequations involving log, be careful

about domain.
Q Solve for x:
(a) log10(x2 − 5x) < log106

(b)
Q Solve for x:
(a) log10(x2 − 5x) < log106
Q Solve for x:
(a) log10(x2 − 5x) < log106

Solution:
Q Solve for x:

(b)
Q Solve for x:

(b)

Solution:
Properties of Logarithmic Function
Properties of Logarithmic Function
We may straight away observe three important deductions using the
base change property.

(we may prove it by taking c = b)

(2) logcb × logba = logca

Generalized result is logab × logbc × logcd = logad
 Standard Functions

Signum Function

For example
(1) sgn (x2 + 10) =
(2) sgn (x2 - x + 1) =
(3) sgn ({x} − 2) =
Graph
Transformations
Graph Transformations
 Graph Transformations

Some Standard Graphs

 Graph Transformations

Some Standard Graphs

(1) y = x2, x4, ... (2) y = x3, x5, ...

Y Y

X
O
X
O
 Graph Transformations

Some Standard Graphs

Y Y

O X O X
 Graph Transformations

Some Standard Graphs

(5) y = sin x Y

X
O

-1
 Graph Transformations

Some Standard Graphs

(6) y = cos x Y

X
O

-1
 Graph Transformations

Some Standard Graphs

(7) y = | x | (8) y = sgn(x)

Y Y

1
X
O
X -1
O
 Graph Transformations

Some Standard Graphs

(9) y = ax (10) y = loga x

a>1 0<a<1 a>1 0<a<1

Y Y Y Y

O X O X O X O X
Graph Transformations
 Graph Transformations

(1) y = f(x) → y = f(x) ± a

RESULT

To draw y = f(x) ± a, shift the graph

of y = f(x) upward or downward
respectively by a units.
 Graph Transformations

(2) y = f(x) → y = f(x ± a)

RESULT

To draw y = f(x ± a), shift the graph of

y = f(x) to the left or right respectively
by a units.
 Graph Transformations

(3) y = f(x) → y = af(x)

 Graph Transformations

(3) y = f(x) → y = af(x)

RESULT

(1) To draw y = af (x), inflate or deflate graph of y = f (x) by a units

depending upon whether a > 1 or 0 < a < 1.
(2) To draw y = -f (x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about X-axis
 Graph Transformations

(4) y = f(x) → y = f(ax)

 Graph Transformations

(4) y = f(x) → y = f(ax)

RESULT

(1) To draw the graph of y = f(ax), stretch or compress the graph of

y = f (x) depending upon 0 < a < 1 or a > 1 respectively.
(2) To draw y = f (-x), reflect the graph of y = f (x), about Y-axis.
 Graph Transformations

(5) y = f(x) → y = | f(x) |

RESULT

To plot y = |f(x)| , keep the graph of y = f(x)

as such where f(x) ≥ 0 while reflecting it
about X-axis where f (x) < 0.
 Graph Transformations

(6) y = f(x) → y = f(|x|)

RESULT

To draw the graph of y = f(|x|), keep the graph of y = f(x) as such on

+ve x-axis and also take a reflection copy of graph on +ve x-axis
about y-axis. If there is some part of graph of y = f(x) on -ve x-axis,
then erase it first to draw y = f(|x|).
 Draw the graph of:
Q
(a) y = |x2 - 5x + 6| (b) y = |4 - x2|

Solution:
 The number of real solutions of the equation
Q
log0.5|x| = 2|x| is
 The number of real solutions of the equation
Q
log0.5|x| = 2|x| is

Solution:
Draw the graph of y = log0.5 |x| and y = 2|x|

y
y = 2|x| y = 2|x|

-1 1
x

y = log0.5(-x) y = log0.5(x)

Clearly, from the graph, there are two solutions

Trigonometry
Important Trigonometric Formulae
 Important Trigonometric Formulae

Compound Angle Formulae

1. sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB

2. sin(A - B) = sinA cosB - cosA sinB

3. cos(A + B) = cosA cosB - sinA sinB

4. cos(A - B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB

❖ sin(A + B) × sin(A - B) = sin2A - sin2B

❖ cos(A + B) × cos(A - B) = cos2A - sin2B = cos2B - sin2A
 Important Trigonometric Formulae

Multiple Angle Formulae

sin 2θ and cos 2θ can be expressed in

terms of tanθ as

&
 Important Trigonometric Formulae

Expressing in terms of sine only.

a sin θ + b cos θ

Expressing in terms of cosine only.

 Important Trigonometric Formulae

Trigonometric transformation Formulae

Transformation of Sum/difference to Product

 Important Trigonometric Formulae

Trigonometric transformation Formulae

Transformation of Product to Sum/Difference

2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin(A - B)

2 cos A sin B = sin(A + B) - sin(A - B)
2 cos A cos B = cos(A + B) + cos(A - B)
2 sin A sin B = cos(A - B) - cos(A + B)
 Important Trigonometric Formulae

Two Trigonometric Series

1. sin(a) + sin(a + d) + sin(a + 2d) +...+ sin(a + (n - 1)d)

2. cos(a) + cos(a + d) + cos(a + 2d) +...+ cos(a +(n - 1)d)

 Important Trigonometric Formulae

Conditional Identities

If A + B + C = 𝜋, then :

(a) sin2A + sin2B + sin2C = 4sinA sinB sinC

(b) cos2A + cos2B + cos2C = -1 -4 cosA cosB cosC

(d) tanA + tanB + tanC = tanA tanB tanC

 Important Trigonometric Formulae

Trigonometric Equations

(a) sinθ = 0 ⇒ θ = (a) (i) sinθ = sin⍺ ⇒ θ = n𝜋 + (-1)n ⍺

(ii) cosθ = cos⍺ ⇒ θ = 2n𝜋 ± ⍺

(b) cosθ = 0 ⇒ θ =
(iii) tanθ = tan⍺ ⇒ θ = n𝜋 + ⍺
(c) cosθ = 1 ⇒ θ =
(b) (i) sin2θ = sin2⍺
(d) cosθ = -1 ⇒ θ =
(ii) cos2θ = cos2⍺ ⇒ θ = n𝜋 ± ⍺

(iii) tan2θ = tan2⍺

 Allied Angles
1. θ and nπ ± θ are called allied angles.

2. θ and are called allied angles.

Allied Angles
 Allied Angles

REMARK

1. Sine of supplementary angles are same.

2. Cosines of supplementary angles are negative of each other.
3. sin(-θ) = -sin θ and cos(-θ) = cos θ
Allied Angles
OBSERVATIONS

Try to observe

1.

2.
Q Evaluate the following.
(a) sin 120° (i) sin 210°
(b) sin 135° (j) sin 240°
(c) sin 150° (k) cos 210°
(d) sin 180° (l) cos 240°
(e) cos 120° (m) sin(1050°)
(f) cos 135° (n) sin(-30°)
(g) cos 150° (o) cos(-60°)
(h) cos 180°
Solution: Q Evaluate the following.
(a) sin 120°
(b) sin 135°
(c) sin 150°
(d) sin 180°
(e) cos 120°
(f) cos 135°
(g) cos 150°
(h) cos 180°
Solution: Q Evaluate the following.
(i) sin 210°
(j) sin 240°
(k) cos 210°
(l) cos 240°
(m) sin(1050°)
(n) sin(-30°)
(o) cos(-60°)
Q Evaluate the following.
(a) (f)

(b) (g)

(c) (h)

(d) (i)

(e) (j)
Solution: Q Evaluate the following.
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)
Solution: Q Evaluate the following.
(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(j)
 Trigonometric Ratios at some standard Angles

θ 120° 135° 150° 180°

θ (radians) π

sin θ 0

cos θ -1

tan θ -1 0
Trigonometric Ratios at some standard Angles
 Compound Angle Formula

1. sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B

2. sin(A - B) = sin A cos B - cos A sin B

3. cos(A + B) = cos A cos B - sin A sin B

4. cos(A - B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

REMARK

● sin(A + B) × sin(A - B) = sin2A - sin2B

● cos(A + B) × cos(A - B) = cos2A - sin2B = cos2B - sin2A
 Compound Angle Formula

5. 7.

6. 8.

Special Cases

These two special cases are very important.

Q Prove the following:
(a) tan 3A tan 2A tan A = tan 3A - tan 2A - tan A
(b) tan 71° tan 64° = 1 + tan 71° + tan 64°
Q Prove the following:
(a) tan 3A tan 2A tan A = tan 3A - tan 2A - tan A
Q Prove the following:
(a) tan 3A tan 2A tan A = tan 3A - tan 2A - tan A

Solution:
 NOTE

If A = B + C, then tanA tanB tanC = tanA - tanB - tanC

Q Prove the following:
(b) tan 71° tan 64° = 1 + tan 71° + tan 64°
Q Prove the following:
(b) tan 71° tan 64° = 1 + tan 71° + tan 64°

Solution:
Multiple Angle Formulae
Multiple Angle Formula

REMARK

sin 2θ and cos 2θ can be expressed in

terms of tanθ as
 Q Prove the following:

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Solution:
 1 + cos 2θ = 2 cos2 θ Q Evaluate:
1 - cos 2θ = 2 sin2 θ (a) sin 22.5o (b) cos 22.5o

Solution:
 IIT 1994

D
 IIT 1994

D
 IIT 1994

Solution:
NOTE
 Multiple Angle Formula

It is better if you remember the following as results only.

1. 6.

2.
7.

3.
8.

4. 9.

5. 10.
Now, a sin θ + b cos θ is a very important expression in trigonometry.
Let’s study it.
Expressing in terms of sine only.
Expressing in terms of cosine only.
Expressing in terms of sine only.

Expressing in terms of cosine only.

 Trigonometric Equations

OBSERVATIONS

(a) sinθ = 0 ⇒ θ =

(b) cosθ = 0 ⇒ θ =

(c) cosθ = 1 ⇒ θ =

(d) cosθ = -1 ⇒ θ =
 Trigonometric Equations

OBSERVATIONS

(a) sinθ = 0 ⇒ θ =

(b) cosθ = 0 ⇒ θ =

(c) cosθ = 1 ⇒ θ =

(d) cosθ = -1 ⇒ θ =
 Trigonometric Equations

RESULTS

(a) (i) sinθ = sin⍺ ⇒ θ = n𝜋 + (-1)n ⍺

(ii) cosθ = cos⍺ ⇒ θ = 2n𝜋 ± ⍺

(iii) tanθ = tan⍺ ⇒ θ = n𝜋 + ⍺

(b) (i) sin2θ = sin2⍺

(ii) cos2θ = cos2⍺ ⇒ θ = n𝜋 ± ⍺

(iii) tan2θ = tan2⍺

Q Solve the following equations:
(a) cosx + cos2x + cos4x = 0, x ∈ [0, 𝜋]
(b) cos4x = sinx
Q Solve the following equations:
(a) cosx + cos2x + cos4x = 0, x ∈ [0, 𝜋]
Q Solve the following equations:
(a) cosx + cos2x + cos4x = 0, x ∈ [0, 𝜋]

Solution:
Q Solve the following equations:
(b) cos4x = sinx
Q Solve the following equations:
(b) cos4x = sinx

Solution:
Q Find the general solution of the following equation:
cosx - sinx = 1
Q Find the general solution of the following equation:
cosx - sinx = 1

Solution:
LIMITS
 Methods of Evaluating Limits

We have indeterminate forms,

(Here 0 is denoting a function tending to zero, similarly ∞ & 1 are denoting

functions tending to ∞ & 1 respectively).
 Methods of Evaluating Limits

(a) L Hospital Rule:

(b) Factorization Method:
(c) Rationalization Method:
This is normally used when either numerator or denominator or both

involve square roots.

(d) Method of evaluating algebraic limit when x tends to infinity

Just take biggest terms in numerator & denominator common

(e) Trigonometric limits:

We have standard results
 Methods of Evaluating Limits

(f) Logarithmic limits:

We have standard result

(g) Exponential Limits:

We have standard result

(h) Form (1)∞

We have standard result
 Methods of evaluating Limits

(a) L Hospital Rule:

(b) Factorization Method:

Q Evaluate the following:
Q Evaluate the following:

Solution:
Q
Evaluate the following:

Solution:
 Methods of evaluating Limits

When x → ∞ or − ∞
Just take biggest terms in numerator & denominator common
 Solve the following equations:
Q

Solution:
 Solve the following equations:
Q

Solution:
 IIT 2012

Q , then a and b

are respectively

A 1, 4

B 1, −4

C 2, −3

D 2, 3
 IIT 2012

Q , then a and b

are respectively

A 1, 4

B 1, −4

C 2, −3

D 2, 3
 IIT 2012

Q , then a and b

are respectively

Solution:
 Methods of evaluating Limits

Trigonometric Limits
Q Evaluate the following:
Q Evaluate the following:

Solution:
 JEE MAIN 2019

A 0

B 2

C 4

D 1
 JEE MAIN 2019

A 0

B 2

C 4

D 1
 JEE MAIN 2019

Solution:
 IIT 1999

Q Evaluate the following:

 IIT 1999

Q Evaluate the following:

Solution:
OBSERVATIONS

As x ⟶ 0, we have

(1) but it’s slightly less than 1

(2) but it’s slightly greater than 1

 Methods of evaluating Limits

Logarithmic Limits

Exponential Limits
 Methods of evaluating Limits

Logarithmic Limits

Exponential Limits
Q Evaluate the following:

Solution:
Q Evaluate the following:

Solution:
Q
Evaluate the following:

Solution:
 Methods of evaluating Limits

Form (1)∞

RESULT

where f(x) → 0 & g(x) → ∞ when x → a

Q Evaluate the following:
Q Evaluate the following:

Solution:
 Methods of evaluating Limits

Limits using Expansion series

 IIT 1999

Q Evaluate:
 IIT 1999

Q Evaluate:

Solution:
 Evaluate the following limit using expansion:
Q
 Evaluate the following limit using expansion:
Q

Solution:
Q Find a, b & c such that
Q Find a, b & c such that

Solution:

Given,
Q Find a, b & c such that

Solution:

For existence of limit

Solving we get
 Methods of evaluating Limits

Formats 0 × ∞, ∞0 and 00
 Methods of evaluating Limits

Formats 0 × ∞, ∞0 and 00

Lets understand the procedure through examples

Q Evaluate the following limits:
(a)

(b)
Q Evaluate the following limits:
(a)
Q Evaluate the following limits:
(a)

Solution:
Given,

Applying L'Hospital rule

 Q Evaluate the following limits:
(b)

REMARK

, where f(x) ⟶ 0+ as x ⟶ a
Q Evaluate the following limits:
(b)

Solution:

Given,
 NOTE

Whenever the function under consideration has one of the following

traits, always check RHL & LHL for existence of limit.

(a) It has , [.], {.} or mod

(b) Its piecewise defined

(c) It has and

Q

A -1

B 4

C 4/3

D Does not exist

Q

A -1

B 4

C 4/3

D Does not exist

 Q

Solution:
Coordinate
Geometry
CIRCLES
 Circles

Equations of a Circle
 Circles

Equations of a Circle

(x - x1)2 + (y - y1)2 = r2
Centre : (x1, y1)
Radius : r
 Circles

Equations of a Circle

(x - x1)2 + (y - y1)2 = r2 x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

Centre : (x1, y1) Centre : (-g, -f)
Radius : r Radius :
 Circles

Equations of a Circle

(x - x1)2 + (y - y1)2 = r2 x2 + y2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0

Centre : (x1, y1) Centre : (-g, -f)
Radius : r Radius :

NOTE

Diametric form : (x - α1)(x - α2) + (y - β1)(y - β2) = 0

where (α1, β1) & (α2, β2) are endpoints of diameter
 Circles

Some special circles

1. Circle touching X - axis 2. Circle touching Y - axis

(0, b)
X
(a, 0)
 Circles

Some special circles

3. Circle touching both axes 4. Circle passing through origin and
Y cutting both axes
Y

O X (0, 2b)

Y
O X
(2a, 0)

O X
 Circles

Different forms of the equations of the circle

1) Circle touching X - axis is (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = b2

1) Circle touching Y - axis is (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = a2

1) Circle touching both axes is (x - a)2 + (y - a)2 = a2

(If it is in First quadrant)

1) Circle passing through origin and cutting both axes

(x - a)(x - 0) +(y - 0)(y - b) = 0 or x2 + y2 - ax - by = 0
CONIC SECTIONS
 Conic Sections

Standard Parabolas having vertex at origin.

(1) y2 = 4ax (2) y2 = −4ax

Y Y

LR = 4a LR = 4a
X X
Z (−a, 0) O S (a, 0) S (−a, 0) O
Z (a, 0)

x = −a x=a
 Conic Sections

Standard Parabolas having vertex at origin.

 Conic Sections

Standard Ellipses having vertex at origin.

B(0, b)
S’(-ae, 0) S(ae, 0)

O
A’(-a, 0) A(a, 0)
 Conic Sections

Standard Ellipses having vertex at origin.

 Conic Sections

Standard Hyperbola having vertex at origin.

B(0, b) A(a, 0)

S’(-ae, o) Z’ Z X
O S(ae, 0)
A’(-a, 0)
B’(0, -b)
 Conic Sections

Standard Hyperbola having vertex at origin.

 Conic Sections

Conjugate Hyperbolas

Two hyperbolas, such that the transverse and conjugate axes of one,
are the conjugate and transverse axes of the other, respectively, are
called conjugate hyperbolas.
 Conic Sections

Rectangular Hyperbolas
If a = b, that is lengths of transverse and conjugate axes are equal, then
the hyperbola is called rectangular or equilateral.

Eg. The hyperbola x2 − y2 = a2 is a rectangular hyperbola.

 Conic Sections

Parametric forms of Conics

(1) y2 = 4ax ⇒ (at2, 2at)

(2) x2 = 4ay ⇒ (2at, at2)

(3) y2 = - 4ax ⇒ (-at2, 2at)

(4) x2 = - 4ay ⇒ (2at, -at2)

 Equation of tangents and normals to conics

Various equations of tangents to y2 = 4ax

Slope form Tangent at a point Parametric form

Y slope = m Y
Y
P(t)
(x1, y1)

X
O X X
O O
y2 = 4ax
y2 = 4ax y2 = 4ax

T=0 T = 0 ⇒ ty = x + at2
Q Find equation of tangent to y2 = 8x, having
slope 3. Also find its point of contact.

Solution:
Q Find the equation of the tangents to the parabola
y2 = 9x which go through the point (4, 10).
Q Find the equation of the tangents to the parabola
y2 = 9x which go through the point (4, 10).

Solution:
 Equation of tangents and normals to conics

Equations of tangents of an Ellipse and Hyperbola

Slope form

For Ellipse : Tangent is

For Hyperbola : Tangent is

For Hyperbola :

Tangent of slope m is given by

 Equation of tangents and normals to conics

Equations of Normal to Parabola

For parabola y2 = 4ax:

Normal at P(t) is given by

y + tx = 2at + at3

Normal having given slope ‘m’ is given by

y = mx − 2am − am3
 Equation of tangents and normals to conics

Equations of Normal to Ellipse

Equation of normal at P(x1, y1) on is given by

P(x1, y1)
 Equation of tangents and normals to conics

Equations of Normal to Hyperbola

Equation of normal at P(x1, y1) on

Q Find equation of normal to

Solution:
Permutations &
Combinations
 Permutations and Combinations

Fundamental Principle of multiplication:

Say a “job” is done when subjob-1 & subjob-2 both are done in a
definite order. If number of ways of doing subjob-1 & subjob-2 are m &
n respectively then number of ways of doing the “job” is m × n.
 Permutations and Combinations

Fundamental Principle of multiplication:

Say a “job” is done when subjob-1 & subjob-2 both are done in a
definite order. If number of ways of doing subjob-1 & subjob-2 are m &
n respectively then number of ways of doing the “job” is m × n.

Fundamental Principle of Addition:

Say a “job” is done when either of subjob-1 or subjob-2 is done . If

number of ways of doing subjob-1 & subjob-2 are m & n respectively
then number of ways of doing the “job” is m + n.
 Permutations and Combinations

Primarily this chapter is all about:

(1) Selection
(2) Selection and arrangement
(3) Distribution
 Permutations and Combinations

RESULTS

1. Number of ways of arranging r-distinct objects at r-places is r!

2. Number of ways of selecting ‘r’ objects out of n distinct objects is nCr

 Permutations and Combinations

First let’s consider various varieties of selections

1. Selecting number of objects required

2. Selecting such that few particular objects
are included or excluded in selection.
3. Total selections
4. Geometrical countings.
Q A committee of 5 members is to be made out of 5
women & 6 men
(a) How many ways committees can be made ?
(b) How many committees will contain 3 men and 2
women ?
(c) How many committees contains at least one
woman ?
 Q A committee of 5 members is to be made out of 5
women & 6 men
(a) How many ways committees can be made ?
(b) How many committees will contain 3 men and 2
women ?
(c) How many committees contains at least one
woman ?
Solution:

(a) Number of committee of 5 members is 11C5 = 462

(b) Clearly committees containing 3 men and 2 women = 6C3 × 5C2 = 200
(c) Committees containing at least one women
= Total number of committees – committees containing 0 women
= 462 - 6C5 = 462 - 6 = 456
Q In how many ways a team of 11 players can be
selected out of 15 players such that:
(a) A particular player is never chosen
(b) Three particular players are always chosen
(c) Two particular players never come together in
a team
Q In how many ways a team of 11 players can be
selected out of 15 players such that:
(a) A particular player is never chosen
(b) Three particular players are always chosen

Solution:
(a) Since a player is never chosen
Thus, selection will be taken from remaining 14 players
Number of ways = 15-1C11 = 14C
11 = 364

(b) Here 3 players are always chosen

Thus, selection of only 8 players are left out of
remaining 12 players
⸫ Number of ways = 15-3C11-3 = 12C8 = 495
Q In how many ways a team of 11 players can be
selected out of 15 players such that:
(c) Two particular players never come together in
a team

Solution:

(c) Two particular players never come together such

that we can have a team without them or taking any
one of them
Thus, number of ways = 15-2C11 + 2C1 × 13C10
= (13C11) + 2(13C10)
= 78 + 2(858) = 1794
 Permutations and Combinations

Total No. of Selections

Total number of selections out of ‘n’ distinct objects is 2n

Method : Every element can be dealt in two ways.

Either it will be selected or not.

So, required ways are 2n

Q Consider a set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
(a) Find number of subsets
(b) In how many ordered pairs (P, Q) can be made
where P & Q are subsets of A & P ∩ Q = 𝜙
Q Consider a set A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
(a) Find number of subsets
(b) In how many ordered pairs (P, Q) can be made
where P & Q are subsets of A & P ∩ Q = 𝜙

Solution:
(a) Given, A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
We need total number of selections
So, number of subsets = 24 = 16
(b) Here, every element (let’s say x) can be dealt in
following 3 ways so that P ∩ Q = 𝜙
x ∉ P and x ∈ Q
x ∈ P and x ∉ Q
x ∉ P and x ∉ Q
∴ Number of ways = 34
 Q There are ‘n’ points on a circle
(a) Joining these points, how many lines will be made ?
(b) Joining these points, how many triangles will be made ?
(c) Joining these points a polygon is made. Find number of
its diagonals.

Solution:
 Permutations and Combinations

Now let’s consider selection and arrangement:

(1) Complement approach
(2) Gap and Block Method
(3) Dealing with alike objects
Q How many four letter words containing ‘G’ can be
formed using letters of DAUGHTER
(a) Repetition not allowed
(b) Repetition is allowed
Q How many four letter words containing ‘G’ can be
formed using letters of DAUGHTER
(a) Repetition not allowed
 Q How many four letter words containing ‘G’ can be
formed using letters of DAUGHTER
(a) Repetition not allowed

Solution:
Four possibilities are there:
Method I:

i.e. 4 ways

And remaining 3 empty positions can be taken by

remaining 7 letters in 7 ✕ 6 ✕ 5 ways
⸫ Total number of words = 4 × 7 × 6 × 5 = 840
 Q How many four letter words containing ‘G’ can be
formed using letters of DAUGHTER
(a) Repetition not allowed

Solution:

Method II: Total number of four letter words formed by 8 letters

= 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 = 1680
All four letters word formed by 7 letters (except G)
= 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 = 840
⸫ Total words which have G = 1680 - 840 = 840
 Q How many four letter words containing ‘G’ can be
formed using letters of DAUGHTER
(a) Repetition not allowed

Solution:

Method III: Here, G can accommodate in any of the four places,

thus G has 4 ways

Remaining 3 letters will be taken by remaining 7

letters in 7 × 6 × 5 ways
⸫ Total number of ways = 4 × 7 × 6 × 5
= 840
Q How many four letter words containing ‘G’ can be
formed using letters of DAUGHTER
(a) Repetition is allowed
Q How many four letter words containing ‘G’ can be
formed using letters of DAUGHTER
(a) Repetition is allowed

Solution:
Total number of four letter words from given 8 letters
= 8 × 8 × 8 × 8 = 84
Also, number of four letter words from 7 given letters
(excluding G) = 74
⸫ Total number of words having G = 84 - 74 = 1695
Permutations and Combinations

Next example, is comprising of two very important standard

approaches. We generally refer to them as
(a) Gap method
(b) Block method
Q In how many ways 7 boys & 4 girls can be arranged
in a row such that
(a) No two girls are together
(b) All girls are together
Q In how many ways 7 boys & 4 girls can be arranged
in a row such that
(a) No two girls are together
Q In how many ways 7 boys & 4 girls can be arranged
in a row such that
(a) No two girls are together

Solution:

If four girls (Gi) are arranged between boys (Bi) then they
will be never together if they sit in gaps among boys
So arranging boys first: 7!
We get 8 gaps.
Select 4 gaps for girls: 8C4
× B1 × B2 × B3 × B4 × B5 × B6 × B7 ×
Now arrange girls at these gaps: 4!
⸫ Total number of ways = 8C4 × 4! × 7!
Q In how many ways 7 boys & 4 girls can be arranged
in a row such that
(b) All girls are together
Q In how many ways 7 boys & 4 girls can be arranged
in a row such that
(b) All girls are together

Solution:
Lets ‘tie’ all girls together and make them as one unit

G1, G2, G3, G4 , B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6, B7

Thus, now we have total 8 things to arrange and girls can

mutually arrange among themselves
⸫ Total number of ways = 8! × 4!
 Permutations and Combinations

Arrangement of Alike Objects

Number of ways of arranging p elements in a row if out of ‘p’ objects

‘m’ are alike & ‘n’ are alike & rest are distinct, is given by
 Permutations and Combinations

Arrangement of Alike Objects

Number of ways of arranging p elements in a row if out of ‘p’ objects

‘m’ are alike & ‘n’ are alike & rest are distinct, is given by

E.g.
 Permutations and Combinations

Distribution of distinct objects

RESULTS

Number of ways to distributing ‘n’ distinct objects among ‘m’

persons is mn
 Permutations and Combinations

Distribution of distinct objects

RESULTS

Number of ways to distributing ‘n’ distinct objects among ‘m’

persons is mn

REMARK

While distributing the distinct objects, always see the number of

options that a given object to be distributed has
 Q (a) In how many ways 5 distinct chocolates can be
distributed among 4 students.
(b) In how many ways 3 distinct chocolates can be
distributed among 4 students.
Solution:
 Permutations and Combinations

To be able to handle upcoming problems of distribution with

constraints, we need to learn “Formation of groups”
 Permutations and Combinations
Formation of Groups:
Number of ways of forming groups (or packets) is as following:
 Permutations and Combinations
Formation of Groups:
Number of ways of forming groups (or packets) is as following:
Q 6 distinct books have to be distributed among Ram, Shyam and
Gopal. In how many ways it can be done such that
(a) Ram gets 1 book, shyam gets 2 books & Gopal gets 3 books.
(b) One gets 3 books, one gets 2 books & another one gets 1 book.
(c) Ram gets 4 books while shyam & Gopal gets 1 book each.
Q 6 distinct books have to be distributed among
Ram, Shyam and Gopal. In how many ways it can
be done such that
(a) Ram gets 1 book, shyam gets 2 books & Gopal
gets 3 books.

Solution:

Ram gets 1 book, shyam gets 2 books and Gopal gets

3 books in
Q 6 distinct books have to be distributed among
Ram, Shyam and Gopal. In how many ways it can
be done such that
(b) One gets 3 books, one gets 2 books & another
one gets 1 book.

Solution:

Here, any one gets 3 books, one gets 2 books and

another gets 1 book in

Q 6 distinct books have to be distributed among
Ram, Shyam and Gopal. In how many ways it can
be done such that
(c) Ram gets 4 books while shyam & Gopal gets 1
book each.

Solution:

Here, Gopal and shyam gets 1 book each, thus

this can be done as

 Permutations and Combinations

Distribution of distinct objects

RESULTS

Number of ways to distributing ‘n’ identical objects among ‘r’

persons is n+r-1 Cr-1