AHSANULLAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE &

TECHNOLOGY

Slab
Md. Abdullah Ash Shakur
ID: 19.02.03.061
Section-A
Group-A2
 Table of Contents
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................ i
Abstract ........................................................................................................................... ii

Introduction .................................................................................................................. iii

Slab ................................................................................................................................. 1

Load transfer mechanism in slabs .................................................................................. 2

Classification of slab ...................................................................................................... 3-4
Flat slabs......................................................................................................................... 5
Flat plate slabs ................................................................................................................ 6
Waffle slabs .................................................................................................................... 7
Arched slabs ................................................................................................................... 8
Dome slab ....................................................................................................................... 8-9
Cantilever slab ................................................................................................................ 10
Composite slab ............................................................................................................... 11

Slab Design

1) Introduction ............................................................................................................. 12-13

2) Design Procedure .................................................................................................... 14-16

3) Lateral Distribution of moments ............................................................................. 17-21

4) ACI two-slabs Depth Limitation ............................................................................ 22

5) Design & Analysis Procedure –Direct Design Methods ........................................ 23

Concrete slab support ..................................................................................................... 24
Construction steps of slab ............................................................................................ 24
1) Reinforcement placement .......................................................................................... 24-27
2) formwork.................................................................................................................... 28
3) concrete casting .......................................................................................................... 29
4) compaction ................................................................................................................. 30-31
5) leveling ....................................................................................................................... 32
6)curing .......................................................................................................................... 33-34
The causes of Cracks in Reinforced concrete slab .................................................. 35-36
Recent Development in Reinforced Concrete Slab Analysis, Design, & Serviceability
1) Historical overview ................................................................................................... 37-38
2) Economics ................................................................................................................. 39-42
3) Development in Methods of Analysis and Code Provisions ................................... 42-46
4) Serviceability ............................................................................................................ 47-49
Comparative Analysis ................................................................................................. 50
Recommendation .......................................................................................................... 51
Reference ...................................................................................................................... 52-53
 SUBMITTED BY:

MD. ABDULLAH ASH SHAKUR

19.02.03.061

SUBMITTED TO:

Mr. Riaz Uddin Ahmed

Lecturer

Ms. Sonia Akter

Lecturer
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
‫ال حمد هلل رب ال ع لم‬
All] praise is [due] to Allah, Lord of the Infinity,the seen and unseen!

Firstly, I am very grateful to The Almighty for providing me with good health, which was
necessary to finish this term paper successfully.

I would like to express my heart-felt gratitude to our honorable teachers, Lecturer Riaz Uddin
Ahmed and Lecturer, Ms. Sonia Akter for helping me with all the necessary facilities for this
term paper and for their valuable guidance throughout the semester. I am very indebted to
them for their constructive criticism and enthusiastic encouragement towards us. It would
have been nearly impossible for us to carry out this research without them continuously
inspiring me.

This term paper is an accumulation of all of our efforts. Particularly for this, I would like to
shout out cordial appreciation to few people for their kind advices, suggestions and excellent
directions. From our site visit it can be said that to implement and observe certain protocols
in order to help and safety of workers, inspectors and visitors to the site are prioritized and
required it order for our project to comply with requirements of the workers. I finally thank
Mr. Riaz Uddin Ahmed & Ms. Sonia Akter for providing me the opportunity to write me
this term paper.
 ABSTRACT

The term paper is on ―Slab‖. Some important topics such as classifications, advantages-
disadvantages and uses of different types, steps of construction etc. are briefly discussed in this
term paper. A slab is a structural element, made of concrete, that is used to create flat
horizontal surfaces such as floors, roof decks and ceilings. A slab is generally several inches
thick and supported by beams,columns, walls, or the ground.

Concrete slabs can be prefabricated off-site and lowered into place or may be poured in-situ
using formwork. If reinforcement is required, slabs can be pre-stressed or the concrete can be
poured over rebar positioned within the formwork. The objective of this paper is to understand
the importance of and slab in a structure. We can choose different types of slabs as per our
need. The construction steps of these the components of slabs are also very important. If the
construction is not done properly, the desired strength and properties cannot be achieved. From
this paper we can know about the construction steps of these components in detail.
 Introduction
The components Beam, Column, and Slab are among the most important components of a
framed structure. The majority of the loads in a building are carried by the slab. Loads are
transported to the foundation via a beam and a column. All of the weight is transferred in a
fairly systematic manner by these three components. The load is then distributed over a vast
area of soil by the foundation. The following is the load distribution pattern:

 Slab
 Beam
 Column
 Foundation

Slab: A slab is a concrete structural element used to produce horizontal flat surfaces such as
floors, roof decks, and ceilings. Beams, columns, walls, or the ground support a slab that is
typically several inches thick. Off-site prefabrication of concrete slabs is possible.
Slabs may be supported solely by columns, in which case two-way action will take precedence.
It is a 2- way slab if the ratio Long side / short side is less than 2, and it is a 1-way slab
if the ratio Long side / short side is larger than 2
 ‫رب نا أف رغ ع ل ي نا ص برا‬
‫‪ব,‬‬

‫‪-١‬وت وف نا م س لم ين‬
‫‪ব‬‬ ‫‪ব‬‬ ‫'‬

‫‪8‬‬
 Slab

Slabs are flat, horizontal structural elements made of reinforced concrete that receive the load
and transfers it through the beams to the columns and to the footings to the soil below. Slabs
are used in both load bearing structures and framed structures. In a load bearing structure the
load is transferred from the slab to the load bearing walls. The thickness of the slab varies
from 100mm to 500mm.

Concrete slabs are generally assumed to carry uniformly distributed loads. The uniform loads
for which slabs are designed are dead loads and imposed loads. The dead loads include the
self-weight of the slab, floor finishes, walls, grills, etc. It is different for residential and
commercial buildings.

Fig1.1: Residential Building

9
Load Transfer Mechanism in Slabs:

The forces transfer from slab to beams occur either in one way or in two ways. The total
system completely counts on the geometrical dimensions of the slab. Slabs may be supported
by columns only, in this case two way action will prevail. If the ratio Long side / short side <
2 it is considered as 2-way slab, and if Longer side to shorter side greater than 2 then it is
considered as 1-way slab.

Usually slab pressure loads (force per unit area) are transferred to the supporting beams as
line loads(force per unit length). The line load can be triangular, trapezoidal ,or partially
distributed on the beam.

Fig 1.2: Load Transfer Mechanism in Slab

10
Classification of Slab :

Narrowly and basically categorizing there are only two types of slab.

[Depending on the length/width ratio]

 a) One way Slabs ( Long side/Short side>2 )

 b) Two way Slabs ( Long side/Short side<2 )

Now they can be of several types including :

 1) Flat Slabs
 2) Flat Plate Slabs
 3) Waffle Slabs
 4) Arched Slabs
 5) Dome Slab
 6) Cantilever Slab
 7) Composite Slab
a) One Way Slabs:
 The slabs are supported by the beams on the two opposite sides.
 The loads are carried along one direction perpendicular to the supporting beam.
 Main reinforcement is provided only in one direction.
 The deflected shape is cylindrical.
 The crank is provided in two directions.
 The ratio of longer span to shorter span is equal or greater than 2.
 The one way slab is economical up to a span of 3.6 meters.

Application: Veranda Slab

b) Two Way Slabs:

 The slabs are supported on all the four sides.
 The loads are carried along with both directions.
 Main reinforcement bars are provided in both directions.
 The deflected shape is like a dish or saucer.
 In two way slabs bending is in both directions.
 Two way slabs is economical for the panel sizes up to 6m x 6m.
 In two way slabs quantity of steel is more as compared to the one way slabs.

11
Application: Most apartments, multi-storeyed buildings.

Fig 1.3: One way slab

Fig 1.4: Deflections in One Way and Two Way Slab

12
Flat Slabs:

Flat slabs are the modified version of flat plates with a column head and/or a drop panel cast
monolithically with the slab. There are no beams present in the flat slabs but the drop panels
and column heads will transfer the loads smoothly to the columns.

The drop panels are square or rectangular in shape and increase the shear capacity of the stab.
The drop panels add deflection to the stab and thus minimize .The column heads are provided
below the drop panels and they are mostly sloping to meet the column dimensions. A flat slab
may have either column head or drop panel or both .The flat slabs are mostly popular in
unconventional structures without column symmetry. The column heads and drop panels act
as special beam confined to that particular space. However, the formworks become
complicated due to the need for column heads and drop panel.

These types of slabs are used in underground parking, unsymmetrical building.

Fig 1.5: Flat Slab In a Building

13
Flat Plate Slabs:

A flat plate floor system is a reinforced concrete frame system with a uniform thickness that
is supported directly over the columns or the load-bearing walls. The flat plate floor is
constructed with an economical span that takes up medium loads and avoids the chances of
long-term deflection.

Some advantages are

 A flat plate floor system does not demand any beam.

 Reduced depth of slab helps to increase the floor to floor height of the building.
 The use of zero beams helps to have underfloor spaces and more service areas.

But there are some disadvantages also and they are

 The lateral load capacity of a flat plate floor system is limited compared to a moment
frame.
 A flat plate floor system is not a good choice for supporting partitions that are too
brittle. For example: Masonry Walls
 A flat plate floor system is not a good choice to take up heavy loads.

Fig 1.6: Flat Plate Slab

14
Waffle Slabs:

Waffle slabs are lightweight slabs with hollow grid-like systems on its soffit. The hollow grid
system reduces the self-weight of the slab without compromising its structural stability.

Due to the light weight, they can span to long distances with ease. The waffle slabs may have
a grid system or a girder system where the bands of beam run throughout the slabs. The grids
can be or any shape-square, rectangular, triangular etc.

Advantages Of Waffle Slab:

 The construction materials used for the slab can be saved.

 High load carrying capacity than conventional slabs.
 Less use of concrete leads to less CO2 emissions.

Disadvantages of waffle slab:

 The construction of waffle slabs is also tedious since they are demanding special and
sophisticated formwork.
 It is not suitable for buildings subjected to sudden vibrations or constant vibrations.
 Not suitable for regions with high wind velocities due to the low self weight. Skilled
workers are required.

Fig 1.7: Waffle Slab

https://thespaces.com/tour-the-concrete-landmarks-of-los-angeles/7/

15
Arched Slabs:

Arched stabs are mostly found in bridges. Arches like domes, transfer the loads through axial
compression. The arches are provided in the bridges to resist the wind loads acting on the
bridge. In ancient times, arches were built in masonry, but the modern developments are
giving birth to reinforced curved arch slabs.

These types of slabs are used in bridges, tunnels, buildings.

Fig 1.8:Arched Slab

Dome Slab:

Dome slabs are hemispherical in shape and are used mostly to enhance the view of a
structure. In ancient times, most structures were built in such a way that only compressive
forces act on the structure.

Before the invention of steel, there were no tensile materials known to man to resist tension.
Therefore, the load was transferred through axial compression as in domes. In the modern
era, the discovery of steel has led to thin sections of domes.

Advantages of Dome Slab:

 Increased height improves the natural ventilation and lighting

 Increased service area inside the building.
 Gives a pleasant look

16
Disadvantages Of Dome Slab:

 Skilled labours are required.

 The vertical expansion of the building is not possible.
 The construction time is more.
 High maintenance.
 The formwork shuttering is tedious.

Applications:

These concrete slabs are preferably used in monumental buildings, museums,

meditation halls, galleries, religious structures.

Fig 1.9:Dome Slab

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.quora.com%2FWhy-instead-of-slabs-
were-dome-shaped-structures-used-in-monuments-What-is-the-structural-advantage-of-using-
domes&psig=AOvVaw1a6DgIjK9ysrpv-
uCHhwGB&ust=1646497758501000&source=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAgQjRxqFwoTCLjqwMPxrPYCF
QAAAAAdAAAAABAO

17
Cantilever Slab:

Cantilever slabs, as the name suggests are fixed at one end and free at the other. ends. The
deflection in cantilever slabs is greater than the other slabs due to its support condition One
great example of the cantilever slabs is Balconies

The main reinforcement is provided in the span that is protruding outside. The secondary
reinforcements are provided throughout the length of the slab, In RCC work, cantilever slabs
should not be extended more than 4 feet.

Advantages Of Cantilever Slab:

 It does not require any support on the other side.

 It improves the elevation of the building.
 It is easier to construct.

Disadvantages Of Cantilever Slab:

 It is not economical since it requires heavy sections.

 The deflection is more.
 The uplift at the fixed support has to be taken into account while designing.

Applications:

Cantilever slabs are mostly used in residential buildings.

1970: Sergio Bernardes’ Palácio da Abolição, Ceará, Brazil

Fig 1.10: Cantilever Slab

18
Composite Slab:

The composite slab is made up of concrete and steel decking. The steel decking of
trapezoidal, rectangular or re-entrant shape is also used as a formwork over which the
reinforcement cages can be placed and concreted. The introduction of the steel decking
increases the torsional stability during buckling.

Advantages Of Composite Slab:

 No need for extra formworks.

 Increased resistance against deflection and torsion.
 Longer spans can be constructed.
 The thickness of the slab can be reduced.

Disadvantages Of Composite Stab:

 Vulnerable to corrosion.
 Vulnerable to fire.
 Skilled labours.

Applications:

Steel structures, Tall buildings.

Fig 1.11:Composite Slab

https://i.pinimg.com/564x/b6/73/5b/b6735b4fed2daed9aa0a254b05ce837f.jpg

19
SLAB DESIGN

Introduction
ACI318 Code provides two design procedures for slab systems:
13.6.1 Direct Design Method (DDM) For slab systems with or without beams loaded only
by gravity loads and having a fairly regular layout meeting the following conditions:
13.6.1.1 There must be three or more spans in each directions.
13.6.1.2 Panels should be rectangular and the long span be no more than twice the short span.
13.6.1.3 Successive span lengths center-to-center of supports in each direction shall not differ
by more than 1/3 of the longer span.
13.6.1.4 Columns must be near the corners of each panel with an offset from the general
column line of no more 10% of the span in each direction.
13.6.1.5 The live load should not exceed 3 time the dead load in each direction. All loads
shall be due gravity only and uniformly distributed over an entire panel.
13.6.1.6 If there are beams, there must be beams in both directions, and the relative stiffness
of the beam in the two directions must be related as follows:
1 l2 2
0.2   5.0
 2l1
where

Ecb Ib

Ecs Is
is the ratio of flexural stiffness of beam sections to flexural stiffness of a width of slab bounded
laterally by center lines of adjacent panels (if any) on each side of the beam.

12
 For slab systems loaded by horizontal loads and uniformly distributed gravity loads, or not
meeting the requirement of the section 13.6.2, the Equivalent Frame Method (EFM) of Sect. 13.7
of ACI code may be used. Although Sect. 13.7 of the ACI code implies that the EFM may be
satisfactory in cases with lateral as well horizontal loads, the Commentary cautions that
additional factors may need to be considered. The method is probably adequate when lateral
loads are small, but serious questions may be raised when major loads must be considered in
addition to the vertical loads.

The direct design method gives rules for the determination of the total static design
moment and its distribution between negative and positive moment sections. The EFM defines
an equivalent frame for use in structural analysis to determine the negative and positive moments
acting on the slab system. Both methods use the same procedure to divide the moments so found
between the middle strip and column strips of the slab and the beams (if any).

Section 13.3.1 of the Code could be viewed as an escape clause from the specific requirements
of the code. It states: ―A slab may be designed by any procedure satisfying conditions for
equilibrium and geometrical compatibility if shown that the design strength at every section is at
least equal to the required strength considering Secs. 9.2 and 9.3 (of the ACI code), and that all
serviceability conditions, including specified limits on deflections, are met.‖ The methods of
elastic theory moment analysis such as the Finite Difference procedure satisfies this clause. The
limit design methods, for example the yield line theory alone do not satisfy these requirements,
since although the strength provisions are satisfied, the serviceability conditions may not be
satisfied without separate checks of the crack widths and deflections at service load levels.

The thickness of a floor slab must be determined early in design because the weight of the
slab is an important part of the dead load of the structure. The minimum thickness can be
determined by many factors:

• Shear strength of beamless slabs (usually a controlling factor); slab must

be thick enough to provide adequate shear strength
• Flexural moment requirement (less often a governing factor)
• Fire resistance requirements
• Deflection control (most common thickness limitations)

Section 9.5.3 of ACI gives a set of equations and other guides to slab thickness, and indicates
that slabs which are equal to or thicker than the computed limits should have deflections within
acceptable range at service load levels.

ACI code direct design method and equivalent methods can be conveniently discussed in terms
of a number of steps used in design. The determination of the total design moment in concerned

13
with the safety (strength) of the structure. The remaining steps are intended to distribute the total
design moment so as to lead to a serviceable structure in which no crack widths are excessive, no
reinforcement yields until a reasonable overload is reached, and in which deflections remain
within acceptable limits. These steps are discussed as we go along.

Equivalent frame method may be used in those cases where:

• slab layout is irregular and those not comply with the restrictions stated
previously
• where horizontal loading is applied to the structure
• where partial loading patterns are significant because of the nature of the
loading
• high live load/dead load ratios.

Design Procedure
The basic design procedure of a two-way slab system has five steps.

1. Determine moments at critical sections in each direction, normally the negative

moments at supports and positive moment near mid-span.
2. Distribute moments transverse at critical sections to column and middle-strip and if
beams are used in the column strip, distribute column strip moments between slab
and beam.
3. Determine the area of steel required in the slab at critical sections for column and
middle strips.
4. Select reinforcing bars for the slab and concentrate bars near the column, if
necessary
5. Design beams if any, using procedures you learned in CIVL 4135.

Positive and Negative Distribution of Moments

For interior spans, the total static moment is apportioned between critical positive and negative
bending sections as (See ACI 318-02 Sect. 13.6.3):

Panel Moment Mo

Negative Moment Mo Positive Moment Mo

14
As was shown, the critical section for negative bending moment is taken at the face of
rectangular supports, or at the face of an equivalent square support.

For the Case of End Span

The apportionment of Mo among three critical sections (interior negative, positive, and exterior
negative) depends on

1. Flexural restraint provided for slab by the exterior column or the exterior wall.

2. Presence or absence of beams on the column lines.

See ACI 318-02

Sect. 13.6.3.3 of ACI

15
16
 Lateral Distribution of Moments
Here we will study the various parameters affecting moment distribution across width of a cross-
section. Having distributed the moment Mo to the positive and negative moment sections as just
described, we still need to distribute these design moments across the width of the critical
sections. For design purposes, we consider the moments to be constant within the bounds of a
middle or column strip unless there is a beam present on the column line. In the latter case,
because of its greater stiffness, the beam will tend to take a larger share of the column-strip
moment than the adjacent slab. For an interior panel surrounded by similar panels supporting the
same distributed loads, the stiffness of the supporting beams, relative to slab stiffness is the
controlling factor.

The distribution of total negative or positive moment between slab middle strip, column
strip, and beams depends on:

• the ratio of l2/l1,

• the relative stiffness of beam and the slab,
• the degree of torsional restraint provided by the edge beam.
The beam relative stiffness in direction 1 is:

Ecb Ib1
a 
Ecs Is
where

EcbIb1 = Flexural rigidity of beam in direction 1

EcsIs = Flexural rigidity of slabs of width l2

= bh3/12 where b = width between panel centerlines on each side of beam.

h
similarly l2
Ecb Ib 2
a 
Ecs Is
in general
0  a  

a   Supported by walls
a0  no beams

for beam supported slabs

a < 4 or 5

17
 Note:
Values of a are ordinarily calculated using uncracked gross section moments of inertia for both
slab and beam.

Beams cross section to be considered in calculating Ib1 and Ib2 are shown below. (see ACI sect.
13.2.4)

hw  4hf

bw  2hw  bw  8hf hf

hw

bw

Fig 13.2.4 of ACI

Examples of the portion of slab to be included
with the beam under 13.2.4

The relative restraint provided by the torsional resistance of the effective transverse edge
beam is reflected by parameter t such as:

EcbC
t 
2Ecs Is
where
Ecb = Muduls of Elasticity of Beam Concrete
C = Torsional Constant of the Cross–section

The constant C is calculated by dividing the section into its rectangles, each having smaller
dimension x and larger dimension y:
x x3 y
C   (1 0.63 )
y 3

18
 y1 y1

slab x1 x1

y2
y2
beamless slab

x2 x2
See Section 13.6.4 of ACI for factored moments in column strips.

Panel Moment M0 CI 13.6.2.2

100% Static Moment

Negative Moment Positive Moment

Neg Mu =0.65 M0 Pos Mu =0.35 M0 ACI 13.6.3.3

ACI
13.6.4 Column Strip Middle Strip
Moment Column Strip Middle Strip
Moment
Moment Moment

ACI 13.6.5
Beam Moment Slab Moment Beam Slab
Moment Moment

19
20
21
 ACI Two-Slabs Depth Limitation
• Serviceability of a floor system can be maintained through deflection
control and crack control
• Deflection is a function of the stiffness of the slab as a measure of its
thickness, a minimum thickness has to be provided irrespective of the
flexural thickness requirement.
• Table 9.5(c) of ACI gives the minimum thickness of slabs without interior
beams.
• Table 9.5(b) of ACI gives the maximum permissible computed deflections
to safeguard against plaster cracking and to maintain aesthetic appearance.
• Could determine deflection analytically and check against limits
• Or alternatively, deflection control can be achieved indirectly to more-or-
less arbitrary limitations on minimum slab thickness developed from
review of test data and study of the observed deflections of actual
structures. This is given by ACI.
For am greater than 0.2 but not greater than 2.0, the thickness shall not be less than
 fy 
ln  0.8  
 200, 000 
h  Eq. 9-12 of ACI
36  5   am  0.20

and not less than 5.0 inches.

For am greater than 2.0, the thickness shall not be less than

 fy 
ln  0.8  
200, 000  
h    Eq. 9-13 of ACI
36  9

and not less than 3.5 inches.

 Ratio of clear span in long direction to clear span in short direction
m = Average value of  for all beams on edges of panel.

In addition, the thickness h must not be less than (ACI 9.5.3.2):

For slabs without beams or drop panels 5 inches

For slabs without beams but with drop panels 4 inches
Read Section 9.5.3.3 (d) for 10% increase in minimum thickness requirements.

22
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS PROCEDURE- DIRECT DESIGN
METHOD

Operational Steps

1. Determine whether the slab geometry and loading allow the use of the direct design
method as listed in DDM.
2. Select slab thickness to satisfy deflection and shear requirements. Such calculations
require a knowledge of the supporting beam or column dimensions A reasonable value of
such a dimension of columns or beams would be 8 to 15% of the average of the long and
short span dimensions, namely (l1 +l2)/2. For shear check, the critical section is at a
distance d/2 from the face of the'! support. If the thickness shown for deflection is not
adequate to carry the shear, use one or more of the following:

(a) Increase the column dimension.

(b) Increase concrete strength.
(c) Increase slab thickness.
(d) Use special shear reinforcement.
(e) Use drop panels or column capitals to improve shear strength.

3. Divide the structure into equivalent design frames bound by centerlines of panels on each
side of a line of columns.
w ul 2l 2n
4. Compute the total statical factored moment 0 M 
8
5. Select the distribution factors of the negative and positive moments to the exterior and
interior columns and spans and calculate the respective factored moments.
6. Distribute the factored equivalent frame moments from step 4 to the column and middle
strips.
7. Determine whether the trial slab thickness chosen is adequate for moment-shear transfer
in the case of flat plates at the interior column junction computing that portion of the
moment transferred by shear and the properties of the critical shear section at distance d/2
from column face.
8. Design the flexural reinforcement to resist the factored moments in step 6.
9. Select the size and spacing of the reinforcement to fulfill the requirements for crack
control, bar development lengths, and shrinkage and temperature stresses.

23
Concrete Slab Support:

The concrete slab may be supported by-

 Masonry or reinforced concrete Walls

 Monolithically casted reinforcement concrete beams
 Structural steel members
 Columns

Construction Steps of Slab:

1) Reinforcement Placement
2) Formwork
3) Concrete Casting
4) Compaction
5) Leveling
6) Curing
Reinforcement Placement:

1. Reinforcement detailing of a slab is done based on its support conditions.

2. Slab maybe supported on walls or beams or columns.
3. In one way slab main reinforcement is parallel to shorter and the reinforcement

parallel to longer direction is called distribution steel.

4. In two way slab main reinforcement is provided along both direction.

Fig 1.12:Top Bar ,Cranked Bars in Reinforcement Placement

24
5. Slabs could be simple supported, continuous or cantilever.

Cranked
Bars

Top Bars

Bottom Bars

Main
Reinforcement

Fig 1.13:Reinforcement placing in slab( Along Length and Width)

25
Crank bars:

We use crank bar which is provided to make RCC slab safe from compressive stresses also

✓ To resist negative bending moment(hogging).

✓ To resist shear force which is greater at supports.

✓ To reduce the risk of a brittle failure of slab-column connection .

✓ To reduce the amount of steel used .

✓ For the economization of materials.

Extra top: Extra top steel bars are used to control negative bending moment near support
condition
Cc :Cc is provided to arrest the attack of corrosion. Also in order to maintain the proper
arrangement of reinforcement and to provide a covering for reinforcement.

CC Block
(1’’)

CC Block

Fig 1.14:CC Block Under Slab Reinforcement

26
 Steel Formwork Used In Column

Wooden Formwork

(Used in Our Construction)

Fig 1.15:Formwork Placing In Slab

27
2) Formwork:

1. Formwork is a permanent or temporary structure in which constructor pour fresh

concrete to harden subsequently.
2. A slab formwork comes in handy when a building requires suspended concrete slabs
with no direct connection to the ground.
3. It consists of Formwork panels, shores, joints, stringers and other supporting materials.
4. It can considerably shorten the construction time, allowing for more projects to be
completed
5. Quality formwork allows for better concrete-surface finishing.
6. It allows for easier construction of custom shapes and designs compared to using
traditional construction methods

The quality of formwork used during construction projects significantly affects the costs and
efficiency of each project, and most importantly worker safety.

Fig 1.16:Wodden Formwork

28
3) Concrete casting:

The construction joint shall be pre decided and fixed prior to start of the concreting. It is
planned to have two construction joints for main building as decided. Stock of material shall
be sufficient to start the concrete. It shall be ensured by stores dept that concreting is not
stopped on a account of materials

Cast-in-place concrete, also known as poured-in-place, is a concreting technique that is

undertaken in situ or in the concrete component's finished position. Cast-in-place concrete is
the preferred choice for concrete slabs Compaction is the process that expels entrapped air
from freshly placed concrete and packs the aggregate particles together to increase the
density of concrete. It significantly increases the ultimate strength of concrete and enhances
the bond with reinforcement.

Fig 1.17:Concrete Casting (Before Vibrating)

29
4) Compaction:

Use a steel tired rake to rake the soil level. Remove any rocks maybe in the soil Spray down
the slab area with benefits of proper concrete compaction include:

 Increased ultimate strength of concrete.

 Enhanced bond between concrete and Reinforcement.
 Minimisation of shrinkage characteristics.
 .Minimisation of other forms of cracking

Some of the main points are given below.

 Freshly placed unconsolidated concrete contains excessive and detrimental entrapped

air.

 If allowed to harden in this condition, the concrete will be porous and poorly bonded
to the reinforcement.

 It will have low strength, high permeability, and deduced durability.

 Hence, compaction is necessary to remove entrapped air and eliminate all types of
voids that may cause reduction in strength as well as durability.

Fig 1.18: Vibrating (Using Vibrator In Concrete Casting of Slab)

30
There are different types of vibrators used for compacting the concrete namely

 Internal vibrators

 Form vibrators

 Vibrating tables

 Surface vibrators

Is it is possible to produce a concrete without Compaction of concrete?

Yes. Some uses of concrete do not allow adequate access for vibration due to severe
congestion of reinforcement to affect compaction. During such circumstances, Self
Compacting Concrete(SCC) can be produced

 SCC contains a high range water-reducing admixture and mineral admixture, viz,
fly ash and flows under the action of gravity

 In the case of Self Compacting Concrete(SCC), nearly all the entrapped air escapes
without compaction effort

 Rather than slump, the measurement used for this concrete is slump flow, which is
the diameter of spread

***The purpose of compaction of concrete is to remove entrapped air and eliminate all types
of voids. Concrete is best compacted by vibration compaction improves concrete density,
strength, bonding with reinforcement steel, minimizes surface blemishes and greatly
improves the durability of reinforced concrete structures

31
5) Leveling:

Concrete slabs sink and may become uneven over time for various reasons. Common causes
include water washing away the soil holding up a slab. Other times, soil or tree roots expand
or contract, moving slabs along with them.

Concrete leveling is a process used to fill voids under sagging concrete slabs, including steps,
porches, patios, sidewalks, and driveways.

***Any slab that has settled at least a quarter-inch below its original level may be able to be
fixed using concrete leveling.

***One may also want to fix sinking outdoor patios where one spend a lot of time.
Tearing up and replacing a slab can be messy and time-consuming—not to mention
tough on the lawn and landscaping—one may prefer concrete lifting if conditions
are right.

Fig 1.19: Leveling of Concrete Slab

32
 Leveling
Work Done
By a Worker

Fig 1.20:Leveling by Hand Instrument

6)Curing :

Curing is the process of controlling the rate and extent of moisture loss from concrete to
ensure an uninterrupted hydration of Portland cement after concrete has been placed and
finished in its final position. Curing also ensures to maintain an adequate temperature of
concrete in its early ages, as this directly affects the rate of hydration of cement and
eventually the strength gain of concrete or mortars

Conventional methods for concrete curing

➢ Water curing by ponding, sprinkling or immersion

➢ Covering with wet burlap, plastic film or reinforced paper

➢ Applying a physical barrier, such as membrane forming curing compounds or cure and
seals.

33
There are several important reasons why one should cure concrete:

 Concrete strength gain - Concrete strength increase with age as moisture and a
favorable temperature is present for hydration of cement. An experimental
investigation was conducted by "Cement, Concrete & Aggregates Australia" (CCAA)
and the same was published in their data sheet on "Curing of Concrete," which has
been included in this article for reference. Figure-1 illustrates a comparison of the
strength of concrete at 180 days of moist curing with various periods of moist curing
(0, 3, 7, 14 & 28 days) and then allowing it to dry out. From the graph below, it can
be observed that concrete allowed to dry out immediately, achieves only 40% of the
strength of the same concrete water cured for the full period of 180 days.

\
Fig 1.21: Effect of duration of water curing on strength of concrete(CCAA,data sheet,April
2006)

Fig 1.22:Curing of Slab

34
The Causes of Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Slab :
1. Poor Concrete Quality: Compromising with the concrete quality is one of the reasons for crack
developments in reinforced concrete slabs. Poor concrete quality results in lower concrete strength,
specifically, the tensile strength. As a result, the tensile strength of concrete reaches its maximum limit
at a very low magnitude of stress.
Incorrect water to cement ratio, inadequate concrete mixing, improper placement of concrete, and
insufficient consolidation are factors that can jeopardize the concrete quality. Therefore, prepare and
pour concrete according to the designated mix and follow proper concrete placement procedure.
2. Improper Structural Design: Another cause of crack development in an RCC slab is the low
reinforcement ratio due to errors in the design stage. A lower reinforcement ratio yields a lower slab
capacity to support loads. As a result, the RCC slab cracks at smaller loads.

Figure-1.23: Patterns of Cracks in Reinforced Concrete Slabs Due to Improper Structural Design

3. Wrong Steel Bars Spacing: When the spacing between primary and distribution reinforcement is
greater than the designated spacing, then cracks may develop in the RCC slab.
4. Insufficient Concrete Cover Insufficient concrete cover reduces the required protection for steel bars.
As a result, chloride attacks would cause steel corrosion, leading to cracking of concrete along steel
bars.

Figure-1.24: Cracks Due to Insufficient Concrete Cover

35
6. Improper Curing : Improper curing of concrete may cause concrete shrinkage and subsequently
initiate cracks. Moreover, it could reduce the strength of the concrete. The cracks due to improper
curing can be shallow fine cracks that are parallel to each other.

Figure-1.25: Shrinkage Cracks Appear on Slabs are Parallel to each Other

When the span of the slab is longer than that of applicable standards, then the development of cracks,
especially flexural cracks, is highly likely.
7. Errors in Formwork: Placement Improper installation of formworks could also be one of the
reasons for crack development in the RCC slab.
8. Wrong Material Selection: The selection of right concrete constituent, such as aggregate, is essential
in reducing the risk of crack initiation in the reinforced concrete slab. The use of alkali-aggregate in
concrete can cause the development of cracks. The map of cracks due to alkali-aggregate is shown
below.

Figure-1.26: Cracks in Reinforced Concrete slab Due to Alkali-aggregate reactions

9. Severe Environmental Conditions: Sulfate attacks occur when the reinforced concrete slab is
constructed in harsh environmental conditions, like, coastal areas. The pattern of cracks due to sulfate
attack can be observed in the following figure.

Figure-1.27: Cracks Caused by Sulfate Attack

36
Recent Development in Reinforced Concrete Slab Analysis, Design, and Serviceability :
HISTORICAL OVER VIEW

Traditionally, reinforced concrete has been associated with slab spans ranging up to 20 ft (6.1
m), the customary span length in residential and industrial construction. Only occasionally in the
past were longer spans framed in reinforced concrete. In recent decades, however, changes in
architectural designs to large, open office spaces have been followed by changes in column
layouts. This architectural trend was influenced by the transition from 20 ft (6.1 m) offices,
limited by reliance on natural light, to larger office spaces designed for artificial light. As a
consequence, longer spans have now become common place in structural systems for office
buildings.

Many factors contributed to the evolution of economical long-span concrete slabs in

multistory structures among these factors are:

• Replacement of the working-stress design method with the strength-design method for
proportioning sections. This allowed more slender sections and resulted in a uniform
factor of safety throughout the entire structure is attainable.

• A significant increase in the strength of both concrete and reinforcing steel, permitting
more slender sections.

• Development of in formwork large slab areas (entire bays) are formed by a single
formwork and transferred as a unit from story to story. Multiple use of forms permits
more complex slab sections, thus improving slab efficiency without economic penalty.

• Use of post-tensioning for cast-in-place systems. This permits slender sections whose
deflections are well controlled-a particularly important aspect for long spans.

• Implementation of more efficient construction techniques such as use of efficient

cranes, construction elevators, and pumping of concrete.

37
A solid slab supported on beams on all four sides was the original slab system in reinforced
concrete. With this system, if the ratio of the long to the short side of a slab panel is two or more,
load transfer is predominantly by bending in the short direction and the panel essentially acts as
a one-way slab. As the ratio of the sides of a slab panel approaches unity (square panel)
significant load is transferred by bending in both orthogonal directions and the panel should be
treated as a two-way rather than a one-way slab.

As time progressed and technology evolved, the column-line beams gradually began to
disappear. The resulting slab system, consisting of solid slabs supported directly on columns, is
called a flat plate. The flat plate is very efficient and economical and is currently the most widely
used slab system for multistory residential and institutional construction, such as motels, hotels,
dormitories, apartment buildings, and hospitals. In comparison to other concrete floor/roof
systems, flat plates can be constructed in less time and with minimum labor costs because the
system utilizes the simplest possible formwork and reinforcing steel layout. The use of flat plate
construction also has other significant economic advantages. For instance, because of the
shallow thickness of the floor system, story heights are automatically reduced resulting in
smaller overall heights of exterior walls and utility shafts, shorter floor to ceiling partitions,
reductions in plumbing, sprinkler and duct risers, and a multitude of other items of construction.
In cities like Washington, D.C., where the maximum height of buildings is restricted, the thin flat
plate permits the construction of the maximum number of stories on a given plan area. Flat plates
also provide for the most flexibility in the layout of columns, partitions, small openings, etc.
Where job conditions allow direct application of the ceiling finish to the flat plate soffit, (thus
eliminating the need for suspended ceilings), additional cost and construction time savings are
possible as compared to other structural systems.

The principal limitation on the use of flat plate construction is imposed by punching shear around
the columns. For heavy loads or long spans, the flat plate is often thickened locally around the
columns creating either drop panels or shear caps. When a flat plate is equipped with drop panels
or shear caps, it is called a flat slab. Also, for reasons of shear capacity around the columns, the
column tops are sometimes flared, creating column capitals. For purposes of design, a column
capital is part of the column, whereas a drop panel is part of the slab.

Waffle slab construction consists of rows of concrete joists at right angles to each other with

38
solid heads at the columns (to increase punching shear resistance). The joists are commonly
formed by using standard square dome forms. The domes are omitted around the columns to
form the solid heads acting as drop panels. Waffle slab construction allows a considerable
reduction in dead load as compared to conventional flat slab construction. Thus, it is particularly
advantageous where the use of long span and/or heavy loads is desired without the use of
deepened drop panels or support beams. The geometric shape formed by the joist ribs is often
architecturally desirable.

ECONOMICS

Since the cost of the floor system can be a major part of the structural cost of a building,
selecting the most effective system for a given set of constraints is vital in achieving overall
economy. This is especially important for buildings of low-and medium heights and for buildings
subjected to relatively low wind or seismic forces, since the cost of lateral load resistance in
these cases is minimal.

The main components of cast-in-place concrete floor systems are concrete, reinforcement (mild
and/or post- tensioned), and formwork. The cost of the concrete, including placing and finishing,
usually accounts for about 30% and L.C. Novak to 35% of the overall cost of the floor system.
Where mild reinforcement is utilized, a concrete mix with a compressive strength of 4,000 psi
(2.75 N/m2) yields the least expensive system. Where post-tensioned reinforcement is used, a
concrete compressive strength of at least 5,000 psi (3.45 N/m2) is usually specified to attain,
among other things, more cost-effective anchorages and higher resistance in tension and shear.
The two-way slab systems currently used are presented in Figure 1. The following is a discussion
for each system.

Flat Plate System

A flat plate floor system is a two-way concrete slab supported directly on columns with
reinforcement in two orthogonal directions (Figure 1-a). Primarily used in hotels, multi-family
residential buildings, and hospitals, this system has the advantages of simple construction and
formwork and a flat ceiling, the latter of which reduces ceiling finishing costs, since the
architectural finish can be applied directly to the underside of the slab. Even more significant are
the cost savings associated with the low-story heights made possible by the shallow floor system.
39
Smaller vertical runs of cladding, partition walls, mechanical systems, plumbing, and a large
number of other items of construction translate to large cost savings, especially for medium and
high-rise buildings. Moreover, where the total height of a building is restricted, using a flat plate
will result in more stories accommodated within the set height.

Flat plate systems are economically viable for short to medium spans and for moderate live
loads. Up to live loads of about 50 psf (2394 N/m2), the deflection criteria usually govern, and the
economical span length range is 15 ft (4.57 m) to 25 ft (7.62 m). For live loads of 100 psf (4788
N/m2) or more, punching shear stresses at the columns and bending moments in the slab control
the design. For these cases, the flat plate is economical for spans between 15 ft (4.57 m) and 20 ft
(6.1 m). A flat plate floor with a live load of 100 psf (4788 N/m2) is only about 8% more
expensive than one with a live load of 50 psf (2394 N/m2), primarily due to the minimum
thickness requirements for deflection. Floor panels with an aspect ratio of 2 would be about 30%
more expensive than panels with an aspect ratio of 1; the thickness of the rectangular panel is
governed by the greater span length, resulting in a loss of economy.

On average, the formwork costs for flat plates represent approximately 46% of the total floor
cost. Concrete materials placing and finishing account for about 36% of the cost. The remaining
18% is the material and placing cost of the mild reinforcement.

Flat Slab System

The flat slab is similar to the flat plate, but has thickened portions around the columns called
drop panels, which are used primarily to resist punching shear stresses associated with longer
spans and/or heavier loads (Figure1-b). Although drop panels result in somewhat higher
formwork costs, a relatively shallow slab system is achieved in situations where punching shear
would otherwise preclude the use of a flat plate. The minimum slab thickness prescribed in ACI
318-11 for flat slabs is 10% less than that required for flat plates with similar span lengths. In
order to take advantage of this allowable reduction in slab thickness, the drop panels must have
the minimum dimensions given in ACI 13.2.5, which are illustrated in Figure 2. Drop
dimensions are also controlled by formwork considerations.

For a live load of 50 psf (2394 N/m2) or less, flat slabs are economically viable for span lengths
between 25 ft (7.62 m) and 30 ft (9.144 m). The economical range is 20 ft (6.1 m) to 25 ft (7.62
40
m) for a 100 psf (4788 N/m2) live load. An increase in live load from 50 psf (2394 N/m2) to 100
psf (4788 N/m2) results in only a 4% increase in overall cost, since the material quantities are
usually controlled by deflections. The formwork costs account for approximately 47% of the
total floor system cost. The concrete material, placing, and finishing costs are about 36%, while
the material an placing costs of the mild reinforcement are 17%. In lieu of drop panels,
shear studs also provide a simple and economical way of providing shear resistance around the
columns, while preserving the benefits of a flat ceiling. In addition, they generally do not
interfere with the other reinforcement at the column-slab joint.

Two-way Joist System

A two-way joist system, or waffle slab, is comprised of evenly spaced concrete joists spanning
in both directions and a reinforced concrete slab cast integrally with the joists (Figure 1-c). The
floor system is formed with domes that are 30 in. (762 mm), 41 in. (1041.4 mm), and 52 in.
(1320.8 mm) wide, result in min 3-ft (0.9144 m), 4-ft (1.22 m), and 5-ft (1.524 m) modules,
respectively.

A solid slab section around the columns is usually provided for shear resistance. Waffle slabs are
economically viable for long spans with heavy loads, and are commonly used in office
buildings, warehouses, and industrial plants.

For design purposes, waffle slabs are considered as flat slabs with the solid heads acting as drop
panels. Thus, the minimum thickness requirements of ACI 9.5.3 must be satisfied. To determine
the deflection requirements, the cross-section of the floor system is transformed into an
equivalent section of uniform thickness. This is accomplished by determining a slab thickness
that provides the same moment of inertia as the two-way joist section.

Two-way joists are economical for spans between 40 ft (12.192 m) and 50 ft (15.24 m). Similar
to the other floor systems, increasing the live load from 50 psf (2394 N/m2) to 100 psf (4788
N/m2) results in an overall cost increase of about 4%.

Approximately 52% of the total floor system cost can be attributed to the formwork. The
concrete material, placing, and finishing costs are about 33%, and the material and placing costs
of the mild reinforcement are 15%.

41
Banded-Beam System

A banded-beam system typically consists of a uniform slab with thickened portions below the
slab along the column lines parallel to the longer spans (Figure 1-d). As a rule, the thickened
portions of the slab, commonly referred to as band-beams, are post-tensioned. The primary
purpose of thickening the slab is to provide an increased drape for the tendons that are banded in
this region. Increasing the drape allows larger upward prestressing forces to counteract the load
effects in the long direction. Depending on the span lengths and/or the magnitude of the loads,
either non- prestressed or post-tensioned reinforcement is used in the slab in the direction
perpendicular to the bands.

The overall thickness of the band-beam is typically 12 in. (304.8 mm) to 18 in. (457.2 mm), and
the width can vary from 4 ft (1.22 m) to 10 ft (3.048 m). Depending on the spans and loads, the
slab is usually 7 in. (177.8 mm) to 9 in. (228.6 mm) thick. One of the main advantages of this
system is that long, unobstructed spans can be achieved with a minimum structural floor depth.
This results in lower floor-to-floor heights and significant cost savings. Also, vibration is not an
issue due to the inherent damping properties of the concrete. Tenant modifications can be easily
accommodated when non-prestressed reinforcement is used in the slab perpendicular to the band-
beams.

Banded-beam systems are economically viable for span lengths from 35 ft (10.668 m) to 50 ft
(15.24 m) and beyond. An increase in the live load from 50 psf (2394 N/m2) to 100 psf (4788
N/m2) results in about a 6% increase in overall cost. Also, post-tensioning the slab perpendicular
to the band-beams typically becomes cost-effective for spans greater than about 30 ft (9.144 m).
The formwork accounts for approximately 45% of the total cost, with the concrete and
reinforcement accounting for 30% and 25%, respectively.

DEVELOPMENT IN METHODES OF ANALYAIS AND CODE PROVISIONS

In 1910, the National Association of Cement Users published Standard Building Regulation for
use of Reinforced Concrete. The Standard introduced analysis equation for slabs that are
42
reinforced in both directions and supported on four sides and fully reinforced over the supports
(the reinforcement passing into the adjoining dabs). The analysis was based on the distribution of
the load in two directions based on the equality of deflection for two perpendicular slab strips.
The load distribution was assumed to depend on the slab rectangularity ratio r = L4/(L4+b4),
where L and b are the dimensions of the sides of the slab. A load on beams supporting the slab
was assumed to be determined from a tributary areas defined by 45 degrees lines from the
corners of the slab. Following this report extensive work was performed to evaluate the NACU
equation and to investigate the exact distribution of loads in of slab panel and L.C. Novak
supported in two directions. Works by J. D. Stassio, M. P. Van Buren, H. M. Westergaard, F.
Kramerish and others paved the way to establish the analysis methods adopted in the current
code.

The term flat slab was first used in the Standard Specification No. 23 ―Standard Building
Regulation for use of Reinforced Concrete‖ published by the American Concrete institute in
1920. The flat slab was defined as slabs where a drop panel is used adjoining the column.
Requirements for punching shear were introduced for the first time based on critical section
located at the periphery of the column and limiting allowable stress of 0.1f’c. For moment
distribution along the slab, the slab was divided into column head section and mid section similar
to current column strip and middle strip approach. Equations were introduced to distribute the
total static moment among different slab strips.

The terms column strip and middle strip were first used in 1936 in ACI document ―Building
Regulations for Reinforced Concrete‖ proposed by Committee 501 Standard Building Code. The
proposed regulations included coefficients for moments in each strip as a ratio of the total static
moment. Parameters considered in moment calculations were the drop panel, beams and the slab
panel location (interior or edge). Limitations were introduced for minimum slab thickness and
reinforcement detailing.

The first Building Regulations for Reinforced Concrete to be published as ACI 318 document
was in 1941 (ACI 318-41). Flat slab analysis and design provisions were covered in Chapter 10
which includes two methods: Design of Flat Slabs as Continuous Frames and Design Flat Slabs
by Moment Coefficients. ACI 318-47 had similar provisions to the ACI 318-41; these methods
are introduced as follows.

43
Design of flat slab as continuous frames
Design of flat slabs as continuous frames where the structure may be considered divided into
a number of bents, each consisting of a row of columns and strips of supported slabs, each strip
bounded laterally by the center line of the panel on either side of the row of columns. The bents
are to be considered longitudinally and transversely. A procedure similar to the current code
equivalent frame method was introduced; each bent may be analyzed in its entirety, or each floor

and the roof may be analyzed separately with its adjacent columns above and below. The sum of
the maximum positive and the average maximum negative bending moments on either side of a
rectangular panel shall not be assumed less than

( )
Wav: the average of the total load on two adjacent panels.
L: Span length of slab center to center of columns in the direction where bending is considered.
Aav: Average of the two values of A for the two columns at the ends of a column strip, in the direction of the
spans considered.
A: The distance from the center line of the column, in the direction of any span, to the intersection of a 45-
degree diagonal line from the center of the column to the bottom of the flat slab or drop panel.

1. Design of flat slab by moment coefficients

Slabs meeting certain limitations can be designed using moment coefficients that are determined
at the critical sections, these limitations are related to continuity and dimension. Slab panels
designed using this method should have their length-to-width ration less or equal to 1.33, the slab
should be continuous for at least three panels in each direction, and the successive span lengths is
each should not differ by more than twenty percent of the shorter span. The bend numerical sum
of the positive and negative bending moments in the direction of either side of an interior
rectangular panel must not be less than

( )

44
Where,
c: Diameter or width of column capital at the underside of the slab or drop panel.
L: Span length of slab center to center of columns in the direction where bending is considered.
W: Total dead and live load uniformly distributed over a single panel area.
Mo: Sum of the positive and the average negative bending moments at the critical
design sections of a flat slab panel.
More details of these design procedures are shown in Chapter of ACI 318-41 and ACI 318-47.
The 1951 ACI Code (ACI 318-51) had similar provisions to the ACI 318-47 Code. The 1956
ACI Code (ACI 318- 56) had similar provisions to the ACI 318-47 Code and ACI 318-51 Codes
except that the Design of flat slab as continuous beam is named Design by Elastic Analysis and
the Design of flat slab by moment coefficients is named Design by Empirical Method.

The 1963 ACI Code (ACI 318-63) had similar provisions to the ACI 318-56 Code
Provisions except that the provisions in the edition of the Code were in Chapter 21 instead
of Chapter 10.

The 1971 ACI Code (ACI 318-71) included significant changes from earlier editions of the ACI
codes, among these changes; the most significant change was the unification of the design
methods for all slabs with and without beams. Due to this change all slabs had the same factor of
safety, as a result of this, slabs supported on beams became much stronger than slabs without
beams even if they had the same dead and live load and quantities of materials.
The 1971 ACI 318 provisions were a result of a large study that started in 1956 at the University
of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign which was sponsored by the Reinforced Concrete Council with
funding from different governmental agencies. This project included five ¼ scale nine-panel
slabs and several smaller slabs. The project was complemented by additional tests conducted by
the Portland Cement Association that included a ¾ scale nine- panel flat plate. At the same
period extensive analytical studies started in which hundreds of slabs were analyzed using
numerical methods. The experimental and analytical methods were completed in 1963. The
formulation of the code developments was done using the preliminary experimental results;
Joint Committee ACI-ASCE 421 was in charge of developing chapter 13 of the 1971 ACI Code
(ACI318-71). Chapter 13 of ACI318-71 Code included two design procedures for slabs: the
direct design method and the equivalent frame method.

45
Direct Design Method

The direct design method is used for slab systems with and without beams loaded only by gravity
loads. The slab systems should be fairly regular and should meet the following restrictions:

1. The slab should have three or more spans in each direction.

2. The adjacent spans should not differ by more than one-third of the longer span.

3. The slab panels should be rectangular and the long span should not be more than twice the longer span.

4. The columns must be near the corner of each panel; the offset of the column line should not
be more than 10% of the span in each direction.
5. The live load should not exceed the twice the dead load. This requirement need not be
applied if the live load is the same in all panels.
6. If the slab is supported by beams, the beams should be in both directions, and the relative
stiffnesses of the beams in both direction should be related in accordance with Equation (13-1) of
the ACI 318-71 Code.

The total static design moment for a span shall be determined in a strip bounded laterally by the
center line of the panel on each side of the center line of the supports. The sum of the positive
and the average negative bending moments in each direction shall not be less than:

M. Kamara, M. Mahamid, and L.C. Novak

Where,
Mo: Total static design moment
w: Design load per unit area
l2: length of span transverse to l1, measured center-to-center of supports
l1: length of span in the direction moments are being determined, measured center-to-center of supports

Equivalent Frame Method

The equivalent frame method is a representation of a three-dimensional slab system by series of

two-dimensional frames that are analyzed for either vertical loads or horizontal loads acting in
46
the plan of the frame. In this method, the moments are determined at the critical design sections
of the frame are distributed to the slab sections in accordance with section 13.3.3 of the 1971
ACI 318 Code. The equivalent frame is comparable to the elastic method for flat slabs of
previous ACI Codes.

The 1977 ACI 318 Code had the same direct design method and equivalent frame method. The
1977 ACI Code included rearrangements of the sections listed assumptions for the equivalent
frame method:
In the equivalent frame method, the structure must be made up of equivalent frames on column
lines both the longitudinal and transverse directions. Each frame must consist of a row of
equivalent columns or supports and slab-beam strips bounded laterally by the center line of the
panel on each side of the center line of the columns or supports. The frames adjacent and parallel
to the edge must be bounded by the edge and the center line of the adjacent panel. Each frame
may be analyzed in its entirety for horizontal and vertical loads; and for vertical loads, each floor
and the roof may be analyzed separately.

The 1983 ACI 318 had similar provisions to the 1977 ACI 318 Code. The 1989 ACI 318 Code
included similar provisions for the Direct Design Method and the Equivalent Frame method of
the ACI 1983 318 Code. The 1995 and 1999 ACI 318 Codes had the same methods as the 1989
ACI 318 Code.

Starting with the 2002 the ACI 318 Codes maintained the Direct Design Method and the
Equivalent Frame Method as the design procedures for slabs.

Over the years (from 1971 – 2008), the different editions of the ACI 318 Code had certain
revisions/additions of and re-arrangements of the Direct Design Method and the Equivalent
Frame Method sections as a result of the continued studies and research, these revisions,
additions and re-arrangements are shown in the different editions of the ACI 318 Code.

Serviceability

Deflection of two-way slab systems is important factor in the design. Deflection calculation for
two slab systems is a complicated process. In addition to the elastic deflection effect of creep
need to be considered to estimate the long term actual deflection. The code requirements to
47
achieve servable deflection went through development through the years. The ACI 318 ACI
Code provides minimum thickness requirements in Section 9.5.3. If these requirements are met
the deflection need not be computed. The Code minimum thickness requirements include the
effects of panel location (interior or exterior), panel shape, span ratios, beams on panel edges,
supporting columns and capitals, drop panels, and the yield strength of the reinforcing steel.
Also, the current ACI Code provides limitations for the reinforcement spacing in Section 13.3.
These limitations are the result of extensive laboratory work involving deformed bars. The
studies performed proved that crack width at service loads is proportional to steel stress. The
Code limitations for the reinforcement spacing guard against excessive crack width.

Figure 1.28-a Flat Plate

Figure 1.28-b Flat Slab

Figure 1.28 Two-way Slab Systems

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M. Kamara, M. Mahamid, and L.C. Novak

Figure 1.29-c Two-way joist system

Figure 1.29-d Banded beam system

Drop panel dimensions per ACI 13.2.5

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 Comparative Analysis
Often the theoretical construction process is modified by the site engineering depending on
the cost, unavailability of workers, or to do work more fluently. So when I have visited some
sites there were some different steps that they followed for construction.

In Slab Construction,

 CC blocks were in two lengths. The larger ones were for cranked bar and the short
ones were for the main bar.

We know for concrete construction elements should be cured for 28 days. But in the
construction site they cured concrete elements hardly 14 days.

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 Recommendation

After visiting some sites i have come to a conclusion that the theoretical and practical
construction hassome different approach to build those components.

So i came with some recommendation for constructing a building components.

 More shuttering should be purchased.

 Curing period should be for 28 days.
 The timber formwork should be even and straight.
 Instead of plastic we can use cement bags for the formwork as they help to give good
finish of plastering Clear cover should maintain strictly.
 As with cost control, the most important decisions regarding the quality of a completed
facility are made during the design and planning stages rather than during construction
 With the attention to conformance as the measure of quality during the construction
process, the specification of quality requirements in the design and contract
documentation becomes extremely important.

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 Reference :
1. https://theconstructor.org/

2. https://www.wikipedia.org/

3. https://civiljungle.com/

4. https://civilmint.com/

5. https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Home

6. https://civiconcepts.com/

7. https://www.constrofacilitator.com/

8. https://www.researchgate.net/

9. https://civilplanets.com/

10. https://www.civilgyan.com/

11. https://civilengineering.blog/

12. https://civilengineeringx.com/

13. https://wecivilengineers.wordpress.com/

14. https://civilblog.org/

15. https://www.civilknowledges.com/

16. https://civiltoday.com/

17. https://www.civillead.com/

18. https://dailycivil.com/

19. https://civilengineeringbible.com/

20. https://www.civilengineeringterms.com

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21. Investigating of Multiple-Panel Reinforced Concrete Floor Slabs, Design Methods-Their
Evolution and Comparison, M. A. Sozen and C. P. Siess, Research report sponsored by
RCRC, ACI Journal, August 1963

22. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (318-11) and Commentary (318R-11),
American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2011.

23. Concrete Floor Systems—Guide to Estimating and Economizing, (SP041) 2nd edition,
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 2000.

24. Long-Span Concrete Floor Systems (SP339), Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL, 2000

25. Simplified Design Reinforced Concrete Buildings of Moderate Size and Height (EB104),
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL 2004.

26. PCA Notes on ACI 318-08 (EB708), Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL 2008.

27. Economics of Long-Span Concrete Slab Systems for Office Buildings- A Survey, (SP024),
Portland Cement Association, Skokie, IL 1982

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